FOREWORD<\/p>\n
Resurrection of the dead was in antiquity\u2014and in contemporary theological studies\u2014a celebrated, yet also controverted topic. In historical retrospect, one can appreciate how this insurgent hope that took shape in postexilic Judaism gradually emerged as a landmark eschatological doctrine within Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity. Much remains in darkness, however, regarding the formation, conceptual diversity, and social settings of resurrection within earlier Judaism. Monumental tomes have treated vast bodies of evidence; yet there also remains the need for more selective studies of particular features of resurrection.
\nIt is all the more commendable that Jan A. Sigvartsen has concentrated his energies upon one select feature of the problem: the presence of scriptural language and imagery throughout a range of early Jewish and Christian expressions for resurrection. Jon Levenson, in fact, laments the lack of scholarly attention to this problem, calling for a deeper appreciation of the intertextual features of early Jewish discourse of resurrection (Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel, 185). This unfulfilled desideratum is even surprising, since it has long been recognized that both Daniel 12 and 1 Corinthians 15, two of the most significant canonical expressions of resurrection, both rely heavily upon particular interpretive assumptions about underlying scriptural prophecies. Yet there has been no comprehensive study of this phenomenon among expressions of the afterlife in the broader literature of the Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, and other early Jewish\/nascent Christian writings.
\nSigvartsen\u2019s timely volume addresses this pressing need in a thorough exploration of the Pseudepigrapha, which preserve some of the most significant writings for understanding early expressions of resurrection. His study leads the reader on an enlightening journey into the rich interpretive culture that stood behind early references to resurrection. As a result, one may more fully appreciate the possibility that resurrection was not merely directed to the fate of human remains or to retribution per se, important as these conceptual problems were within select literary texts. Indeed, expressions for resurrection remained conceptually diverse, and the hope could offer redress to a variety of religious problems. Yet, as Sigvartsen carefully documents, one of the more unifying strands amid the often bewildering evidence is the conviction that resurrection affirmed the integrity of the divine promises to Israel, so fragile and so repeatedly endangered by the historical contexts in which resurrection originally flourished. In so doing, his focused volume presents a reservoir for more fully understanding the interrelationships between scriptural traditions, eschatological hopes, and ancient theodicies that flourish from within the writings of the Pseudepigrapha.<\/p>\n
C. D. Elledge
\nGustavus Adolphus College<\/p>\n
Chapter 1<\/p>\n
INTRODUCTION<\/p>\n
When compared to ancient Near Eastern literature and archaeological remains, the Hebrew scriptures convey little regarding death and an afterlife. However, it is apparent from scripture that there was certainly an interest in and concern about the topic (see, e.g., Gen. 5:24; Num. 16:33; 1 Sam. 2:6; 28:8\u201319; 2 Kgs 2:11; Isa. 26:19; Ezek. 37:1\u201314; Prov. 12:28). The overall impression from a study of the TaNaKh passages relating to the afterlife is that death was not considered the start of the next life, but an end to the present life. \u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05d0\u05d5\u05b9\u05dc (Sheol) is the destiny that awaits both the righteous and the wicked (Eccl. 9:1\u201310), a place where everyone will be equal (Job 3:13\u201319; Ezek. 32:18\u201332). The lack of articulate and consistent religious burial rites in the Hebrew Bible may further suggest a lack of interest in the afterlife among religious leaders. The biblical writers focused on the present life and centered on the covenant relationship between humans and God. The Hebrew Scriptures do not present a fully developed, or rather, a complete, comprehensive, and detailed description of the afterlife. N.T. Wright notes that \u201cthe Bible mostly denies or at least ignores the possibility of a future life, with only a few texts coming out strongly for a different view.\u201d However, there is little doubt that the Hebrew Scriptures speak of a resurrection belief, Dan. 12:2\u20133, 13 being the most explicit statement. Collins states that \u201ceven if one takes a maximalist view of the evidence for resurrection in the Hebrew Bible, the hope expressed in Daniel 12 was exceptional.\u201d
\nAt this point it is important to make a few comments regarding Job 19:25\u201327, which most Christian maximalist interpreters view as a solid resurrection text. Gordon E. Christo and Jacques Doukhan argue that the book of Job not only expresses a bodily resurrection hope, but that the resurrection statement is found at the chiastic center of the book. Doukhan bases his interpretation of the key word \u05e0\u05b4\u05e7\u05b0\u05bc\u05e4\u05d5\u05bc\u05be\u05d6\u05b9\u05d0\u05ea, \u201cis destroyed, this \u2026,\u201d on the poetic dynamics of Job 19:25\u201327, and on Job 10:8\u201312, which is structural, linguistically, and theologically related. However, Christo acknowledges that most commentaries find this passage perplexing and, as such, disagree with his interpretation, as critical scholars deny any hint of a resurrection hope within the book of Job.
\nInterestingly, the LXX gives this text a clear resurrection meaning. It translates 19:26a \u05d5\u05b0\u05d0\u05b7\u05d7\u05b7\u05e8 \u05e2\u05d5\u05b9\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9 \u05e0\u05b4\u05e7\u05b0\u05bc\u05e4\u05d5\u05bc\u05be\u05d6\u05b9\u05d0\u05ea, \u201cAnd after my skin has been destroyed,\u201d with \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u03ad\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u201cGod will resurrect my skin.\u201d It is clear that the translator of Job believed in a bodily resurrection since Job 14:14 and the postscript, 42:17, contain a resurrection hope. However, there are several factors speaking against a resurrection interpretation. First, there are no references to Job 19:26 in any of the Second Temple period literature, nor in early rabbinic literature, during the time when the Rabbis examined the TaNaKh for resurrection passages. Christo notes that \u201cClement of Rome was the first of the early church fathers on record to quote Job 19:25\u201327 in the context of resurrection [1 Clem 26.3]\u201d; Origen was the first to give this passage a Christological reading (viewing the redeemer of Job 19:26 as a reference to Jesus); Augustine used it as a resurrection proof-text; while Jerome gave the Vulgate the following reading: et rursum circumdabor pelle mea et in carne mea videbo Deum, \u201cAnd I shall be clothed again with my skin, and in my flesh I shall see my God.\u201d Second, a strong resurrection hope at the literary center of the composition would seem to destroy the overall philosophical tension in the book as it would provide a satisfactory solution to the problem of theodicy, the core issue of the book. Third, if the book of Job is one of the oldest books in the TaNaKh, as suggested by most maximalist interpreters, who follow the rabbinic view of Mosaic authorship (b. Bat. 14b), it raises the question why such a developed bodily resurrection hope did not have a greater impact on later writings of the TaNaKh, especially when it comes to the question of theodicy. One could question how likely it would be to have a strong bodily resurrection hope in the earliest strata of the TaNaKh, followed by a deafening silence until the hope re-emerges and is extensively explored during the Second Temple period.
\nThe explicit resurrection passage of Daniel 12 draws on and alludes to several older biblical passages suggesting that the author must have understood them eschatologically and saw in them a resurrection hope. The most fertile source for ideas and images was the book of Isaiah and, importantly, some of the language was taken directly from Isa. 26:19, which describes the dead who will come back to life and the corpses that will rise up and are commanded to \u201cwake up and shout joyfully, you who live in the ground!\u201d Segal concludes that \u201cit looks like the resurrection prophecy of Daniel 12:1\u20132 is based on a visionary understanding of Isaiah 66:14 with the imagery of Ezekiel 37.\u201d
\nThe close of the First Temple period and the return of the Jews from Babylonian exile heralded much more exploration of the issues of the afterlife among the Jews during the Second Temple Period.
\nThe Persian (538\u2013331 BCE), and later the Greco-Roman Empire (331 BCE\u20135th\/6th century CE), made a significant impact on Second Temple Period Judaism. Not only did these powers influence the culture but also the belief system. Scholars argue that increased interest in angels, the battle between good and evil, and the interest in a future bodily resurrection and judgment, as seen in these Jewish writings, were due to the influence of the Zoroastrian religion of the Persians. The belief in an immortal soul, which exists separately from the physical body after the moment of death, could be due to the Hellenization of Judaism.
\nThe question of theodicy is a central theme in the Hebrew Scriptures (e.g. Gen. 18:17\u201332; Lev. 16; Job), but it was during this period that the problem of theodicy became more apparent for the Jews. The traditional belief that God would reward the righteous, Torah-observant Jews with a long and prosperous life while cutting short the life of the wicked needed adjustment. This was a period of foreign occupation and oppression; oppression of the righteous poor, religious persecution, and martyrdom. For the Torah-observant Jews, justice had been perverted: the righteous were receiving the curses of the wicked, while the wicked enjoyed the blessings promised the righteous. Only a belief in an afterlife could solve this acute problem. If there was an afterlife, it was argued, God could set things straight and give the righteous and the wicked their proper due.
\nThe Jews of the Second Temple Period borrowed religious and philosophical concepts from Persia and Greece and synthesized and amalgamated these views into their own religious framework. Thus, multiple afterlife beliefs developed and appeared in their literature, in an attempt to solve the problem of theodicy. By the end of this period, belief in a bodily resurrection had become mainstream in both surviving strands of Second Temple Judaism: Rabbinic Judaism and the early Christian Church. It was a central tenet for both communities. For Christians, questioning this doctrine was equated with questioning the historicity of Jesus\u2019 resurrection, which was the guarantee for the Christians\u2019 salvation hope (e.g. Rom. 6:3\u20136; 1 Cor. 15; 1 Pet. 1:3\u20134). For Rabbinic Judaism, questioning this faith would disqualify the person from any share in the world to come: \u201cAll Israelites have a share in the world to come \u2026 And these are the ones who have no portion in the world to come: (1) He who says, the resurrection of the dead is a teaching which does not derive from the Torah, (2) and the Torah does not come from Heaven; and (3) an Epicurean\u201d (m. Sanh. 10:1).
\nAs already mentioned, the literature of the Second Temple Period indicates that there was an increased interest in and speculation about the fate of the righteous and the wicked after the time of death. This period saw the birth of multiple Jewish sects and also multiple views of the afterlife. These views fall into two main categories based on the opinion held regarding the nature of the soul. If the soul was believed to be mortal, the literature describes a range of views like:<\/p>\n
1. rejection of an afterlife;
\n2. a future limited resurrection of all the righteous;
\n3. a future limited resurrection of the most righteous and the most wicked;
\n4. a future universal resurrection.<\/p>\n
If, on the other hand, the soul was believed to be immortal (a separate entity from the body, which could live independently from the body) the literature describes a range of views like:<\/p>\n
1. some form of existence in Sheol;
\n2. a belief that the soul left the body to have an independent existence until the day of a universal judgment when it would return to its resurrected body;
\n3. a belief that the soul left the body at the time of death and would live independently with no need for a future resurrection, since the good or the bad soul would receive its just reward.<\/p>\n
This last view is similar to the Platonic immortality of the soul concept that strongly influenced Philo\u2019s writings. Each of these views sought support in the Hebrew Scriptures, but the different sects connected and interpreted the scriptural passages differently.
\nDespite the emerging interest in death and the afterlife during the Second Temple Period, there is no definitive study that systematically outlines the numerous afterlife views and analyzes the biblical arguments used in support of the resurrection beliefs within the literature of the Second Temple Period, the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha. Thus, the purpose of the present monograph is to fill this large gap in scholarship, to systematically outline the numerous afterlife beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic literature, and identify and analyze the texts from the TaNaKh that support a resurrection belief within Jewish extra-biblical passages, from the Second Temple Period, the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha, which imply or state a belief in resurrection. The afterlife beliefs appearing in the non-apocalyptic literature of the Pseudepigrapha are presented in the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Pseudepigrapha.
\nThe reader should be aware that the acronym TaNaKh is used here anachronistically as it is difficult to know what constituted \u201cscripture\u201d or which literary composition was considered authoritative or canonical by differing religious communities during the Second Temple Period. Even in the case of the Qumran community and the Dead Sea Scrolls, it is difficult to know whether the community considered all these scrolls sacred and authoritative, or whether the number of copies of specific scrolls reveals something regarding their authoritative standing. The Dead Sea Scrolls could even have been a part of a library collection and, as such, a certain scroll may not necessarily reflect the ethos of the community nor provide reliable insight into its authoritative nature within that community. It was only when sacred texts were collected into codices that the canon became rigid, as it became necessary to decide which texts should be included and which texts should be left out.
\nThe canon was rather fluid during this period, at least in the earlier part thereof. Therefore, this study uses the acronym TaNaKh out of convenience as it is the most neutral term for the body of literature recognized as sacred by both present-day Jewish and Christian communities.<\/p>\n
Why this Study Is Needed<\/p>\n
There are several studies on the beliefs in the resurrection, immortality, and eternal life in Second Temple Period Judaism. Typically they deal with aspects such as: why the views arose; how the views developed; what the different sects believed about the afterlife; the ancient Near Eastern influence on Jewish beliefs; the archeological findings in ancient Palestine regarding the notions of afterlife; the formation and development of resurrection faith in early Judaism; or the Jewish background for Paul\u2019s statements on the resurrection in the New Testament. However, there is no definitive study that systematically outlines the numerous afterlife views and analyzes the texts used from the TaNaKh in support of a resurrection belief within Jewish extra-biblical passages from the Second Temple Period, which imply or state a belief in resurrection. Neither is this topic addressed within the framework of early Jewish hermeneutics. Jon D. Levenson suggests that \u201cthe language and symbolism of resurrection were present and available, perhaps even abundant, long before the literal expectation.\u201d This monograph and the companion volume will demonstrate beliefs in resurrection were indeed abundant and, in turn, address Levenson\u2019s desideratum regarding their abundance, ensuring scholars do not \u201cunderestimate the verbal particularity and the textual character of its appearance\u2014points of great significance to the ancient Jewish culture itself.\u201d These two monographs also attempt to provide a better understanding of how the TaNaKh was read by Jewish sects during this important period and the role the TaNaKh played in the overall development of the resurrection belief that became a central article of faith in both Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism.<\/p>\n
Anthology and Categorization of Texts<\/p>\n
Appendix A forms the foundation of this study as it provides a comprehensive list of resurrection passages from Second Temple Period Jewish literature, compiled from the Apocrypha and the Apocalyptic Literature. These passages are divided into tables in which they are categorized and analyzed, noting when a specific resurrection text is referring or alluding to the TaNaKh. Additionally, each table is followed by an anthology of the listed passages to show the larger context of each resurrection statement and to provide the reader easy access to these resurrection texts. These anthologies are highlighted and annotated. The \u201cReference to the TaNaKh\u201d category includes both \u201ccitation\u201d (the author quotes the TaNaKh passage verbatim and includes the textual reference) and \u201cquotation\u201d (the author quotes a TaNaKh passage verbatim without including the textual reference) and is the most objective category. The \u201cAllusion to the TaNaKh\u201d category is rather broad and more subjective as the original author does not quote the TaNaKh passage verbatim, but similarly rephrases, reshapes, or re-purposes the passage. It is apparent, and therefore assumed, that both the original author and the original target audience were aware of the primary source of the allusion.
\nAppendix B provides similar tables for the resurrection passages found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus, New Testament, Jewish Liturgy, and Rabbinic Literature. However, these passages will not be considered in this study (nor in the companion volume), although references to them will be made throughout this work and the companion volume, when deemed relevant.
\nThis study bears in mind James H. Charlesworth\u2019s resurrection categories. He proposes that there are several dimensions of resurrection and found it useful to categorize resurrection passages into the following sixteen categories, even if some of these are overlap. These are as follows:<\/p>\n
1. Resurrection of the nation (Isa. 26:19; Ezek. 37:1\u201312; T. Jud. 23:3\u20135; T. Mos. 10:7\u201310);
\n2. Raising of a group from disenfranchisement (1QHa 16.5\u20136);
\n3. Raising of the individual from social disenfranchisement (1QHa 16 [= olim 8]);
\n4. Raising of the individual from personal embarrassment (1QHa 10 [= olim 2] cf. 1QpHab 7.4\u20135);
\n5. Raising of the individual from the sickbed to health (Ps. 132:3; 1QHa 17 [= olim 9].4\u201312; Mk 5:21\u201343);
\n6. Raising of the individual from inactivity to do God\u2019s will (1QHa 14 [= olim 6].29\u201330, 34; cf. 1 Sam. 2:8; Ps. 44:25);
\n7. Raising of the individual from despondency due to consciousness of sin (11QPsa 19.10\u201311);
\n8. Raising of the individual from ignorance to divinely revealed knowledge (1QHa 19 [= olim 11].12\u201314);
\n9. Raising of the individual from meaninglessness in this world to a realizing eschatology (= Experiencing the end time in the present) (1QHa 11 [= olim 3].19\u201321; 1QSb 5.23);
\n10. Both-And: The author may intentionally collapse any distinction between the present age and the future age (1QS 4.6\u20138);
\n11. Raising of Christ from Sheol [descensus ad inferos] (Ode 42:10\u201314);
\n12. Raising an apocalyptist into heaven (2 En. 1:8 [cf. 2 En. 8]; 2 Cor. 12:1\u20133; Rev. 4:1);
\n13. A spiritual raising up or awakening of an individual (Eph. 5:1, 7\u20138, 14);
\n14. Raising of the individual from death to mortal life (1 Kgs 17:17\u201324; 2 Kgs 4:31\u201337; 13:20\u201321; Jn 11:1\u201345);
\n15. Raising of the individual from death to eternal life (Dan. 12:1\u20133; 2 Macc. 14; 1 En. 22\u201327; 92\u2013105; T. Jud. 25.1, 4; 4Q521; Amidah [Eighteen Benedictions] 2; Acts 2:22\u201324; 1 Cor. 15; 1 Thess. 4:15\u201317; m. Sanh. 10; m. Sotah 15);
\n16. Intentional ambiguity.<\/p>\n
Chapters 2 and 3 are titled \u201cApocryphal\/Deuterocanonical Books\u201d and \u201cApocalyptic Literature and Related Works,\u201d respectively. Even though the classification of the writings as Apocryphal\/Deuterocanonical or Pseudepigraphical may be regarded as artificial and anachronistic, this classification will still be utilized in order to acknowledge the Apocryphal\/Deuterocanonical writings are a part of the Septuagint and to show sensitivity towards the faith communities who still regard these writings as a part of their sacred Scriptures (see Table 1 and Table 2). The third chapter considers the literature belonging to the first of five categories utilized by James H. Charlesworth\u2019s two-volume collection, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha; they are:<\/p>\n
1. Apocalyptic Literature and Related Works.
\n2. Testaments (Often with Apocalyptic Sections).
\n3. Expansions of the \u201cOld Testament\u201d and Legends, in this study labeled Expansions of Stories and Legends.
\n4. Wisdom and Philosophical Literature.
\n5. Prayers, Psalms, and Odes.<\/p>\n
The literature belonging to the last four categories (2\u20135) are considered in the companion volume. Chapters 2 and 3 of the present volume systematically outline the numerous afterlife views held and examine the passages listed in the tables of Appendix A, which are either referring or alluding to texts from the TaNaKh in support of a resurrection belief. All of these passages are a part of the anthology provided in Appendix A. This will provide a better understanding of the numerous afterlife views held during this period and the role the TaNaKh played in the development of these beliefs. In addition, it will reveal which TaNaKh passages were viewed as resurrection passages by the groups of believers who produced these texts.
\nThe final chapter of this monograph provides a brief concluding remark while the \u201cSummary and Conclusion\u201d chapter of the companion volume summarizes the main findings of both volumes, considers their implications, and concludes with some general observations.<\/p>\n
Scope and Delimitations of the Study<\/p>\n
There are many passages in the extra-biblical literature of the Second Temple Period which address the topic of an afterlife. However, this study only examines resurrection passages appearing in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha which refer or allude to the TaNaKh in support of the resurrection belief.
\nEven though it would be interesting to compare the different textual variations appearing in the original language (e.g. Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek) with textual traditions witnessed in the various translations (e.g. Greek, Latin, Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, Slavonic, Georgian, Ethiopic, Arabic), this would go far beyond the scope of this study. In most cases, the English translation does suffice when determining whether a resurrection passage refers or alludes to the TaNaKh and when identifying the TaNaKh text. Thus, these two volumes primarily examine the English translations of the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha, keeping the original language in mind, and considers the resurrection passage in its original language (or in its textual tradition) if it adds value to the analysis or if the English translation is unclear.
\nReferences to any relevant passages both in the New Testament and early Rabbinic Literature are made if salient. Given that Jesus, his disciples, and first followers were Palestinian Jews, and given the Jewish educational background of Paul of Tarsus (Acts 22:3\u20135), who held great influence in the formative years of the early Christian Church, it should be expected, therefore, that Paul\u2019s writings are influenced by Rabbinical teaching and the New Testament in general would serve as a witness to late Second Temple Period Jewish thought. Although early rabbinical writings post-date the Second Temple Period, they are still relevant since they often reflect a much earlier theological debate or contain a record of oral traditions attributed to rabbis living during the Second Temple Period. Craig Evans gives the following cautionary note: \u201cRabbinic literature is notoriously difficult to date. Part of the problem is that a given work, which may have been edited in the Middle Age, may contain a great deal of Tannaic tradition.\u201d As a further complication, he adds that \u201cthere is also the problem of pseudonymity. Sayings may be credited to a famous Tanna (such as Aqiba or Ishmael), but, in reality, they derive from a much later Amora.\u201d Appendix B includes tables of all the resurrection passages from the Dead Sea Scrolls, New Testament, Josephus, and early Rabbinic Literature which are currently being assessed in a separate study by the present author.<\/p>\n
Part I<\/p>\n
OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHAL WRITINGS<\/p>\n
The Old Testament Apocrypha is the Protestant label for the additional texts included in the Septuagint that are included in the Roman Catholic, Coptic, and Eastern Orthodox canons, but not in the Jewish or Protestant canons (see the highlighted books in Table 1). These books are known as deuterocanonical by the Roman Catholic, Coptic, and Eastern Orthodox churches, or the outside books (\u05e1\u05e4\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd \u05d7\u05e6\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd) in Jewish traditions. George W. E. Nickelsburg adds that this canon-related term is irrelevant since the texts belonging to the Apocrypha were written for, used by, and influential to the community of faith long before any decision regarding the canon was made.<\/p>\n
Table 1. Order of the books in the Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint<\/p>\n
The Hebrew Bible
\nThe Septuagint
\nTorah [Law]
\nPentateuch
\nGenesis
\nGenesis
\nExodus
\nExodus
\nLeviticus
\nLeviticus
\nNumbers
\nNumbers
\nDeuteronomy
\nDeuteronomy
\nNevi\u2019im [Prophets]
\nHistorical Books
\nFormer Prophets
\nJoshua
\nJoshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings
\nJudges
\nRuth
\nLatter Prophets
\n1 Reigns [1 Samuel]
\nIsaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel
\n2 Reigns [2 Samuel]
\nThe Twelve:
\n3 Reigns [1 Kings]
\nHosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi
\n4 Reigns [2 Kings]
\n1 Paralipomenon [1 Chronicles]
\n2 Paralipomenon [2 Chronicles]
\n1 Esdras
\n2 Esdras [Ezra-Nehemiah]
\nEsther (with additions)
\nJudith
\nTobit
\n1 Maccabees
\n2 Maccabees
\n3 Maccabees
\n4 Maccabees
\nPoetic Books
\nPsalms
\nOdes
\nProverbs
\nEcclesiastes
\nSong of Solomon
\nJob
\nWisdom [of Solomon]
\n[Wisdom of] Sirach [Ecclesiasticus]
\nPsalms of Solomon
\nIsaiah
\nJeremiah
\nBaruch
\nLamentations
\nEpistle of Jeremiah
\nEzekiel
\nSusanna
\nDaniel
\nBel and the Dragon
\nKetuvim [Writings]
\nProphets
\nPsalms
\nJob
\nProverbs
\nRuth
\nSong of Solomon
\nEcclesiastes
\nLamentations
\nEsther
\nDaniel
\nEzra-Nehemiah
\nChronicles
\nThe Twelve:
\nHosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi<\/p>\n
Sara J. Tanzer argues that while the works belonging to the Apocrypha are Jewish, these books were \u201cnever formed into one collection by Jews\u201d; rather, they should be viewed as a Christian innovation since there is no evidence that they were ever a part of any Jewish translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek. Moreover, all \u201cthe codices which attest a collection of Apocrypha are late (fourth and fifth centuries C.E.) \u2026 do not include all the Apocrypha, and they are Christian.\u201d This view is shared by Paul D. Wegner, who concludes, based on the following, that there was no Alexandrian canon represented by the expanded Septuagint canon because:<\/p>\n
1. Hellenistic and Palestinian Judaism were more integrated than first assumed.
\n2. The Apocrypha has a more diverse background than first assumed and the books were not all written in Greek.
\n3. The prologue of Sirach only mentions the tripartite divisions of the Hebrew Scripture, with no reference to the apocryphal books.
\n4. There is insufficient evidence that Jewish writers during the Second Temple Period considered the apocryphal books as inspired. It is also important to note that the criteria outlined by Josephus (C. Ap. 1.7\u20138 \u00a7\u00a737\u201342) and early Rabbinic texts (e.g. m. Yad. 4.5) would exclude the apocryphal texts from the Hebrew canon.<\/p>\n
Regardless of the canonical status of the Apocrypha, Arye Edrei and Doron Mendels argue that the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha became a part of the literary collection of the Greek-speaking Jews living in the western diaspora. In contrast, these books were rejected by the Sages of the Land of Israel and the eastern diaspora, who instead developed and adhered to the oral tradition (Mishnah, Midrash, and Talmud). The oral tradition spread eastward from the Land of Israel and the Sages of the \u201cBabylonian community became full partners in its development\u201d; however, it did not reach the western diaspora until the ninth century, since they \u201cwere unable to decode it.\u201d Edrei and Mendels make a strong case that this growing rift between the Greek-speaking western and the Hebrew\/Aramaic speaking eastern Diaspora caused by the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem (the unifying center of Judaism), was due to the language divide (Greek vs. Hebrew\/Aramaic) and the system of communication (written vs. oral collection of literature). It is important to note that these two Diasporas (East and West) had the Bible in common and maintained access to it in their own language, a Greek translation (LXX) in the western Diaspora and the Hebrew and an Aramaic translation (Targum) in the eastern. Yet, the two diasporas developed separate literature, written in the west and an oral in the east, which also caused a separate theological and cultural identity. This rift was only healed when the oral tradition was written down and brought to the western diaspora which had by then adopted Hebrew as their \u201cofficial\u201d language of study. Figure 1 shows the two Jewish Diaspora and is a simplified version of Doran Mendels\u2019 map, while Table 2 shows the classification\u2014canonical\/deuterocanonical, or non-canonical\/apocryphal\u2014of these books by Jewish sources, as well as the respective canons of the Roman Catholic, Protestant, and the Eastern Churches. It should be noted that books classified as canonical in Table 2 are considered as inspired or canonical by the religious community as the books of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n
Figure 1. Two Jewish Diasporas. (Created by Leanne M. Sigvartsen.)<\/p>\n
Table 2. Classifications of the Apocryphal writings<\/p>\n
Book
\nJewish Sources
\nLXX Mss. A.B.
\nCouncil of Trent (1546)
\nLuther
\nEastern Church 17th cent.
\nTobit
\nOUTSIDE BOOKS
\nCANONICAL BOOKS
\nCANONICAL BOOKS
\nAPOCRYPHA
\nCANONICAL
\nJudith
\nBen-Sira
\nWisdom of Solomon
\n1 Maccabees
\nAPOCRYPHA
\n2 Maccabees
\nAdditions to Esther
\nAddition A\u2013F
\nBook of Baruch
\nEpistle of Jeremiah
\nAdditions to Daniel
\n\u25aa Bel and the Dragon
\n\u25aa Susanna
\n\u25aa The Prayer of Azariah
\n\u25aa The Song of the Three Jews
\n3 Maccabees
\nNON-CANONICAL
\n1 Esdras (3 Esdras)
\nPrayer of Manasseh
\nPsalm 151
\n4 Maccabees
\nNON-CANONICAL
\n2 Esdras<\/p>\n
Chapter 2<\/p>\n
APOCRYPHAL\/DEUTEROCANONICAL BOOKS<\/p>\n
The works comprising the Old Testament Apocrypha represent several literary genres (see Table 3) and were mostly written in Hebrew and Aramaic (with the exception of Wisdom of Solomon and 2 Maccabees) which was later translated into Greek and included in the Septuagint. Some of these books are additions to the canonical books of Jeremiah (Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah), Psalms (Ps. 151), Esther (Additions A\u2013F), and Daniel (The Prayer of Azariah, the Song of the Three Jews, Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), while the others are separate compositions. They are all Jewish (with the exception of the Christian prologue and epilogue of 2 Esdras), written by Jews from the land of Israel and Jews of the Hebrew\/Aramaic-speaking eastern diaspora (see Fig. 1)\u2014Israel, Antioch in Syria and Persia (e.g. Prayer of Manasseh and Ps. 151) or Jews living in the Greek speaking western diaspora (see Fig. 1)\u2014Alexandria in Egypt (e.g. Wisdom of Solomon and 3 Maccabees) and were composed in the period between the third century BCE and the first century CE (see Table 3). Table 3 shows the literary genres of the apocrypha, the date of composition, and the books containing a resurrection belief (bolded and highlighted) based on the analysis of Appendix A. This will help the reader see the extent of this belief in the Apocryphal books.
\nThere are only four passages from the Apocrypha that imply or state a resurrection belief which also refer or allude to the TaNaKh as its foundation for this belief; these are listed in Table 4: Sir. 48:11; 2 Maccabees 7; Wis. 3:1\u201313a; and 2 Esd. 7:32\u201338.<\/p>\n
Table 3. Literary genres of the Apocrypha<\/p>\n
Literary Genre
\nApocryphal Texts
\nDate
\nHistorical Works
\n1 Maccabees
\n2 Maccabees
\n1 Esdras (= 2 Esdras in Slavonic = 3 Esdras in Appendix to Vulgate)
\n125\u2013100 BCE
\n124\u201350 BCE
\n2nd cent. BCE\u20131st Cent CE
\nTales
\nTobit
\nJudith
\n3 Maccabees (see OT Pseudepigrapha)
\nAdditions to Esther (Additions A\u2013F)
\nAdditions to Daniel
\n\u2022 Bel and the Dragon (LXX Dan 14)
\n\u2022 Susanna (LXX Dan 13)
\n250\u2013175 BCE
\nmid. 2nd cent. BCE
\n1st cent. BCE
\n114\u201377 BCE
\n2nd cent. BCE
\n6th\u2013late 2nd cent. BCE
\nWisdom Literature
\nWisdom of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)
\nWisdom of Solomon
\n196\u2013175 BCE
\n220 BCE\u2013100 CE
\nPseudepigraphical Prophetic Literature
\nBaruch (addition to Jeremiah)
\nLetter of Jeremiah (= Baruch ch. 6)
\nmid. 2nd cent. BCE.
\n317\u2013306 BCE
\nLiturgical Texts
\nPrayer of Manasseh
\nPsalm 151 (addition to Psalms; see OT Pseudepigrapha)
\nPrayer of Azariah (addition to Daniel, between 3:23 and 3:24)
\nSong of the Tree Young Men (addition to Daniel, between 3:23 and 3:24)
\n200 BCE\u201350 CE
\n6th cent. BCE\u201368 CE
\n175\u2013164 BCE
\n> 100 BCE
\nApocalypse
\n2 Esdras (= 3 Esdras in Slavonic = 4 Esdras in Vulgate Appendix)
\nc. 100\u20133rd cent. CE
\nPhilosophical Encomium
\n4 Maccabees (see OT Pseudepigrapha)
\n19\u201354 CE<\/p>\n
Table 4. Resurrection texts in the Apocrypha<\/p>\n
Passage
\nNotes
\nResurrection
\nClassification
\nImp.
\nStat.
\nRef.
\nAllude
\nPhil.
\nAssum.
\nEcclesiasticus (Sirach)
\n2:9c; (7:17b); 16:22c; 19:19
\nThese passages in the longer GII recension hints to a resurrection hope
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n46:19\u201320
\nSleep = Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n48:11b
\nBen Sira\u2019s grandson may have added this resurrection hope
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n2 Maccabees
\n6:26
\nNo one will escape the hands of God
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7
\nThe Martyrdom of the seven brothers
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n12:43\u201345
\nMade atonement for the dead. Paul uses this argument
\nin 1 Cor. 15:29
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n14:37\u201346
\nDeath of Razis
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nWisdom of Solomon
\n3:1\u201313a
\nBody\/Soul
\nThey will shine forth
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n4:16\u20135:16
\nThe triumph of the righteous and the final judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n2 Esdras\/5 Ezra
\n2:10\u201347
\nExhortation to good work; Proper burial practice; Replacement theology; Resurrection\/Reward of the Kingdom; Sleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n2 Esdras\/4 Ezra
\n4:7\u201311
\nExits of Hades\u2014Entrances of Paradise
\n\u00d7
\n4:33\u201343
\nPredestined time;
\nHades || womb;
\nSouls in the chambers of Hades are impatient;
\nThe number needs to be filled
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n5:38\u201340
\nOnly God knows his judgment and the goal of his love
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:10\u201316
\nTwo worlds, this world is the test
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:26\u201351
\nBody + Soul = Resurrection;
\nUniversal resurrection (Individuals\/nations);
\nDetailed eschatology
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:66\u2013105
\nThe state of the departed before the judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:112\u2013115
\nUniversal judgment
\n\u00d7
\n7:117\u2013131
\nFuture promises given to the righteous
\n\u00d7
\n8:1\u20133
\nTwo worlds.
\n\u201cMany have been created, but only a few shall be saved\u201d
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n8:12\u201319
\nEzra questions God\u2019s judgment\/justice
\n\u00d7
\n8:37\u201340
\nThe final destiny of the two ways
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n8:46\u201354
\nThe final destiny of the righteous
\n\u00d7
\n9:7\u201313
\nThe wicked will acknowledge God\u2019s justice
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n10:10, 15\u201317
\n\u201cIf you acknowledge the decree of God to be just, you will receive your son back\u201d
\n\u00d7
\n14:34\u201335
\nResurrection\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7<\/p>\n
1. Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)<\/p>\n
The original Hebrew composition of Sirach probably did not contain a doctrine of retribution and reward beyond death (e.g. Sir. 14:16\u201319; 17:27\u201328; 38:19\u201323; 41:3\u20134). Instead, Ben Sira adheres to the traditional Deuteronomic view of theodicy, claiming that God gives a person his\/her just reward based on the person\u2019s adherence to the Law and the Prophets (see, e.g., the Prologue of Sirach; Sir. 1:11\u20132:17) during his\/her life time (e.g. Sir. 11:14\u201325; 16:12\u201314), through the way of his\/her death (e.g. Sir. 11:26\u201328), and through his\/her legacy (e.g. Sir. 41:5\u201313; 44:1\u201350:21). However, there are several passages in the longer Greek recension (GII) of the book which hint at a retribution beyond death (see Table 4) and may have originated with the Greek translation of Ben Sira\u2019s grandson or in a later copy. John Collins writes: \u201cIt is well known that the Greek translator of Sirach introduced a belief in resurrection at several points in the text \u2026 and that the redactor of the Greek text (GII) added further allusions to the afterlife.\u201d The most interesting of these are Sir. 7:17b and 48:11b, which allude to and quote the TaNaKh, although only the latter text states an eschatological resurrection hope.
\nSirach 7:17b notes that the punishment of the ungodly is \u201cfire and worms\u201d (\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c3\u03c6\u03cc\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fe6\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03ba\u03ce\u03bb\u03b7\u03be [LXT]), possibly drawing on the eschatological imagery of Isa. 66:22\u201324 (\u1f41 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c3\u03ba\u03ce\u03bb\u03b7\u03be \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u1fe6\u03c1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 [v. 24, LXT]), alluding to some kind of postmortal punishment for the ungodly. If this is the case, it would follow that there would also be some kind of resurrection for the righteous, although the fate of this group is not mentioned in the text. It would be hard to understand how the \u201cfire and worms\u201d could be viewed as a punishment for the ungodly, if their destiny is no different from that of the righteous. Only if the righteous were to receive a different fate, a reward beyond death as suggested by Isaiah, would the warning of Ben Sira make sense and be viewed as an allusion to the resurrection hope. Howard Clark Kee remarks that \u201cthe hellenistic translator has interpreted the reference in the Hebrew text to fire and worms as meaning not simply death but the inescapable divine judgment that is soon to come,\u201d an eschatological punishment which, according to Isaiah, will take place in the newly created heaven and earth (Isa. 66:22).
\nSirach can be outlined as following, the relevant section has been highlighted:<\/p>\n
Greek Prologue
\nI. Wisdom sayings
\nII. The Praise of the Fathers
\nIntroduction
\nPast Heroes
\nPresent Heroes
\nIII. Conclusion
\nEpilogue
\nSong of Praise
\nAlphabetic Prayer
\n(Sir. 1:1\u201343:33)
\n(Sir. 44:1\u201349:16)
\n(Sir. 44:1\u201315)
\n(Sir. 44:16\u201349:16)
\n(Sir. 50:1\u201324)
\n(Sir. 50:25\u201351:30)
\n(Sir. 50:25\u201329)
\n(Sir. 51:1\u201312)
\n(Sir. 51:13\u201330)<\/p>\n
a. Sirach 48:10\u201311<\/p>\n
In light of the above-mentioned passages, Sir. 48:11b expresses a clear resurrection hope. This verse concludes the hymn in praise of the prophet Elijah (Sir. 48:1\u201311) which is a part of a historical survey (Sir. 44:1\u201349:16) listing the great Israelite ancestors of the past (see Table 5) towards the end of the book. In his praise of Elijah, Ben Sira gives the highlights of the prophet\u2019s life bracketed by an allusion (v. 1) and a direct quotation (v. 10) from the eschatological conclusion of the book of Malachi (Mal. 4:1 [MT 3:19] and 4:5\u20136 [MT 3:23\u201324] respectively). The link with Malachi 4 is further strengthened by Sira\u2019s reference to Horeb, where Elijah heard God\u2019s judgments of vengeance (Sir. 48:7b || Mal. 4:4 [MT 3:22]). Table 6 highlights the links between Mal. 4:1\u20136 [MT 3:19\u201323] and Sir. 48:1\u201311.<\/p>\n
Table 5. The literary structure of Ben Sira\u2019s list of heroes (Sir. 44:1\u201349:16)<\/p>\n
INTRODUCTION
\n\u2014Twelve Categories of Heroes
\n44:1\u201315
\nTORAH
\n44:16
\n44:16
\nEnoch
\n44:17\u201318
\nNoah
\n44:19\u201321
\nGenesis
\nAbraham
\n5\u00d7
\n44:22\u201323e
\nIsaac and Jacob
\n44:23f\u201345:5
\nMoses
\nExodus\u2013Deuteronomy
\nAaron
\n45:6\u201322
\nPhinehas
\n5\u00d7
\n45:23\u201326
\nJoshua and Caleb
\n46:1\u201310
\nPROPHETS
\nThe Judges
\n46:11\u201320
\nTime of Judges
\nSamuel
\n46:13\u201320
\nNathan
\n47:1
\nDavid
\n47:2\u201311
\nUnited Kingdom
\nSolomon
\n47:12\u201322
\nRehoboam and Jeroboam
\n5\u00d7
\n47:23\u201325
\nElijah
\n48:1\u201311
\nThe Northern Kingdom
\nElisha
\n48:12\u201316
\nFALL OF ISRAEL\u2014Evaluation of History (48:15\u201316)
\nHezekiah
\n48:17\u201322
\nThe Southern Kingdom
\nIsaiah
\n48:23\u201325
\nJosiah and Other Worthies
\n49:1\u201316
\nJosiah
\n49:1\u20133
\nFALL OF JUDAH\u2014Evaluation of History (49:4\u20137)
\nJeremiah
\n49:6b\u20137
\nWarning of Coming
\nEzekiel
\n49:8
\nDestruction
\nJob
\n3\u00d7
\n49:9
\nTwelve Prophets
\n49:10
\nMessage of Hope for Israel
\nWRITINGS
\nZerubbabel
\n49:11
\nThe Post-Exilic Generation
\nJeshua son of Jozadak
\n49:12
\nand National Builders
\nNehemiah
\n3\u00d7
\n49:13
\nand National Builders
\nCONCLUSION\u2014Retrospective
\n49:14\u201316
\nEnoch
\n49:14
\nJoseph
\n49:15
\nShem\u2014Seth\u2014Enosh
\n49:16a
\nADAM
\n49:16b
\nMOST HONORED OF ALL<\/p>\n
Reading Sir. 48:1\u201311, it becomes clear that Sira summarizes all the miraculous exploits of Elijah as recorded in 1 Kings 17\u20132 Kings 2, and adds the only other reference to Elijah recorded in the TaNaKh, Mal. 4:5, which describes his role at the end of time, at Elijah\u2019s \u201csecond coming.\u201d According to this eschatological prophecy, Elijah will once more help reconcile the people with God, like his famous deed at Mt. Carmel (1 Kgs 18 || Sir. 48:3b), when the hearts of God\u2019s people were turned back to YHWH (1 Kgs 18:37, 39). In the typological story, this was to bring true conversion and save the people from the coming judgment of the Baal prophets (1 Kgs 18:40). In the anti-typical story, Elijah will once more bring a message of salvation before the LORD\u2019s day of Judgment, to give all people an opportunity to repent and be counted among God\u2019s righteous (Mal. 4:2\u20134 [MT 3:20\u201322]) and not share in the destiny of the wicked (Mal. 4:1, 3, 6b [MT 3:19, 21, 24b]).<\/p>\n
Table 6. The links between Malachi 3:19\u201323 and Sirach 48:1\u201311<\/p>\n
Malachi 3:19\u201323 [ET 4:1\u20136]
\nSirach 48:1\u201311
\n19\u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05be\u05d4\u05b4\u05e0\u05b5\u05bc\u05d4 \u05d4\u05b7\u05d9\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05d0 \u05d1\u05b9\u05bc\u05e2\u05b5\u05e8 \u05db\u05b7\u05bc\u05ea\u05b7\u05bc\u05e0\u05bc\u05d5\u05bc\u05e8
\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05d4\u05b8\u05d9\u05d5\u05bc \u05db\u05b8\u05dc\u05be\u05d6\u05b5\u05d3\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05b0\u05db\u05b8\u05dc\u05be\u05e2\u05b9\u05e9\u05b5\u05c2\u05d4 \u05e8\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05e2\u05b8\u05d4 \u05e7\u05b7\u05e9\u05c1
\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05dc\u05b4\u05d4\u05b7\u05d8 \u05d0\u05b9\u05ea\u05b8\u05dd \u05d4\u05b7\u05d9\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b7\u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05d0 \u05d0\u05b8\u05de\u05b7\u05e8 \u05d9\u05b0\u05d4\u05d5\u05b8\u05d4 \u05e6\u05b0\u05d1\u05b8\u05d0\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea
\n\u05d0\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05e8 \u05dc\u05b9\u05d0\u05be\u05d9\u05b7\u05e2\u05b2\u05d6\u05b9\u05d1 \u05dc\u05b8\u05d4\u05b6\u05dd \u05e9\u05b9\u05c1\u05e8\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d5\u05b0\u05e2\u05b8\u05e0\u05b8\u05e3\u05c3
\n1\u05e2\u05d3 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05dd \u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0 \u05db\u05d0\u05e9 \u05d5\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05d5 \u05db\u05ea\u05e0\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d1\u05d5\u05e2\u05e8\u05c3
\n20\u05d5\u05b0\u05d6\u05b8\u05e8\u05b0\u05d7\u05b8\u05d4 \u05dc\u05b8\u05db\u05b6\u05dd \u05d9\u05b4\u05e8\u05b0\u05d0\u05b5\u05d9 \u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05b4\u05d9
\n\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05de\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1 \u05e6\u05b0\u05d3\u05b8\u05e7\u05b8\u05d4 \u05d5\u05bc\u05de\u05b7\u05e8\u05b0\u05e4\u05b5\u05bc\u05d0 \u05d1\u05b4\u05bc\u05db\u05b0\u05e0\u05b8\u05e4\u05b6\u05d9\u05d4\u05b8
\n\u05d5\u05b4\u05d9\u05e6\u05b8\u05d0\u05ea\u05b6\u05dd \u05d5\u05bc\u05e4\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05ea\u05b6\u05bc\u05dd \u05db\u05b0\u05bc\u05e2\u05b6\u05d2\u05b0\u05dc\u05b5\u05d9 \u05de\u05b7\u05e8\u05b0\u05d1\u05b5\u05bc\u05e7\u05c3
\n21\u05d5\u05b0\u05e2\u05b7\u05e1\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\u05b6\u05dd \u05e8\u05b0\u05e9\u05b8\u05c1\u05e2\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd
\n\u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05be\u05d9\u05b4\u05d4\u05b0\u05d9\u05d5\u05bc \u05d0\u05b5\u05e4\u05b6\u05e8 \u05ea\u05b7\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7\u05ea \u05db\u05b7\u05bc\u05e4\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea \u05e8\u05b7\u05d2\u05b0\u05dc\u05b5\u05d9\u05db\u05b6\u05dd
\n\u05d1\u05b7\u05bc\u05d9\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d0\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05e8 \u05d0\u05b2\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9 \u05e2\u05b9\u05e9\u05b6\u05c2\u05d4 \u05d0\u05b8\u05de\u05b7\u05e8 \u05d9\u05b0\u05d4\u05d5\u05b8\u05d4 \u05e6\u05b0\u05d1\u05b8\u05d0\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\u05c3
\n22\u05d6\u05b4\u05db\u05b0\u05e8\u05d5\u05bc \u05ea\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05e8\u05b7\u05ea \u05de\u05b9\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05d4 \u05e2\u05b7\u05d1\u05b0\u05d3\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9
\n\u05d0\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05e8 \u05e6\u05b4\u05d5\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d0\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\u05d5\u05b9 \u05d1\u05b0\u05d7\u05b9\u05e8\u05b5\u05d1 \u05e2\u05b7\u05dc\u05be\u05db\u05b8\u05bc\u05dc\u05be\u05d9\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c2\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0\u05b5\u05dc
\n\u05d7\u05bb\u05e7\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05bc\u05de\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05e4\u05b8\u05bc\u05d8\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd\u05c3
\n7\u05d5\u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05e2 \u05d1\u05e1\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9 \u05ea\u05d5\u05db\u05d7\u05d5\u05ea \u05d5\u05d1\u05d7\u05d5\u05e8\u05d1 \u05de\u05e9\u05e4\u05d8\u05d9 \u05e0\u05e7[\u05dd]\u05c3
\n23\u05d4\u05b4\u05e0\u05b5\u05bc\u05d4 \u05d0\u05b8\u05e0\u05b9\u05db\u05b4\u05d9 \u05e9\u05b9\u05c1\u05dc\u05b5\u05d7\u05b7 \u05dc\u05b8\u05db\u05b6\u05dd \u05d0\u05b5\u05ea \u05d0\u05b5\u05dc\u05b4\u05d9\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4\u05b8 \u05d4\u05b7\u05e0\u05b8\u05bc\u05d1\u05b4\u05d9\u05d0
\n\u05dc\u05b4\u05e4\u05b0\u05e0\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d1\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05d0 \u05d9\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d9\u05b0\u05d4\u05d5\u05b8\u05d4 \u05d4\u05b7\u05d2\u05b8\u05bc\u05d3\u05d5\u05b9\u05dc \u05d5\u05b0\u05d4\u05b7\u05e0\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0\u05c3
\n10\u05d4\u05db\u05ea\u05d5\u05d1 \u05e0\u05db\u05d5\u05df \u05dc\u05e2\u05ea \u05dc\u05d4\u05e9\u05d1\u05d9\u05ea \u05d0\u05e3 \u05dc\u05e4\u05e0[\u05d9] \u2026
\n24\u05d5\u05b0\u05d4\u05b5\u05e9\u05b4\u05c1\u05d9\u05d1 \u05dc\u05b5\u05d1\u05be\u05d0\u05b8\u05d1\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea \u05e2\u05b7\u05dc\u05be\u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd
\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05dc\u05b5\u05d1 \u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05e2\u05b7\u05dc\u05be\u05d0\u05b2\u05d1\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\u05b8\u05dd
\n\u05e4\u05b6\u05bc\u05df\u05be\u05d0\u05b8\u05d1\u05d5\u05b9\u05d0 \u05d5\u05b0\u05d4\u05b4\u05db\u05b5\u05bc\u05d9\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05e8\u05b6\u05e5 \u05d7\u05b5\u05e8\u05b6\u05dd\u05c3
\n10\u05dc\u05d4\u05e9\u05d9\u05d1 \u05dc\u05d1 \u05d0\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea \u05e2\u05dc \u05d1\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05dc\u05d4\u05d1\u05d9\u05df \u05e9[\u05d1\u05d8\u05d9 \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0]\u05dc:
\n11\u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e8\u05d0\u05da \u05d5\u05de\u05ea . . . . . . \u05d5 . . . . . \u05d9\u05d4\u05c3<\/p>\n
1\u201cFor indeed, the day is coming, burning like a furnace, when all the arrogant and everyone who commits wickedness will become stubble. The coming day will consume them,\u201d says the LORD of Hosts, \u201cnot leaving them root or branches.
\n1Till there arose a prophet like fire, whose words were like a burning furnace.
\n2 But for you who fear My name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing in its wings, and you will go out and playfully jump like calves from the stall.
\n3You will trample the wicked, for they will be ashes under the soles of your feet on the day I am preparing,\u201d says the LORD of Hosts.
\n4\u201cRemember the instruction of Moses My servant, the statutes and ordinances I commanded him at Horeb for all Israel.
\n7Who heardest reproofs in Sinai, and judgments of vengeance in Horeb;
\n5Look, I am going to send you Elijah the prophet before the great and awesome Day of the LORD comes.
\n10Who art written down as ready for a season, to make anger to cease before \u2026
\n6And he will turn the hearts of fathers to their children and the hearts of children to their fathers. Otherwise, I will come and strike the land with a curse.\u201d (CSB)
\n10cTo turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and to give understanding to the tr[ibes of Isra]el 11Happy he that saw thee and died (?) \u2026
\n. . . .<\/p>\n
Di Lella suggests an additional allusion in Sir. 48:10c, noting that the phrase \u05d5\u05dc\u05d4\u05d1\u05d9\u05df \u05e9[\u05d1\u05d8\u05d9 \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0]\u05dc, \u201cand to give understanding to the tribes of Israel,\u201d derives from the phrase \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea\u05be\u05e9\u05b4\u05c1\u05d1\u05b0\u05d8\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d9\u05b7\u05e2\u05b2\u05e7\u05b9\u05d1 \u05d5\u05bc\u05e0\u05b0\u05e6\u05d5\u05bc\u05e8\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d9\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c2\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0\u05b5\u05dc \u05dc\u05b0\u05d4\u05b8\u05e9\u05b4\u05c1\u05d9\u05d1, \u201cthe tribes of Jacob and restoring the protected ones of Israel,\u201d appearing in the highly charged Messianic passage of Isa. 49:6. Sira connects Isa. 49:6 with the eschatological work of Elijah in Mal. 4:6 (MT 3:24), making Elijah\u2019s work universal: \u201cIt is not enough for you to be My servant raising up the tribes of Jacob and restoring the protected ones of Israel. I will also make you a light for the nations, to be My salvation to the ends of the earth\u201d (CSB).
\nThe Hebrew of the last two lines of Sira\u2019s hymn is unfortunately fragmentary, but \u00c9mile Puech suggests the following restoration: \u201c\u2026 for you give life, and he will live.\u201d As noted earlier, the Greek translation of this verse has a clear resurrection hope and reads: \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f30\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc7 \u03b6\u03b7\u03c3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 (LXT), \u201cBlessed are those who saw you and slept\/died in love; for we shall surely live.\u201d Patrick Skehan notes that the corresponding Syriac reads: \u201cBlest is he who shall have seen you and died; but he shall not die, but shall certainly live.\u201d Although it is unlikely that the resurrection belief was a part of the original Hebrew hymn, the Greek and Syriac translations show that Elijah\u2019s eschatological work contains a resurrection hope. It is significant that this association became a part of Rabbinic tradition (m. So\u1e6dah 9:15; Pesiq. Rab. Kah. 76a).<\/p>\n
b. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
Allusions and references to the resurrection appear in the Greek version of Sirach (Sir. 2:9c; 7:17b; 12:6c; 16:22c; 19:19; 46:19\u201320; 48:11b, 13\u201314) and most of them were probably not a part of the original Hebrew composition. Little is revealed regarding the nature of the resurrection, only that it will happen in the eschatological age. Two texts were considered when looking at the resurrection belief in the book of Sirach. The first text, Sir. 7:17b, reveals the destiny of the wicked, alluding to Isa. 66:22\u201324. The second text, Sir. 48:1\u201311, summarizes the life of Elijah (1 Kgs 17\u20132 Kgs 2) and places the resurrection of the righteous as a part of Elijah\u2019s eschatological work which will introduce the Messianic age, supported by quoting Mal. 4:1\u20136 (MT 3:19\u201324) and alluding to the Servant Songs of Isaiah (Isa. 49:6).<\/p>\n
2. 2 Maccabees<\/p>\n
2 Maccabees, originally written in Greek, covers a period of about 25 years, beginning with the reign of Seleucus IV Philopator (187\u2013175 BCE) and ending with the defeat of Nicanor, the Seleucid general, by Judas Maccabeus in the spring of 162 BCE (2 Macc. 3:3; 15:20\u201337). The book easily fits the genre of apologetic historiography due to its pro-Maccabean sentiments and its theological interpretation of the historical events, mixed with the use of Greek rhetoric in its defense and exaltation of Jewish values and traditions. deSilva notes that 2 Maccabees also seeks \u201cto demonstrate the ongoing legitimacy of Deuteronomy\u2019s philosophy of history as can be traced out in recent events, as well as the legitimacy of the Jerusalem temple as the focal point of God\u2019s protective care and concern.\u201d
\nThe two prefixed letters of 2 Maccabees (1:1\u20132:18), the first dated to 124\/123 BCE and the second dated to 164\/163 BCE, are addressed to the Jewish Diaspora of Egypt, commanding them to celebrate the festival of Chanukah and make it a part of their calendar. The second part of the book chronicles the events preceding the Maccabean revolt, followed by the exploits of Judas Maccabeus, who, with God\u2019s help, overthrew the foreign oppressor, then purified and rededicated the Temple of Jerusalem\u2014the key event being celebrated. This conclusion is further supported by the narrative\u2019s \u201cuniversal nature.\u201d God and the Martyrs are the heroes of the salvation story as noted by deSilva: \u201cThe book\u2019s emphasis falls on God\u2019s deliverance through any and all agents God chooses, rather than on the contribution of a particular family to the well-being of Israel,\u201d as is the case of 1 Maccabeus. As such, this book serves the same purpose for Chanukah as the book of Esther serves for Purim (alluded to in the concluding remark of 2 Macc. 15:36, which refers to the day of Mordecai), in that they both present the background story for their respective \u201csalvation festival.\u201d
\nFollowing is an outline of 2 Maccabees. The bolded text specifies the location of the most explicit resurrection passage, which also serves as the turning point of the book:<\/p>\n
I. Prefix: Two letters inviting the Jews of the Egyptian Diaspora to celebrate Hanukkah (1:1\u20132:18)
\n1st Letter (1:1\u20139)
\n2nd Letter (1:10\u20132:18)
\nII. An epitome of the five-volume work of Jason of Cyrene
\nThe Preface (2:19\u201332)
\nPre-Maccabean Revolt (3\u20137)
\nPre-Maccabean Episodes (3:1\u201340)
\nThe Hellenistic Reforms\u2014Apostasy (4:1\u201350)
\nJewish Worship suppressed by Antiochus IV (5:1\u20136:11)
\nMartyrs of the Persecution (6:12\u20137:42)
\nTheological Significance of the Persecution (6:12\u201317)
\nMartyrdom of Eleazar (6:18\u201331)
\nMartyrdom of Seven Brothers (7:1\u201342)
\nMaccabean Revolt\u2014Exploits of Judas Maccabeus (8:1\u201315:37)
\nEpilogue (15:38\u201339)<\/p>\n
2 Maccabees struggles with harmonizing the deuteronomistic principle of just-reward based on observance of the Torah and the martyrdom of the righteous Jews, by presenting an ingenious theological structure which combines the universal aspect of the covenant with a personal eschatology. According to this book, it is the apostasy of the people led by Jason and Menelaus (2 Macc. 4\u20136) which brought collective punishment on the people, while the martyrdom of the righteous played a pivotal role in \u201cbringing to an end the wrath of the Almighty\u201d (2 Macc. 7:38) thereby reconciling the people with God (2 Macc. 6:12\u201317; 7:6, 32\u201333, 37\u201338; 8:5). 2 Maccabees 8\u201315 recounts God\u2019s miraculous work through his Torah-observant people. DeSilva writes: \u201cThey [the martyrs] suffered as part of the nation: but at the same time, their voluntary surrender of their bodies for the sake of God and God\u2019s law becomes an efficacious death on behalf of the nation \u2026 [J]ust as the sin of individuals brought collective punishment, so the covenant loyalty of individuals can effect reversal.\u201d
\nIt is important to note that 2 Maccabees introduces a faith in a bodily resurrection (see Table 4) to deal with the question of theodicy on a personal level. Although the death of the \u201crighteous Torah-observant Jews\u201d atones for the sins of the nation, the heroes of faith do not seem to receive their just reward in this world. Only a future reward, after their resurrection, would solve this problem, and as such, the resurrection belief becomes key in upholding Deuteronomy\u2019s philosophy and solves the problem of theodicy.<\/p>\n
a. 2 Maccabees 7<\/p>\n
2 Maccabees 7 is the only passage that refers\/alludes to the TaNaKh when describing the resurrection belief and serves as the central chapter and turning point of the book (see the outline in n. 20). In this chapter, all but two of the resurrection allusions\/references (vv. 20c and 40b which are the words of the narrator) have been placed in the speeches given by the heroes, the mother and her seven children. Table 7 contains all the speeches of 2 Maccabees 7, Appendix A provides their full context.
\nThree interconnected themes emerge from these speeches. The first theme, underlined in Table 7, is introduced by the first son, probably the oldest, who speaks on behalf of his brothers. This is the core issue facing God\u2019s people during any time of religious persecution and what in the end caused the Maccabean revolt: Which command do you follow\u2014the one given by God or the one given by the persecutor? The first brother makes his decision clear, he would rather die as a martyr than transgress the laws of God (v. 2b). This sentiment is echoed by the second brother (v. 9b), the mother (vv. 23c and 29a), and in the concluding remarks of the seventh brother (vv. 30b, 36b and 37a).
\nThe second theme, highlighted in italics in Table 7, provides the lens through which this chapter, and the entire book, should be understood. According to the Deuteronomistic principle (Deut. 28\u201332), God blesses or curses his people based on their adherence to his covenant. The mother and her six sons (the seventh son has been so mutilated that he is not able to speak) encourage each other by remembering the Song of Moses (v. 6 || Deut. 32), which promises that God \u201cwill vindicate His people and have compassion on His servants when He sees that [their] strength is gone\u201d (Deut. 32:36, CSB). This is the situation in which they find themselves. They have run out of options, but they have not given up on God, so they cling to his Covenant, in the hope that God will show them compassion. This sentiment is restated by the sixth (v. 18) and the seventh son (vv. 32\u201333 and vv. 37\u201338), who add that their suffering is deserved since God gives the Covenant curses to the whole nation because of their lack of obedience. However, the seventh son hopes that his and his brothers\u2019 great loyalty towards God\u2019s Covenant will bring to an end God\u2019s wrath and cause him to once more show compassion on his nation (v. 38).
\nThe first and the second theme creates a theological dilemma. According to the second theme, the covenant people are being punished for not adhering to the covenant stipulations\u2014hence the punishment befalling the community by the pagan king is deserved. The first theme, however, does not seem to apply the deuteronomistic principle to a personal level since the brothers are suffering and dying even when they uphold the secrecy of the covenant. The conundrum is that God\u2019s covenant is in stark conflict with the king\u2019s demands and the brothers are not able to adhere to them both. If they adhere to the king\u2019s demands, they break God\u2019s covenant and will be punished. On the other hand, if they adhere to God\u2019s covenant, they will still suffer punishment and death by the hand of the king. The third theme, the theme of bodily resurrection highlighted in gray in Table 7, solves the predicament. It is introduced in the speech of the second brother (v. 9b) and is reiterated and expanded upon by the third (v. 11b), fourth (v. 14b), and the seventh (v. 36) brother. The most extensive resurrection statements are given by the mother in her two encouraging speeches to her youngest son (vv. 22\u201323 and vv. 27b\u201329).<\/p>\n
Table 7. The speeches in 2 Maccabees 7<\/p>\n
Verse
\nLXT\/LXX
\nNRSV
\n1st SON
\n2b
\n\u03c4\u03af \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u1fb6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f15\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03bd\u1fc4\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f22 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2
\n2bWhat do you intend to ask and learn from us? For we are ready to die rather than transgress the laws of our ancestors.
\nHEROES
\n6
\n\u1f41 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u1fb7 [cf. LXX Zech. 9:1; Job. 34:23] \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c6\u02bc \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd [Deut. 32:36] \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ac\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u1fa0\u03b4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03c3\u03ac\u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u039c\u03c9\u03c5\u03c3\u1fc6\u03c2 [Deut. 31:21] \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd \u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 [Deut. 32:36]
\n6The Lord God is watching over us [cf. LXX Zech. 9:1; Job 34:23] and in truth has compassion on us [Deut. 32:36], as Moses declared in his song that bore witness against the people to their faces [Deut. 31:21], when he said, \u201cAnd he will have compassion on his servants\u201d [Deut. 32:36].
\n2nd SON
\n9b
\n\u03c3\u1f7a \u03bc\u03ad\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03c9\u03c1 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u1f7a\u03c2 [Pss. 10:16; 145:13] \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03af\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 [LXX, Dan. 12:2]
\n9bYou accursed wretch, you dismiss us from this present life, but the King of the universe [Pss. 10:16; 145:13] will raise us up to an everlasting renewal of life [LXX, Dan. 12:2], because we have died for his law.
\n3rd SON
\n11b
\n\u1f10\u03be \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03ad\u03ba\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c1\u1ff6 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u02bc \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b6\u03c9 \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9
\n11bI got these [his hands] from Heaven, and because of his laws I disdain them, and from him I hope to get them back again.
\n4th SON
\n14b
\n\u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u02bc \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u1fb6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03c0\u02bc \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03bf\u1f76 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 [Dan. 12:2; cf. Isa. 14:20\u201321; 26:14, 19; 66:24]
\n14bOne cannot but choose to die at the hands of mortals and to cherish the hope God gives of being raised again by him. But for you there will be no resurrection to life! [Dan. 12:2; cf. Isa. 14:20\u201321; 26:14, 19; 66:24]
\n5th SON
\n16b\u201317
\n\u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u1f43 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 17\u03c3\u1f7a \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b5\u03ce\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c0\u03ad\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6 [Dan. 8:4, 24\u201325; 11:36]
\n16bBecause you have authority among mortals, though you also are mortal, you do what you please. But do not think that God has forsaken our people. 17Keep on, and see how his mighty power will torture you and your descendants! [Dan. 8:4, 24\u201325; 11:36]
\n6th SON
\n18c\u201319
\n\u03bc\u1f74 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b1\u03bd\u1ff6 \u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b4\u03b9\u02bc \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd \u1f04\u03be\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b8\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b3\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03bd\u00b7 19\u03c3\u1f7a \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u1fc3\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b8\u1ff7\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 [Deut. 28:59; Dan 8:24\u201325]
\n18cDo not deceive yourself in vain. For we are suffering these things on our own account, because of our sins against our own God. Therefore astounding things have happened. 19But do not think that you will go unpunished for having tried to fight against God! [Deut. 28:59; Dan. 8:24\u201325]
\nMOTHER
\n22\u201323
\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u03bf\u1f36\u03b4\u02bc \u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c6\u03ac\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03bd [Eccl. 8:17; 11:5] \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd [Gen. 2:7 (cf. Gen. 6:17; 7:15, 22); cf. Eccl. 12:7; 2 Macc. 7:23; 14:46] \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f11\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u03c1\u03cd\u03b8\u03bc\u03b9\u03c3\u03b1 23\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03b3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f41 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd [Gen. 2:7, 8, 15; LXX, Gen. 5:1] \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03be\u03b5\u03c5\u03c1\u1f7c\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd [Eccl. 8:17; 11:5] \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd [see v. 22] \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03b4\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd [LXX, Isa. 26:12] \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u02bc \u1f10\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 [cf. LXX, Isa. 26:20; 54:7] \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2
\n22I do not know how you came into being in my womb [Eccl. 8:17; 11:5]. It was not I who gave you life and breath [Gen 2:7 (cf. Gen. 6:17; 7:15, 22); cf. Eccl. 12:7], nor I who set in order the elements within each of you. 23Therefore the Creator of the world, who shaped the beginning of humankind [Gen. 2:7, 8, 15; LXX, Gen. 5:1] and devised the origin of all thinks [Eccl. 8:17; 11:5], will in his mercy [cf. LXX, Isa. 26:20; 54:7] give life and breath [see v. 22] back to you again [LXX, Isa. 26:12], since you now forget yourselves for the sake of the laws.
\n27b\u201329
\n\u03a5\u1f31\u03ad, \u1f10\u03bb\u03ad\u03b7\u03c3\u03cc\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03b3\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03ac\u03bd \u03c3\u03b5 \u03bc\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03bd\u03ad\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b7\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03ac\u03bd \u03c3\u03b5 \u1f14\u03c4\u03b7 \u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b8\u03c1\u03ad\u03c8\u03b1\u03c3\u03ac\u03bd \u03c3\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f21\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd [LXX, Deut. 1:31; Lam. 2:22] 28\u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u1ff6 \u03c3\u03b5, \u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c8\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f30\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 [cf. Exod. 40:11; Isa. 40:26] \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03be \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. 29\u03bc\u1f74 \u03c6\u03bf\u03b2\u03b7\u03b8\u1fc7\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u03ae\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd [cf. Isa. 51:13] \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f04\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03be\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ad\u03b5\u03b9 [Isa. 54:8, 10; 56:1; 64:4\u201311] \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03af \u03c3\u03b5
\n27bMy son, have pity on me, I carried you nine months in my womb, and nursed you for three years, and have reared you and brought you up to this point in your life, and have taken care of you [LXX, Deut. 1:31; Lam. 2:22]. 28I beg you, my child, to look at the heaven and the earth and see everything that is in them [cf. Exod. 40:11; Isa. 40:26], and recognize that God did not make them out of things that existed. And in the same way the human race came into being. 29Do not fear this butcher [cf. Isa. 51:13], but prove worthy of your brothers. Accept death, so that in God\u2019s mercy [Isa. 54:8, 10; 56:1; 64:4\u201311] I may get you back again along with your brothers.<\/p>\n
It should not come as a surprise that these speeches contain a strong resurrection hope. It is the first and the second theme which gives a voice to the strong resurrection belief spoken by the heroes. When the second son declares that he would rather be punished limb by limb than break God\u2019s law by eating unlawful swine flesh (v. 7), he also claims that this great show of faithfulness will be rewarded by God, who will resurrect the martyrs to an everlasting renewal of life (v. 9). As such, Nickelsburg observes, the resurrection not only \u201cfunctions as the means by which God will deliver the brothers from the destruction that Antiochus inflict on them,\u201d but also a way for God to vindicate his servants. He adds that the brothers will have their bodies restored at the resurrection \u201cas a remedy for their bodily tortures. [Since] God will heal what Antiochus has hurt; he will bring to life those whom Antiochus has killed. What God created, he will recreate\u2014in spite of the king\u2019s attempt to destroy it (7:22\u201323, 28\u201329).\u201d
\nA case could be made that this strong conviction, voiced by the second brother, derives from a literal reading of Deut. 32:39 (\u201cI bring death and I give life; I wound and I heal\u201d) since v. 6 has already drawn the readers\u2019 attention to the Song of Moses. Goldstein suggests: \u201cThe poem there [Deut. 32] teaches that God is always mindful of Israel: Israel\u2019s disasters are divine punishment for sin, not signs that God has deserted His people (Deut. 32:15\u201330); God will take vengeance on the enemy (Deut. 32:35, 41\u201343), for whom there is no escape (Deut. 32:39), and He will resurrect and restore the maimed martyrs (ibid).\u201d
\nIn addition to Deut. 32:39, there is a clear reference to Dan. 12:2 in the first resurrection speech given by the second brother (v. 9b). Goldstein proposes that the Greek text, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03af\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, is redundant and the literal translation is inelegant: \u201cwhich resurrect us to an eternal revivification of life.\u201d However, this redundancy reflects the language of the Greek version of Dan. 12:2 and its content, which states that the righteous \u201cwill be resurrected to eternal life\u201d:<\/p>\n
Dan. 12:2
\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9
\n\u03bf\u1f31 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd
\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2
\n\u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd
\n2 Macc. 7:9
\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd
\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03af\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd
\n\u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2
\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9<\/p>\n
In this speech, the second brother refers to the first of the two resurrections mentioned in Dan. 12:2, adding his interpretation of this text. He may view \u201cthe time of distress such as never has occurred since nations came into being until that time\u201d (Dan. 12:1) as a reference to the persecution experienced in his day, and considers the \u201cwise\u201d who \u201clead many to righteousness\u201d (Dan. 12:3) as a description of the martyrs suffering during this persecution, which would include his brothers and himself. If this is the case, the second brother may understand the \u201cwise\u201d as those who, according to wisdom literature, \u201cfear God and keeps His commandments\u201d (Eccl. 12:13), those who would rather die than break the law of God. It is the people who would fall within this category that the second brother believes will be rewarded by the \u201ceternal revivification of life\u201d (v. 9b).
\nThe fourth brother may be expanding on this interpretation of Dan. 12:2 when noting that his persecutor, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the Seleucid king, will not partake in \u201cthe resurrection to life\u201d (v. 14b). Although the fourth brother does not state that the king will be resurrected \u201cto shame and eternal contempt\u201d (Dan. 12:2), he does exclude him from the reward held in store for the righteous. Importantly, the fifth, sixth, and the seventh brothers declare that the king\u2019s deeds will not go unpunished (vv. 17, 19, 31, 34\u201335, 36b), warning him that the all-seeing God will judge him (v. 35), torture him and his descendants (v. 17), and punish him for his arrogance (v. 36b)\u2014all pointing forward to a future punishment, although these speeches do not state clearly whether or not it will happen in this present life or at the resurrection of the wicked.
\nThe two resurrection speeches given by the mother of the seven brothers are especially interesting since they both combine a Greek philosophical argument with the reference to both the Creation story and Hebrew Wisdom Literature (see textual references in Table 7), to derive an \u201cextreme form\u201d of the resurrection belief. She supports the belief voiced by her third son, that even if the whole body is destroyed by fire they will recover all the members at the time of the resurrection (2 Macc. 7:11b, also voiced by Razis in 14:46). In her comforting words, she seems to support the doctrine of creation ex nihilo, that God created the world out of nothing (v. 28), and combines this belief with her experience as a mother, when the embryo grew in her womb (v. 22), noting that in both cases God was able to create something, the material world or a child, out of nothing. If this is the case, she argues, would not God be able to recreate them again on the day of resurrection and give them once more life and breath. Goldstein summarizes her argument:<\/p>\n
The universe came into being after previously not existing, and so does every member of the human race. A dead human being has, indeed, ceased to exist, but he existed previously. Surely it is more conceivable that existence can be restored to what previously existed than that existence should be conferred on what did not exist! Therefore resurrection is more conceivable than the creation and than human reproduction!<\/p>\n
The mother attempts to persuade her youngest son to uphold God\u2019s law and accept temporary nonexistence in faith since this would guarantee his resurrection. This is the only way, she argues, she may get him back together with her other six sons (v. 29).
\nThe speeches also contain other possible sources for the resurrection language (see the scriptural references and allusions in Table 7). References and allusions to Isaiah are especially interesting. Goldstein suggests that the mother is echoing Isaiah 26 in 2 Macc. 7:23. This is a text which reveals that God will vindicate his people by punishing their adversaries (Isa. 26:11, 21) and resurrect the righteous at a future time (Isa. 26:19\u201320), a fitting passage of hope for the mother who witnessed the suffering of her sons. Nickelsburg notices several additional details in the two central martyr passages of 2 Maccabees, the Eleazar story and the Martyrdom of Seven Brothers, which parallels the Servant Songs of Isaiah, especially Isaiah 52\u201353. This is also an eschatologically fruitful text, alluding to the resurrection of the suffering servant\u2014his future deeds (Isa. 53:10\u201312), after he had been cut off from the land of the living (Isa. 53:8). Nickelsburg notes the following parallels between 2 Macc. 6:18\u20137:42 and the Servant Songs of Isaiah:<\/p>\n
2 Maccabees 6:18\u20137:42
\nThe Servant Songs of Isaiah
\nThe Scribe [Eleazar] refuses to be a hypocrite by pretending to eat swine\u2019s flesh, while in reality he is eating his own food (6:21\u201325).
\nOf the servant, it is said, \u201c\u2026 there was no deceit in his mouth\u201d (53:9).
\nEleazar\u2019s tormenters think that he is out of his mind because he is willing to suffer (6:29).
\nIn Wis. 5:4, in a speech corresponding to Isaiah 53, the ungodly retract their former wrong opinions, among them the idea that the righteous man\u2019s life was madness.
\nThe brothers are beaten with scourges (\u03bc\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03b3\u03b5\u03c2) (7:1), and the king\u2019s men tear off the skin of the second brother\u2019s head \u201cwith the hair\u201d (7:7).
\nThe servant gives his back to the smiters (\u03bc\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03b3\u03b5\u03c2) and his cheek to those who pluck out (the hair) (Isa. 50:6 MT).
\nThe brothers are disfigured (7:4, 7).
\nThe servant is disfigured (Isa 52:14; 53:2).
\nThe second brother puts out his tongue, saying that he got it from heaven (7:10\u201311).
\nThe servant says, \u201cThe Lord has given me a tongue \u2026\u201d (Isa. 50:4).
\nThe king is astonished at their capacity to suffer (7:12).
\nMany were astonished at the servant because of his suffering (52:14).<\/p>\n
b. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
2 Maccabees presents a belief in a bodily resurrection in which every limb of the body, even if completely destroyed by fire, will be restored (2 Macc. 7:11b; 14:46). The book also suggests that it is possible to provide a sin offering and prayers on behalf of the dead to expiate for their sins so they will be able to partake in the resurrection of the righteous and receive the splendid reward awaiting them (2 Macc. 12:44\u201345). It is important to note that the book does not present the dualistic view of body and soul. The book is silent on the condition of humans in the period between their death and their resurrection. It focuses only on the hope of a future resurrection of the righteous.
\nThe resurrection belief in this book derives from an individualistic interpretation of the Deuteronomistic principle (Deut. 28\u201332) and a literal reading of Deut. 32:39, in which God will reward martyrs who have died to uphold God\u2019s law (2 Macc. 7:6, 9, 11, 23, 29, 36) by giving them eternal life (2 Macc. 7:36). This view is also derived from the brothers\u2019 interpretation of Dan. 12:1\u20133, applying this prophecy to their own experience, considering themselves among the \u201cwise\u201d who will be resurrected to eternal life (Dan. 12:2), language that is clearly reflected in the speech of the second brother (2 Macc. 7:9). However, it is not clear whether 2 Maccabees also presents a belief in a second resurrection for the wicked, who will awake to shame and eternal contempt, although there are some allusions to this belief. Additionally, the resurrection belief is supported by the doctrine of creation ex nihilo (2 Macc. 7:28), arguing that God will once more be able to recreate the brothers out of nothing on the day of the resurrection. Lastly, it was noted that there were several references and allusions to the book of Isaiah which also presented a resurrection hope (Isa. 26; 52\u201353). Figure 2 illustrates the death and resurrection concept presented in the book.<\/p>\n
Figure 2. Death and Resurrection in 2 Maccabees.<\/p>\n
However, it is unclear from the book if God will measure out all the punishment on the wicked in this world or if there will be any additional future punishment for the dead after their a painful death (2 Macc. 7:19, 31, 34\u201335; 9:5\u201312, 28).<\/p>\n
3. Wisdom of Solomon<\/p>\n
The Wisdom of Solomon is a pseudepigraphic work originally written in Greek, most likely by a pious Alexandrian Jew. Due to lack of historical references in this book, scholars have not reached a consensus regarding its dating. David Winston believes the book could have been written anywhere between 220 BCE and 100 CE. However, deSilva observes that \u201cthe terminus a quo is set by the author\u2019s use of the Greek translation of Isaiah, Job, and Proverbs, the first of which was probably available by 220 BCE. The terminus ad quem is set by the evident use of the work by several New Testament authors.\u201d The many thematic parallels between Wisdom and Paul\u2019s letter to the Romans, which was written no later than 58 CE, have led scholars to argue that Paul was familiar with this book. Accordingly, he argues that Wisdom was written no later than the letter to the Romans. Be that as it may, deSilva believes that the most likely period for this literary composition would be during the early phases of the Roman Empire, when they started to dominate Egypt.
\nThe Wisdom of Solomon is a rhetorical work which was most likely addressed to the faithful Jews of Alexandria who were struggling against the pressure of assimilating into the dominant pagan culture. It uses Greek philosophical rhetoric in an attempt to show the superiority of the Jewish wisdom, ethics, and philosophy\u2014the Jewish way of life. The book makes a strong case that Jewish wisdom is superior to Greco-Roman philosophy (Wis. 6\u201319) in that the righteous Jews, who are persecuted by the wicked, will be vindicated and rewarded by God (3:1\u20139; 5:15\u201316) and will, in turn, condemn the wicked (4:16). In the final judgment at the end of days, the unrighteous will have to acknowledge that they were wrong in their ways (3:10\u201313a; 4:18\u20135:14).
\nThis composition is heavily influenced by words and concepts from the TaNaKh, assuming that the reader is well versed in the Jewish Scriptures. It draws on passages like the Suffering Servant of Isaiah 52\u201353; Lady Wisdom of Proverbs 8; Solomon\u2019s prayer in 1 Kgs 3:3\u20139; the anti-idolatry passage of Isaiah 40\u201355; Psalms\u2014especially the Messianic psalm of Psalm 2; and relevant passages from Genesis, the Exodus\/Wilderness narrative, Numbers, and Daniel.<\/p>\n
a. Literary Structure<\/p>\n
The following section will take a closer look at the textual references and allusions found at the chiastic center of the eschatological segment of the book, especially Wis. 3:1\u201313a which deals with the question of theodicy and reveals the ultimate destiny of the righteous and the ungodly. Following is a suggested outline of the Wisdom of Solomon showing a three-part structure. It should be noted that Wisdom 6 functions as a bridge between the first section (Wis. 1\u20135) and the second section of the outline (Wis. 7\u201310), summarizing and concluding the former and introducing the themes of the latter. The key text for this study, Wis. 3:1\u201313a, has been highlighted in grey. Wisdom 10 also functions as a bridge chapter, linking the second section (Wis. 6\u20139) and the third section (Wis. 11\u201319) of the structure. It begins by expanding on Wis. 9:18, giving examples of people who were saved by wisdom. By the beginning of Wisdom 11, the composition has moved naturally \u201cfrom speaking about Wisdom\u2019s acts in the third person to adopting the form of a confession of God\u2019s work in the second person.\u201d<\/p>\n
I. Book of Eschatology (1:1\u20136:21)
\nA Addressed to rulers, enjoining pursuit of wisdom (1:1\u201315)
\nB Speech of the ungodly (1:16\u20132:24)
\na. Introduction to the speech of the wicked (1:16\u20132:1a)
\nb. Speech of the wicked: an analysis (2:1b\u201320)
\nc. Conclusion to the speech of the wicked (2:21\u201324)
\nC Contrasts between the just and the impious (3:1\u20134:20) First diptych: The just\/the wicked (3:1\u201312)
\nSecond diptych: Sterile woman\/the eunuch vs. generation of the wicked (3:13\u201319)
\nThird diptych: Praise of virtue vs. useless fruit of the wicked (4:1\u20136)
\nFourth diptych: Premature death of the just youth vs. the wicked (4:7\u201320)
\nB\u2032 Speech of the ungodly (5:1\u201323)
\na. Introduction of the scene of judgment (5:1\u20133)
\nb. Speech of the impious\u2014confesses guilt (5:4\u201313 [14])
\nc. Conclusion of the scene of judgment (5:[14]15\u201323)
\nA\u2032 Addressed to rulers, enjoining pursuit of wisdom (6:1\u201321)
\nKings are exhorted to understand and to learn (6:1\u20138)
\nThe positive motives for learning wisdom (6:9\u201321)
\nII. Praise of Wisdom (6:1\u201310:21)
\nA. Kings should seek wisdom (6:1\u201311)
\nB. Description of wisdom (6:12\u201325)
\nC. How to obtain wisdom (7:1\u201322a)
\nD. The nature of wisdom (7:22b\u20138:1)
\nE. The search for wisdom with her benefits (8:2\u201316)
\nF. The prayer for wisdom (8:17\u20139:18)
\nIII. Homiletic Exposition of Biblical History (10:1\u201319:22)
\nA. Role of wisdom in Israel\u2019s early history (10:1\u201321)
\nB1. Seven antitheses associated with the Exodus (11:1\u201314; 16:1\u201319:22) First: Water\/thirst (11:1\u201314)
\nC. Theological reflection on God\u2019s justice and mercy (11:15\u201312:27)
\na. Punishment of the wicked (11:15\u201320)
\nb. God is powerful and merciful (11:21\u201312:2)
\nc. Sins of the Canaanites (12:3\u201311)
\nd. Sovereignty and mercy of God (12:12\u201318)
\ne. God\u2019s lessons for Israel (12:19\u201322)
\nf. Punishment of the Egyptians (12:23\u201327)
\nD. Excursus on idolatry (13:1\u201315:19)
\na. Nature worship (13:1\u20139)
\nb. Foolishness of idolatry (13:10\u201314:11)
\nc. Origin and Evils of idolatry (14:12\u201331)
\nd. Worship of God vs. idolatry (15:1\u201319)
\nB2. Second: Animals\/suffering (16:1\u20134)
\nThird: Plagues\u2014God has power over life and death (16:5\u201314)
\nFourth: Curse\/blessing from heaven (16:15\u201329)
\nFifth: Darkness\/light (17:1\u201318:4)
\nSixth: Death (18:5\u201325)
\nSeventh: Red Sea (19:1\u201322)
\nE. Concluding observation (19:22)<\/p>\n
To gain a proper understanding of this crucial passage, it is important to view it in its literary context. As has already be noted, it is located in the middle of the chiastic structure (C) of the first section of the book (see the outline and Table 8), enveloped by two speeches of the ungodly (B-B\u2032), which parallel each other in a chiastic way. Both speeches have an introduction (B-a\/B\u2032-a\u2032) and a conclusion reflecting upon the reasoning of the speech (B-c\/B\u2032-c\u2032). The first speech reveals the \u201cperception on life\u201d held by the wicked (Wis. 2, B-b) while in the second speech they recognize their flawed thinking and admit that the righteous were indeed right in their ways (Wis. 5, B\u2032-b\u2032) and are truly the children of God (Wis. 2:13, 17\u201318 vs. 5:5). The core assumption affecting their \u201cperception on life\u201d is the fatalistic view that death is the ultimate end for everyone: \u201cFor our allotted time is the passing of a shadow, and there is no return from our death because it is sealed up and no one turns back\u201d (Wis. 2:5, NRSV).<\/p>\n
Table 8. The chiastic structure of the Book of Eschatology<\/p>\n
A Exhortation to righteousness (1:1\u201315)
\nB-a Introduction (1:16\u20132:1a)
\nA\u2032 Seek Wisdom (6:1\u201321)
\nB\u2032-a\u2032 Introduction (5:1\u20133)
\nB-b1
\n2:1b\u20135
\n5:9\u201313
\nB\u2032-b1\u2032
\nB-b2
\n2:6\u201311
\n5:4\u20135
\nB\u2032-b2\u2032
\nB-b3
\n2:12\u201320
\n5:6\u20138
\nB\u2032-b3\u2032
\nB-c Concluding remark (2:21\u201324)
\nB\u2032-c\u2032 Concluding remark (5:14\u201323)
\nC<\/p>\n
It is the central message of the chiastic structure (C) that changes the attitude the wicked have toward the righteous and changes their perception. It reveals that death is not the end of life. As such, the reasoning of the wicked was based merely on present appearance while the reasoning of the righteous was shown to be correct since theirs was based on the hope of a future reality. However, in the composition, this revelation comes too late since it occurs during the final judgment at the end of days. At that point it is too late for the wicked to change their ways to avoid the judgment and to gain the reward given to the righteous. Nevertheless, it is not too late for the reader of the book to change her\/her ways or to continue on the path of righteousness.
\nThis is the framing message of the opening and concluding units (A-A\u2032) of the chiastic structure addressed to kings and rulers (Wis. 1:1\u201315 and 6:1\u201321). The reader is encouraged to seek God and love righteousness (1:1\u20132; 6:1) so that His wisdom will dwell in them (1:4\u20135; 6:16). It also reveals that righteousness is associated with immortality (Wis. 1:15) and that every human being will be held accountable for their deeds (1:6\u201311; 6:1\u201311). The relationship between wisdom, God, good deeds, and immortality is nicely united in the concluding summary (6:18\u201320):<\/p>\n
The beginning of wisdom is the most sincere desire for instruction,
\nand concern for instruction is love of her,
\nand love for her is the keeping of her laws,
\nand giving heed to her laws is assurance of immortality,
\nand immortality brings one near to God;
\nso the desire for wisdom leads to a kingdom. (My emphasis added)<\/p>\n
Death, on the other hand, was not a part of God\u2019s original creative work (Wis. 1:13\u201314), but entered God\u2019s creation due to the deeds of the wicked (1:12) and the envy of the devil (2:24). Accordingly, the question of life and death is based on God\u2019s evaluation of a person\u2019s character and with which higher-power one is associated (2:24 vs. 3:1). The reward for a righteous life is immortality while death is the outcome of the wicked.
\nThe first six chapters of the Wisdom of Solomon describe an interesting journey for the righteous: the righteous\u2019 worldview is questioned by the wicked \u2192 they are persecuted and martyred by the wicked \u2192 they are vindicated by God \u2192 they will judge the wicked \u2192 the wicked will have to admit that their worldview was wrong. With this background in mind, this study will turn to the key passage of Wis. 3:1\u201313a, the turning point of the chiastic structure.<\/p>\n
b. Wisdom of Solomon 3:1\u201313a<\/p>\n
The turning point of the chiastic structure reveals that the wicked were wrong in their assumption that death is the ultimate end for everyone and counters: \u201cBut the souls of the righteous (\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76) are in the hand of God, and no torment will ever touch them\u201d (Wis. 3:1). The contrast could not be made clearer. The wicked did not have any hope for a future (2:1\u20135), while the righteous considered themselves a child of God (2:13) and hoped for immortality (2:16; 3:4). The wicked believed that since the God of the righteous did not protect \u201cHis children\u201d from their torturous hands and let them die (2:17\u201320), it proved that the righteous were wrong in their claim and hope in immortality. However, the wicked \u201cdid not know the secret purpose of God, nor \u2026 the wages of holiness, nor \u2026 the prize for blameless souls\u201d (2:22). They thought the righteous were dead and that they were right in not believing in life after death. However, the author reveals that the righteous were only seemingly dead. In reality, they were protected by God and would still receive the hoped-for immortality (3:1\u20134).
\nNickelsburg notes that \u201cit is commonly observed that the Wisdom of Solomon teaches immortality of the soul rather than resurrection of the body\u201d and, as such, no bodily resurrection is required for the posthumous judgment since the soul continues to live separately from the body and can be judged by itself. In contrast, Wright argues that \u2018immortality\u2019 and \u2018resurrection\u2019 beliefs are not necessarily mutually exclusive since it all depends on how \u201cimmortality\u201d is understood. The word \u201cimmortality\u201d by itself \u201csimply means \u2018a state in which death is not possible\u2019 \u2026 [resurrection being] one form or type of \u2018immortality.\u2019 \u201d He reasons that a resurrection belief also needs to take into consideration the period between \u201cphysical death\u201d and \u201cthe physical re-embodiment of resurrection,\u201d adding that it would be natural to believe \u201cin an intermediate state in which some kind of personal identity was guaranteed.\u201d This is the sense of immortality presented in Wis. 3:1\u201310.
\nWright makes a strong case that \u201cWisdom 3.1\u201310 offers a two-stage description of what happens after the death of the \u2018righteous\u2019: a story in which the present existence \u2018in the hand of God\u2019 [3:1\u20134] is merely the prelude to what is about to happen [in 3:7\u201310] \u2026 a further event which follows upon the state described in verses 1\u20134\u201d (see Table 9). His case is based on the key phrase, \u1f21 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u1f76\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2, \u201ctheir hope is full of immortality\u201d (3:4b), which suggests that they have not yet received the hoped for immortality. As mentioned earlier, although \u201cGod created us for incorruption, and made us in the image of his own eternity\u201d (2:22\u201323), immortality is no longer a given and as such is not inherent in a person, but is the reward given to a person by God (1:15; 6:17\u201320) whom he has tested and deemed just (3:5\u20136).<\/p>\n
Table 9. Two phases of life after death<\/p>\n
Verses
\nLXT\/LXX
\nNRSV
\nRIGHTEOUS
\nPHASE 1
\n1\u20134
\n1\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f05\u03c8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b2\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2
\n1But the souls of the righteous are in the hand of God,
\nand no torment will ever touch them.
\n2\u1f14\u03b4\u03bf\u03be\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5\u03b8\u03bd\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7 \u03ba\u03ac\u03ba\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f21 \u1f14\u03be\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd
\n2In the eyes of the foolish they seemed to have died,
\nand their departure was thought to be a disaster [Wis. 4:17; 5:4 | Lk. 9:31],
\n3\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u1f00\u03c6\u02bc \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1, \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u03ad \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u1fc3
\n3and their going from us to be their destruction;
\nbut they are at peace.
\n4\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f44\u03c8\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd
\n4For though in the sight of others
\nthey were punished,
\n\u1f21 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u1f76\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2
\ntheir hope is full of immortality
\n[Rom. 8:24; 2 Cor. 5:1].
\nEXPLANATION
\n5\u20136
\n5\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f40\u03bb\u03af\u03b3\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03c5\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b7\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03af\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f57\u03c1\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03be\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6
\n5Having been disciplined a little, they will receive great good,
\nbecause God tested them and found them worthy of himself [Exod. 15:25; | Heb. 12:11];
\n6\u1f61\u03c2 \u03c7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c7\u03c9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 \u1f10\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f41\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03c1\u03c0\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03b4\u03ad\u03be\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2
\n6like gold in the furnace he tried them,
\nand like a sacrificial burnt offering he accepted them [Prov. 17:3 | 2 Esd. 16:73; | Rom. 12:1; 1 Pet. 1:7].
\nPHASE 2
\n7\u20139
\n7\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03bc\u03c8\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c0\u03b9\u03bd\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03bc\u1fc3 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9
\n7In the time of their visitation they will shine forth [Dan. 12:3 | Mt. 13:43], and will run like sparks through the stubble [Isa. 5:24; Obad. 18].
\n8\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03bb\u03b1\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2
\n8They will govern nations and rule over peoples,
\nand the Lord will reign over them forever [Dan. 7:18, 22 | Sir. 4:15; 1QpHab 5,4 1 Cor. 6:2\u20133].
\n9\u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b8\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u02bc \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u1fc3 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6
\n9Those who trust in him will understand truth,
\nand the faithful will abide with
\nhim in love, because grace and
\nmercy are upon his holy ones,
\nand he watches over his elect
\n[Wis. 2:20; 4:15 | Jn 15:10].
\nWICKED
\nDESTINY
\n10\u201313a
\n10\u039f\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf \u1f15\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f00\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2
\n10But the ungodly will be punished as their reasoning deserves,
\nthose who disregarded the righteous and rebelled against the Lord [Prov. 1:24\u201331];
\n11\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f41 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03af\u03c0\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u1f74 \u1f21 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u1f76\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f00\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd
\n11for those who despise wisdom and instruction are miserable.
\nTheir hope is vain, their labors are unprofitable, and their works are useless.
\n12\u03b1\u1f31 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03ba\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f04\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b7\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70
\n12Their wives are foolish, and their children evil [Sir. 41:5];
\n\u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd
\n13atheir offspring are accursed [Isa. 54:1 | Wis. 12:11].<\/p>\n
Wisdom 3:5\u20136 is introduced by an aorist passive participle (\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03c5\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2), reflecting on the hardship the righteous suffered by the hand of the wicked (2:12\u201320) while still living in their earthly bodies. The great secret which the wicked did not know (2:22; 4:17) was that their persecution of the righteous functioned as God\u2019s testing tool, and that the martyrdom of the righteous was accepted like an atoning sacrifice (3:6). The wicked thought that they had proven the righteous wrong when the righteous died and viewed the destruction as a punishment (3:1\u20134a), but they had been blinded by their wickedness (2:21). In reality, it was the willingness of the righteous to suffer and die for God\u2019s law which made them into children of the Lord, \u03c0\u03b1\u1fd6\u03b4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\/\u03c5\u1f31\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\/\u03c5\u1f31\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 (2:13, 17\u201318; 5:5). This is why they are currently resting in their hope for immortality (3:4b).
\nWisdom 3:7 introduces the second phase by the phrase, \u1f10\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u1fc6\u03c2, \u201cin the time of visitation.\u201d The noun \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03ae, \u201cvisitation,\u201d appears several times throughout the book (Wis. 2:2; 3:13; 4:15; 14:11; 19:15), referring to the day of judgment when God will set things right by condemning the wicked and rewarding the righteous. Wright remarks that it becomes apparent that this second phase introduces new aspects, something different than what has been described in the first phase (Wis. 3:1\u20134). From resting in the hope of immortality (v. 4b) they will now shine forth (\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03bc\u03c8\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, future tense)\u2014alluding to Dan. 12:3 which describes the wise who will shine at the time of the resurrection (\u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03ac\u03bc\u03c8\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd)\u2014and will run like sparks through the stubble, a possible reference to the judgment scene in Isa. 5:24 and Obadiah 18. This, according to Wright, prepares the reader for the judgment scene in the remaining part of the passage (Wis. 3:9\u201313a).
\nWisdom 3:7\u201313a describes the new reality, that the righteous will govern nations and rule over peoples (v. 7a), alluding to the role given to the holy ones of the Most High in Daniel\u2019s eschatological vision (Dan. 7:18, 22). The Wisdom of Solomon expands on this reversal of events by noting that \u201cthe righteous who have died will condemn the ungodly who are living\u201d (Wis. 4:16), \u201cwill stand with great confidence in the presence of those who have oppressed them\u201d (Wis. 5:1), and \u201cwill receive a glorious crown and a beautiful diadem from the hand of the Lord\u201d (Wis. 5:15).
\nThe wicked, on the other hand, will acknowledge their mistake (Wis. 5), be judged by God and the righteous (Wis. 3:10\u20133; 4:16), and are \u201cpunished as their reasoning deserves\u201d (Wis. 3:10), suggesting that they, like the righteous, are also going to be proven right in their assumption. However, instead of allying themselves with life-giving righteousness, they made a covenant with death, assuming that:<\/p>\n
there is no remedy when a life comes to its end \u2026 [and that the hereafter] shall be as though we had never been, for the breath in our nostrils is smoke, and reason is a spark kindled by the beating of our hearts; when it is extinguished, the body will turn to ashes, and the spirit will dissolve like empty air. Our name will be forgotten in time, and no one will remember our works; our life will pass away like the traces of a cloud, and be scattered like mist that is chased by the rays of the sun and overcome by its heat. For our allotted time is the passing of a shadow, and there is no return from our death, because it is sealed up and no one turns back (Wis. 2:1\u20135).<\/p>\n
Nickelsburg suggests that the chronology of C-B\u2032 is not quite clear and that it is therefore difficult to determine whether the wicked will experience a single judgment or a double judgment (like the righteous), the first by God (to determine which category they would fall into\u2014wicked or righteous\u2014suggested by Wis. 3:13, 18; 4:6) and a second by the righteous in the eschatological judgment (suggested by Wis. 5:17\u201323). This would also require a resurrection of the wicked, but this resurrection is for judgment and damnation. Regardless, after the wicked have been condemned by the righteous at the close of the judgment, \u201cthey will become dishonored corpses, and an outrage among the dead forever\u201d (Wis. 4:18).
\nThe author of Wisdom of Solomon seems to have based his eschatological understanding of life after death on a close reading and interpretation of Daniel 7 and 12. Daniel 12:1 refers to a time of great tribulations \u201csuch has never has occurred since nations came into being\u201d (CSB), paralleling the great persecution of the righteous suffered by the hand of the wicked (Wis. 2). However, God will protect his people whose names are written in the book (Dan. 12:1) in the same way as he will protect his children (Wis. 3:1). Daniel 12:2 refers to the resurrection to eternal life (for the righteous) and to shame and eternal contempt (for the wicked), paralleling the resurrection of the righteous (Wis. 3:7; 4:16; 5:1) and a possible resurrection of the wicked at the second judgment (Wis. 5:17\u201323) to become \u201cdishonored corpses and an outrage among the dead forever\u201d (Wis. 4:18). The reference in Dan. 12:3 to the wise who will shine finds its parallel in Wis. 3:7, when the righteous will shine forth\u2014resurrect. At this point, the author of Wisdom interpolates the eschatological judgment scene from Daniel 7 into his composition (Wis. 3:8) to reveal that the righteous will receive God\u2019s kingdom (Dan. 7:18, 22 || Wis. 3:8) and suggests that, as rulers, they will also judge the wicked (Wis. 4:16; 5:15\u201316). The author concludes the passage by focusing on the destiny of the wicked (Wis. 3:10\u201313a). It should be noted that Wis. 3:5\u20136, the intermediate period between the righteous death and later bodily resurrection, could have been extrapolated from the concluding words of the book of Daniel, which states, \u201cBut as for you [Daniel], go on your way to the end; you will rest [die], then rise [resurrect] to your destiny [of the righteous, the wise] at the end of the day\u201d (Dan. 12:13, CSB), referring to the event of Dan. 12:2\u20133.
\nAlthough Dan. 12:1\u20133 may not be clear on whether it describes a universal resurrection or a limited resurrection for only some (the wise and the most wicked), it leaves little doubt that all the people who are written in the book will partake in the resurrection of the righteous. The same is the case in the book of Wisdom. An argument could be made that the righteous described in Wisdom 3 are those who suffered martyrdom in Wisdom 2 and that their persecutors are the wicked. However, the message of the book is clear\u2014that whoever loves righteousness (Wis. 1:1\u20132), pursues wisdom, and observes God\u2019s law would gain immortality (Wis. 1:15; 6:17\u201320). Death, on the other hand, only entered the world due to the devil\u2019s envy (Wis. 2:24) and wicked deeds (Wis. 2 and 5). As such, it would be reasonable to conclude that the resurrection described in Wisdom 3 would at least include all the righteous, regardless of whether they died as a martyr.
\nIt is interesting to note the strong links observed by deSilva between the Servant Song of Isaiah 52\u201353 and the eschatological section of Wisdom 2\u20134 (Table 10), since 2 Maccabees contains parallels to the Servant Song (see discussion above). However, deSilva notes the lack of a sacrificial death of the righteous on behalf of the people that was so crucial in understanding the universalistic and individualistic function of martyrdom in 2 Macc. 7:37\u201338, which profited both the people of Israel and the individual martyr. In Wisdom, the martyrdom only carries an individualistic function, only profiting the martyr (Wis. 3:5\u20136), guaranteeing their eternal life.<\/p>\n
Table 10. Parallels between Isaiah 52\u201353 and the Wisdom of Solomon 2\u20134<\/p>\n
Isaiah 52\u201353
\nWisdom 2\u20134
\nTheme
\n53:2
\n2:12, 16, 18
\nThe righteous is described as a child of God
\n53:7\u20139
\n2:19\u201320
\nThe righteous suffers heroically
\n53:4, 11\u201312
\n52:13\u201315
\n2:2\u20133
\n5:1\u20132
\nThe wicked perceived the death of the righteous as dishonorable
\n53:6
\n5:4\u20136
\nThe wicked confess that they were wrong
\n54:1
\n3:13
\nUndefiled barren woman
\n56:4\u20135
\n3:14\u20134:15
\nThe righteous eunuch<\/p>\n
c. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
The Wisdom of Solomon presents a belief in a bodily resurrection which also addresses the intermediate period between the death of the righteous and his\/her resurrection (Wis. 3:1\u20134, 7\u20139). In the book, immortality is attained through wisdom and righteousness (Wis. 6:17\u201320) and is therefore not innate in a preexistent soul as it is in Platonic immortality. As such, a wicked person will not experience immortality in which he\/she will be tormented in Hell; instead, his\/her destiny will be as he\/she had already assumed\u2014non-existence (Wis. 2; 5). The Wisdom of Solomon, however, does not reveal the nature of existence while the soul is in God\u2019s hands (Wis. 3:1), if the soul is conscious or unconscious\u2014merely being stored for safekeeping until the day of resurrection (Wis. 3:7). The text is not very clear either when it comes to chronology\u2014that is, whether the wicked will also experience a dual-judgment which would entitle them to a resurrection, but one resulting in damnation. The references and allusions to the eschatological passages of Daniel 7 and 12 seem to support the latter. Additionally, it also lends scriptural support for the concept of an intermediate period between death and resurrection (Wis. 3:1\u20134 || Dan. 12:2\u20133, 13), judgment of the wicked and righteous (Wis. 3:5\u20136, 13, 18; 4:6; 5:17\u201323 || Dan. 7:18, 22), and the reward of taking possession of the kingdom (Wis. 5:15\u201316 || Dan. 7:18, 22). Finally, the Wisdom of Solomon adds that the righteous will judge the wicked (Wis. 4:16). Figure 3 illustrates the death and resurrection concept presented in the book.<\/p>\n
Figure 3. Death and Resurrection in Wisdom of Solomon.<\/p>\n
4. 2 Esdras<\/p>\n
2 Esdras, the title used in the English Apocrypha, is an apocalyptic book consisting of three separate compositions which has added to the confusion surrounding the terminology of the books associated with Ezra (see Table 11). The longest section of 2 Esdras (chs. 3\u201314), also known as 4 Ezra in the Pseudepigrapha, is the oldest and was probably composed in Hebrew\/Aramaic in the late first century by a Palestinian Jew. Written about three decades after the failed Jewish revolt which resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple, the writer addresses the problem of theodicy. He notes that the observable world does not fit with the Jewish world view which adheres to the deuteronomistic principle, God\u2019s justice, and Israel\u2019s election. Only by viewing the devastating events of his days through apocalyptic eyes, was he able to \u201creaffirm the observance of the Torah as the path to life and salvation.\u201d This monograph, in its discussion, will refer to the Jewish section of this literary composition as 4 Ezra.<\/p>\n
Table 11. Titles given to books associated with Ezra<\/p>\n
Date
\nHebrew Bible
\nLXX
\nVulgate
\nEnglish w\/ Apocrypha
\nc. 400 BCE
\nEzra-Nehemiah
\n2 Esdras
\n1 Esdras
\n2 Esdras
\nBook of Ezra
\nBook of Nehemiah
\n2nd cent. BCE
\n1st\u20133rd cent. CE
\n1 Esdras
\n\u2013
\n3 Esdras
\n4 Esdras
\n1 Esdras
\n2 Esdras
\n1 Ezra
\nEzra-Nehemiah of the Hebrew Bible
\n2 Ezra\/5 Ezra
\n4 Esdras (Vulgate)
\n= 2 Esdras (Eng. Apocrypha) chs. 1\u20132
\n3 Ezra
\n1 Esdras (LXX)
\n= 3 Esdras (Vulgate) = 1 Esdras (Eng. Apocrypha)
\n4 Ezra
\n4 Esdras (Vulgate)
\n= 2 Esdras (Eng. Apocrypha) chs. 3\u201314
\n5 Ezra\/6
\nEzra 4 Esdras (Vulgate)
\n= 2 Esdras (Eng. Apocrypha) chs. 15\u201316<\/p>\n
The prologue and epilogue of 2 Esdras, chs. 1\u20132 and 15\u201316, also known as 2 Ezra\/5 Ezra and 5 Ezra\/6 Ezra (see Table 11), are two Christian texts, originally written in Greek, which were probably added to the Jewish composition in the mid-second century and the mid-third century respectively. The prologue provides a Jewish-Christian response to the cataclysmic events of the second Jewish revolt (the Bar Kochba revolt) in 135 CE\u2014the persecutions of the Jews and the destruction of Jerusalem\u2014by promoting a replacement theology. The Christian writer proposes that God has rejected the Jewish people and replaced them with a new people who are willing to adhere to the covenant (2 Esd. 1:24\u201327, 33\u201340; 2:10\u201314). The epilogue provides a renewed conclusion to the Jewish apocalypse, to update and make the whole composition more relevant for the Christian community. According to deSilva, the appendix was to \u201cencourage the Christians to persevere in their loyalty to God \u2026 [making it clear that although] renunciation of God and the Messiah could lead to relief in this life,\u201d it would not be an advisable course of action since only the faithful will be delivered on the day of tribulations.
\nThe following outline of 2 Esdras shows the Christian prologue (chs. 1\u20132), epilogue (chs. 15\u201316), and the Jewish Ezra apocalypse (chs. 3\u201314). The Jewish composition consists of seven parts: the first three (parts 1\u20133) record the dialogue between Ezra and Uriel; the second set of three (parts 4\u20136) contains three prophetic visions with interpretations; and the final section (part 7) contains a record of God\u2019s commission of Ezra and a description of his work as a restorer of Scriptures\u2014a new Moses. The first half of the composition is spurred by Ezra\u2019s grave doubts regarding the question of theodicy (similar to the book of Job), since he had lost confidence in God\u2019s justice and the value or even the possibility of upholding the law\/covenant. In this sense, Ezra focuses on the present and observable reality while Uriel and God, although not addressing Ezra\u2019s questions and concerns directly, expose him to a much larger perspective by introducing the eschatological future and help him see the issues from God\u2019s perspective.
\nThe fourth part of the composition (2 Esd. 9:26\u201310:59), the Mourning Woman vision (the first vision), reveals that Ezra has internalized God\u2019s perspective when he tries to comfort the weeping woman, who turns out to be a symbolic representation of Zion (2 Esd. 10:41\u201350). The key element of Ezra\u2019s words of comfort is his strong belief in the resurrection: \u201cFor if you acknowledge the decree of God to be just, you will receive your son back in due time, and will be praised among women\u201d (2 Esd. 10:16). This summarizes the divine argument and the greater perspective presented in the book, that God is just, and His covenant is still relevant since there will be a resurrection when all the wrongs will be put right. With this new perspective, Ezra is ready to receive the vision of the second half of the book.<\/p>\n
I. Christian Introduction (chs. 1\u20132)
\nIntroduction (1:1\u201311)
\nGod\u2019s mercies to Israel (1:12\u201323)
\nIsrael\u2019s disobedience and rejection (1:24\u201340)
\nGod\u2019s judgment of Israel (2:1\u201314)
\nExhortation to good work (2:15\u201332)
\nEzra on Mount Horeb (2:33\u201341)
\nEzra sees the Son of God (2:42\u201348)
\nII. The Ezra Apocalypse (3\u201314)
\n1. First Dialogue (3:1\u20135:19)
\na. Introduction (3:1\u20133)
\nb. Before Ezra\u2019s address (3:4\u201336)
\nc. Dialogue between Uriel and Ezra (4:1\u201325)
\nd. Ezra\u2019s questions about the future (4:26\u201352)
\ne. The signs (5:1\u201320)
\n2. Second Dialogue (5:21\u20136:34)
\na. Introduction (5:21\u201322)
\nb. Before Ezra\u2019s address (5:23\u201330)
\nc. Dialogue between Uriel and Ezra (5:31\u201340)
\nd. Ezra\u2019s question about the future (5:41\u20136:10)
\ne. The signs (6:11\u201334)
\n3. Third Dialogue (6:35\u20139:25)
\na. Introduction (6:35\u201337)
\nb. Ezra\u2019s address (6:38\u201359)
\nc1. Dialogue between Uriel and Ezra (7:1\u201325)
\nGod\u2019s prediction (7:26\u201344)
\nDialogue between God and Ezra (7:45\u201374)
\nPrediction (7:75\u2013115)
\nc. 2. Dialogue between Ezra and Uriel (7:116\u20138:3)
\nEzra\u2019s prayers (8:4\u201336)
\nd. Ezra\u2019s questions about the future (8:37\u201362a)
\ne. The signs (8:62b\u20139:25)
\n4. Mourning Woman Vision (9:26\u201310:59)
\n1. Ezra\u2019s address (9:26\u201337)
\n2. Ezra\u2019s vision of the mourning woman (9:38\u201310:28)
\n3. Interpretation (10:29\u201359)
\n5. Eagle and Lion Vision (10:60\u201312:51)
\n1.
\n2. Ezra\u2019s dream (11:1\u201312:3a)
\n3. Interpretation (12:3b\u201351)
\n6. Man from the Sea Vision (13:1\u201358)
\n1.
\n2. Ezra\u2019s dream (13:1\u201313a)
\n3. Interpretation (13:13b\u201358)
\n7. Ezra the Scribe (14:1\u201348)
\nGod\u2019s final instruction to Ezra || Moses (14:1\u201318)
\nEzra\u2019s work as a Scribe (14:19\u201348)
\nIII. Christian Conclusion (15\u201316)
\nVengeance on the wicked (15:1\u201327)
\nGod\u2019s judgment of the nations (15:28\u201316:17)
\nHorror of the Last Days (16:18\u201334)
\nGod\u2019s people must prepare for the end (16:35\u201350)
\nPower and wisdom of God (16:51\u201367)
\nImpending persecution of God\u2019s people (16:68\u201373)
\nPromise of Divine deliverance (16:74\u201378)<\/p>\n
Michael Stone proposes that the three symbolic visions (parts 4\u20136) provide the answers to the questions raised by Ezra in the dialogues of the first half of the book. The visions, he suggests, function in a similar way as the short revelations at the end of each dialogue in that they open \u201cthe path to the resolution of the issues raised\u201d in the question. He concludes: \u201cIt follows from this, and it is notable, that the questions asked, apparently in the form of learned dialogue, are answered by the revelatory symbolic visions.\u201d
\nThe highlighted sections of the literary structure of 2 Esdras illustrate how prevalent and integrated the resurrection belief (implied and stated) is in the book (see the outline). Table 25 in Appendix A gives a list of the individual resurrection passages and their classifications while the anthology following this list provides their full context. Based on Table 25, it becomes apparent that most of the resurrection statements are clustered in Ezra\u2019s third dialogue. Comparing the Christian resurrection passages found in the prologue with those found in the older Jewish composition, it also becomes apparent that the resurrection belief carries a different function in the Christian composition.
\nAs already noted, the Christian prologue presents a supersessionistic interpretation of the cataclysmic events provoked by the failed Bar Kochba revolt. The author considers the crushing and humiliating defeat suffered by the Jews as proof that they were no longer God\u2019s special people due to their disobedience (2 Esd. 1:24\u20132:14, 33). Instead, he argues, the special status (2 Esd. 1:24), glory, and all the promises previously given have now been transferred to the Christians (2 Esd. 1:24; 2:10\u201313), a new people who will follow God\u2019s shepherd (the Messiah; 2 Esd. 2:34, 43, 46\u201347) and fulfill the law of the Lord (2 Esd. 2:40). In this theological exposition, bodily resurrection is a part of the rewards transferred to the new people of God who will receive glorious garments, be crowned, and receive everlasting habitation in His kingdom, enjoying all the benefits from the Tree of Life (2 Esd. 2:11\u201312, 18\u201319, 34\u201335, 39, 43, 45). As such, this prologue provides a rather basic resurrection concept, showing no interest in the intermediate phase between death and resurrection nor an awareness of a soul that can exist separately from the body. It only reveals that the righteous will not see hell\/Gehenna (2 Esd. 2:29), but will, instead, be brought out from their tombs (2 Esd. 2:16)\u2014the hiding places of the earth (2 Esd. 2:31).
\nIn contrast, the Jewish apocalypse gives a detailed description of the state of the dead (Table 12) and a detailed eschatology time-line (Fig. 4), revealing that the bodily resurrection introduces the third era. Segal remarks that 4 Ezra resembles \u201cnothing so much as a primer about life after death.\u201d Figure 5 illustrates the death and resurrection concept presented in 4 Ezra.<\/p>\n
Table 12. The state of the dead (4 Ezra 7:81\u201387, 92\u201398)<\/p>\n
Wicked
\nRighteous
\n1
\nThey have scorned the law of the Most High (81).
\nThey have striven with great effort to overcome the evil thought that was formed with them (92).
\n2
\nThey cannot now make a good repentance (82).
\nThey see the perplexity in which the souls of the ungodly wander and the punishment that awaits them (93).
\n3
\nThey shall see the reward laid up for those who have trusted the covenants of the Most High (83).
\nThey see the witness that he who formed them bears concerning them, that throughout their life they kept the law with which they were entrusted (94).
\n4
\nThey shall consider the torment laid up for themselves in the last days (84).
\nThey understand the rest that they now enjoy, being gathered into their chambers and guarded by angels in profound quiet, and the glory waiting for them in the last days (95).
\n5
\nThey shall see how the habitations of the others are guarded by angels in profound quiet (85).
\nThey rejoice that they have now escaped what is corruptible and shall inherit what is to come; and besides they see the straits and toil from which they have been delivered, and the spacious liberty that they are to receive and enjoy in immortality (96).
\n6
\nThey shall see how some of them will cross over into torments (86).
\nThey will see how their faces are to shine like the sun, and how they are to be made like the light of the stars, being incorruptible from then on (97).
\n7
\nThey shall utterly waste away in confusion and be consumed with shame, and shall wither with fear at seeing the glory of the Most High in whose presence they sinned while they were alive, and in whose presence they are to be judged in the last times (87).
\nThey shall rejoice with boldness, and shall be confident without confusion, and shall be glad without fear, for they press forward to see the face of him whom they served in life and from whom they are to receive their reward when glorified (98).<\/p>\n
Figure 4. Three-stage Worldview Presented in 4 Ezra<\/p>\n
Figure 5. Death and Resurrection in 4 Ezra (2 Esd. 3\u201314)<\/p>\n
4 Ezra presents a rather detailed description of death and the future resurrection (see Figs. 4 and 5). It makes clear that it is only a person\u2019s attitude towards God and His law\/covenant which determines that person\u2019s destiny in the eschatological judgment (7:102\u2013115). The text also notes that this bodily resurrection is God\u2019s first act in the renewed world (7:32\u201342; 14:34\u201335), which will follow the temporary Messianic kingdom (which according to 7:28\u201329 lasts 400 years) and the seven-day-long primeval silence (7:30\u201331), when all life, including that of the Messiah, has passed away (see Fig. 4). The three-stage worldview as outlined by Ezra requires two judgments of the dead\u2014a limited (7:75\u2013101) and a universal judgment (5:40; 7:32\u201344). The limited judgment takes place upon a person\u2019s death when God determines whether his\/her soul should be numbered among the righteous or the wicked. The second and universal judgment, which will last \u201ca week of years,\u201d takes place after the resurrection of the renewed world where both the righteous and wicked will receive their destiny, eternal life or eternal destruction (7:87, 95\u201398, 113; 8:1\u20133, 39, 51\u201354).
\n4 Ezra also presents a dualistic view where, upon death, both the righteous and the wicked soul leaves the body, goes back to God, and enters the first phase which will last seven days. During this phase, the righteous and the wicked souls will be made aware of the destiny awaiting them in the day of resurrection and judgment (4 Ezra 7:75\u2013101, see Table 12). At the beginning of the second phase, the soul enters a holding chamber where it will remain until the day of resurrection (4:35\u201337, 41; 7:32, 95, 101). Importantly, the text suggests that the soul will be conscious during both phases (4:35\u201337; 7:75\u2013101). At the time of the bodily resurrection, the soul will re-enter the body and resurrect to the judgment of the righteous and the wicked (see Fig. 5). It should be noted that the renewed earth will be a different world order where there will be no more death or corruption (8:53\u201354). When considering the implicit and explicit resurrection passages in 4 Ezra (see their classification in Table 25 and in the subsequent anthology, in Appendix A, which places these resurrection statements in their larger context), it should not be surprising that both resurrection and judgment are intimately connected in the eschatological expectations of the book. It is only through the retribution of the wicked and the reward of the righteous that provides a satisfying answer to the problem of theodicy and safeguards God\u2019s justice. This is one of the characteristics of apocalyptic literature (see Table 14 and Table 16), and, according to Ezra, resurrection is what makes this universal judgment possible.
\nDeSilva observes the formative role the Jewish Scriptures played for the new apocalyptic revelation presented in 4 Ezra. The most important of these are Genesis (chs. 1\u201311; 15\u201317, especially in the first and third complaint-prayer), Job (focuses on the problem of theodicy), and, according to Ezra himself, the book of Daniel (4 Ezra 12:11\u201312). The two explicit resurrection statements alluding to the TaNaKh in 4 Ezra (see Table 4) allude to Dan. 12:2\u20133 (4 Ezra 7:32; 7:97) and Isa. 26:19 (4 Ezra 7:32).<\/p>\n
a. 4 Ezra 7 (2 Esdras 7)<\/p>\n
4 Ezra 7:26\u201344 gives a detailed eschatological chronology revealing that the \u201ctwo major groupings of associated eschatological ideas\u201d are subsequent eras held together by the \u201cprimeval silence.\u201d The first major grouping, according to Stone, \u201ccenters around the last generation and the increase of evil until its consummation, which is to be followed by the messianic kingdom \u2026 [while] the chief elements of the other are resurrection, judgment, reward, and punishment\u201d (see Fig. 4). In this important eschatological passage, Segal sees evidence of exegesis in which Daniel 7 functions as one of the controlling texts, and the resurrection language of 4 Ezra 7:32, 97, 125 resembles the language of Dan. 12:2\u20133 and Isa. 26:19 (see the highlighted sections and comments in Table 13).<\/p>\n
Table 13. Parallels between the resurrection passages in 4 Ezra 7 and Daniel\/Isaiah<\/p>\n
4 Ezra 7:29\u201335, 97, 125
\nDaniel\/Isaiah
\n29After those years [400 years]my son the Messiah shall die, and all who draw human breath. 30Then the world shall be turned back to primeval silence for seven days, as it was at the first beginnings, so that no one shall be left. 31After seven days the world that is not yet awake shall be roused, and that which is corruptible shall perish.
\nDan. 9:26After those 62 weeks the Messiah will be cut off and will have nothing. The people of the coming prince will destroy the city and the sanctuary. The end will come with a flood, and until the end there will be war; desolations are decreed.
\n32The earth shall give up those who are asleep in it, and the dust those who rest there in silence; and the chambers shall give up the souls that have been committed to them.
\nDan. 12:2Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake, some to eternal life, and some to shame and eternal contempt.
\nIsa. 26:14, 19The dead do not live; departed spirits do not rise up. Indeed, you have visited and destroyed them; you have wiped out all memory of them [the wicked]. 19Your dead will live [the righteous]; their bodies will rise. Awake and sing, you who dwell in the dust! For you will be covered with the morning dew, and the earth will bring out the departed spirits (\u05d5\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05e8\u05b6\u05e5 \u05e8\u05b0\u05e4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05ea\u05b7\u05bc\u05e4\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dc).
\n33The Most High shall be revealed on the seat of judgment, and compassion shall pass away, and patience shall be withdrawn. 34Only judgment shall remain, truth shall stand, and faithfulness shall grow strong. 35Recompense shall follow, and the reward shall be manifested; righteous deeds shall awake, and unrighteous deeds shall not sleep.
\nDan. 7:9As I kept watching, thrones were set in place, and the Ancient of Days took His seat. His clothing was white like snow, and the hair of His head like whitest wool. His throne was flaming fire; its wheels were blazing fire. 10A river of fire was flowing, coming out from His presence. Thousands upon thousands served Him; ten thousand times ten thousand stood before Him. The court was convened, and the books were opened.
\n97The sixth order, when it is shown them [the righteous] how their face is to shine like the sun, and how they are to be made like the light of the stars, being incorruptible from then on.
\n125Or that the faces of those who practiced self-control shall shine more than the stars, but our faces shall be blacker than darkness?
\nDan. 12:3Those who are wise will shine like the bright expanse of the heavens, and those who lead many to righteousness, like the stars forever and ever.<\/p>\n
4 Ezra 7:32 shares several elements with Dan. 12:2 (underlined and highlighted gray in Table 13). Both texts refer to the dead as sleeping. Both texts locate the dead in the same location\u2014in the earth and the dust. However, Dan. 12:2 does not present the dualistic view of 4 Ezra by referring to the souls which are stored in the chambers and will rejoin the body at the moment of resurrection. Interestingly, Isa. 26:19 may allude to this dualistic position. It shares with 4 Ezra 7:32 and Dan. 12:2 the view that the dead are sleeping by noting that they will awake. It also shares the location of the dead, they dwell in the earth and the dust. Isaiah adds an agricultural image, using as a simile of the resurrection the morning dew which covers the earth and causes the plants to sprout. He concludes his statement regarding the resurrection of the righteous by adding an interesting detail, \u05d5\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05e8\u05b6\u05e5 \u05e8\u05b0\u05e4\u05b8\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd \u05ea\u05b7\u05bc\u05e4\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dc, \u201cand the earth will bring out\/give birth to the dead spirits\/ghosts of the dead\/shades.\u201d The noun \u05e8\u05b0\u05e4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd carries the meaning \u201cshades\u201d in eight poetic contexts in the TaNaKh (Isa. 14:9; 26:14, 19; Ps. 88:10; Prov. 2:18; 9:18; 21:16; Job 26:5), while the ethnic Rephaim only appear in historical narrative sections (Gen. 14:5; Deut. 2:11; 2:20 [\u00d72]; 3:13; Josh. 15:8; 18:16; 2 Sam. 5:18, 22; 23:13; Isa. 17:5; 1 Chron. 11:15; 14:9). In these eight cases, the noun parallels or is associated with \u201cthe dead\u201d (\u05de\u05b5\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd), \u201cdeath (\u05de\u05b8\u05d5\u05b6\u05ea), \u201cSheol\u201d (\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05d0\u05d5\u05b9\u05dc), and \u201cdestruction\/Abaddon\u201d (\u05d0\u05b2\u05d1\u05b7\u05d3\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05df). It is noteworthy that Isa. 26:19 mentions both the resurrection of the corpses\/dead bodies (\u05e0\u05b0\u05d1\u05b5\u05dc\u05b8\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d9\u05b0\u05e7\u05d5\u05bc\u05de\u05d5\u05bc\u05df) and the bringing forth of the dead spirits (\u05d5\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05e8\u05b6\u05e5 \u05e8\u05b0\u05e4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05ea\u05b7\u05bc\u05e4\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dc), which may have influenced the author of 4 Ezra to promote his dualistic view in which both the body and soul will be resurrected and joined once more to become a living being.
\nIt should also be noted that the judgment follows the resurrection in both 4 Ezra 7:32 (explicit) and Dan. 12:2 (implicit), although only 4 Ezra clearly states that this judgment will be universal. Both 4 Ezra and Daniel divides the resurrected into two groups, people with righteous deeds and people with unrighteous deeds (4 Ezra 7:33). The first group will awake to eternal life while the other to eternal contempt (Dan. 12:2). The judgment language of 4 Ezra is reminiscent of Dan. 7:9\u201310 (underlined and bolded in Table 13). 4 Ezra refers to the Most High on the seat of judgment, while Daniel refers to the Ancient of Days who takes his seat and opens the books (cf. 4 Ezra 6:20 mentions the books will be opened in the firmament as a warning of the coming judgment) in order to convene the judgment.
\nThe punishment and reward given to the wicked and the righteous as a result of the judgment are expanded upon in the second half of 4 Ezra 7 (see Table 13). The sixth reward foretold to the righteous is directly based on Dan. 12:3 (underlined and italic in Table 12), which promises that they will shine like the sun and be made like the light of the stars (4 Ezra 7:97). 4 Ezra 7:125 takes it even a step further by noting that the faces of the righteous shall shine more than the stars. This may suggest that the righteous will become like angels (cf. Job 38:7) or that the glorified bodies will radiate light as a result of seeing God face to face (4 Ezra 7:98). The latter understanding would be similar to the case of Moses, who had to cover his radiant face after he had spoken to the Lord on Mt. Sinai (MT\/LXX Exod. 34:29\u201335). Both understandings are expressed in the New Testament (be like the angels in heaven [Mt. 22:30; Mk 12:25; Lk. 20:36] and radiate light [Mt. 13:43; 1 Cor. 15:35\u201342]), Pseudepigrapha (e.g. 1 En. 51:4\u20135; 104:2; 2 En. 1:5; 2 Bar. 51:3, 10; Ps.-Philo 12:1; LAE Slov. 18\u201320.11), and early Rabbinic material (e.g. b. Ber. 17a; Sipre Deut. 10 [67a]; Gen. Rab. 20:12; 23:6). As indicated in Table 14, Nickelsburg lists the main elements appearing in the judgment scene of Daniel 12 (the witnesses, the book, the resurrection, and the consequences of the judgment) and shows how these elements also appear in 4 Ezra.<\/p>\n
Table 14. Judgment scenes in apocalyptic literature<\/p>\n
Judgment Scene
\nDan. 12
\nT. Mos. 10
\nJub. 23
\nT. Judah 20, 25
\n1 En. 104
\n4 Ezra 7
\nRev. 12; 20\u201322
\n1. Witness
\nGood Angel
\n1
\n2
\n20:1\u20135
\n1a
\n34\u201335
\n12:7
\nEvil Angel
\n(10:20)
\n1
\n29b
\n20:2
\n12:7
\nHis defeat
\n(11:45)
\n1
\n29b
\n25:3
\n12:8\u20139; 20:2\u20133
\n2. Book
\nof Life
\n1
\n1b
\n20:12b
\nof Deeds
\n20:3
\n7
\n(6:20)
\n20:12ac
\n3. Post-Mortem Judgment
\nThe Good
\n2
\n?
\n31ab
\n25:4
\n(103:3\u20134)
\n32
\n20:12\u201313
\nThe Evil
\n2
\n?
\n(103:7\u20138)
\n32
\n20:12\u201313
\n4. Consequences of Judgment
\nVindication
\n2
\n9
\n30ab
\n25:4\u20135
\n2\u20136
\n36ac
\n21:1\u20137
\nCondemnation
\n2
\n10
\n30\u201331
\n25:5 (? txt.)
\n36bd
\n20:15; 21:8
\nGehenna\/See
\n2
\n10
\n30\u201331
\n36bd?
\nExaltation\/
\n3?
\n20:4\u20136
\nAscension
\n9
\n25:5?
\n2, 4
\nLight Language
\n3
\n2
\n39\u201342
\n21:22\u201325; 22:5
\nStars Angels
\n3?
\n9
\n97, 125<\/p>\n
Source: Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life, 54.<\/p>\n
It becomes apparent that Ezra\u2019s use of Daniel is more than mere exegesis. He is also performing interpretative work, trying to answer the question of theodicy in the aftermath of the destruction of the Temple, the center of Jewish faith. In this attempt, he combined the biblical hope of national restoration, which would introduce the Messianic age, with the apocalyptic hope of an eschatological judgment that would vindicate the righteous by giving them their just reward and punish the wicked for their deeds.
\nUriel finally responds to Ezra\u2019s grave concern regarding the corrupt nature of humans which was caused by Adam (4 Ezra 7:116\u2013118) and which would prevent most people from adhering to God\u2019s covenant, thereby preventing them from being saved and receiving the rewards promised the righteous (see Ezra\u2019s questions in 4 Ezra 7:17, 45\u201348, 62\u201369, 102\u2013103, 106\u2013111, 116\u2013126). Uriel quotes Moses\u2019 words in Deut. 30:19 (4 Ezra 7:129) in support of his response. By this he upholds the validity of the Deuteronomistic principle and the two-way theology (Deut. 28\u201332) by making it clear that each person is able to choose whether he\/she would adhere to God\u2019s covenant and \u201clove the LORD your God, obey Him, and remain faithful to Him\u201d (Deut. 30:20), thereby choosing life (Deut. 30:11\u201320). It is important to note that \u201cUriel\u201d reinterprets Moses\u2019 words from promising a prolonged \u201clife in the land the LORD swore to your fathers Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob [i.e. the Land of Canaan\/Palestine]\u201d (Deut. 30:20) to an eternal life in the world to come. As such, the future-universal-bodily-resurrection becomes an integral part of the promise that \u201cyou and your descendants may live\u201d (Deut. 30:19), and the answer to the question of theodicy discoursed in 4 Ezra. Bodily resurrection becomes the guarantor and the foundation of God\u2019s justice.<\/p>\n
5. Conclusion<\/p>\n
4 Ezra presents a more detailed death and resurrection view than what is seen in the Wisdom of Solomon, 2 Maccabees (compare Figs. 2, 3 and 5), and Sirach, which only reveals that it will happen in the eschatological age. All four books make it clear that a person\u2019s attitude towards God and His law\/covenant determines his\/her destiny, but only 4 Ezra and Wisdom of Solomon reveal that there will be an eschatological judgment (4 Ezra 7:102\u2013115; Wis. 3:5\u20136). In contrast to Sirach and 2 Maccabees, both 4 Ezra and Wisdom of Solomon present a dualistic view where, upon death, the soul leaves the body and goes back to God, although in 4 Ezra the soul seems to be conscious (4 Ezra 4:35\u201337; 7:75\u2013101 and Wis. 3:1\u20134). In 4 Ezra, however, both the wicked and the righteous soul goes back to God as opposed to only the righteous in Wisdom of Solomon. Additionally, 4 Ezra describes two phases of the state of the dead while Wisdom of Solomon only describes one. The first phase, according to Ezra, will only last seven days (4 Ezra 7:101) in which the righteous and the wicked soul will be made aware of the destiny awaiting them in the day of resurrection and judgment (see Table 14). In the second phase, the soul enters a holding chamber where it will remain until the day of resurrection. It should be noted that both 4 Ezra and the Wisdom of Solomon imply a limited judgment of each individual person upon death, to determine whether they should be numbered among the righteous or the wicked. A second and universal judgment takes place after the resurrection. The resurrection belief presented in both texts is a bodily resurrection in which the soul will re-enter the body and resurrect to the judgment of the righteous and the wicked (4 Ezra 7:31\u201344; 14:35; Wis. 2:21\u201322; 3:7\u201313, 18; 4:16, 20\u20135:14). In contrast, Sirach and 2 Maccabees do not show any interest in the intermediate period between death and resurrection. The destiny for each category of humans is the same\u2014eternal life or eternal destruction (4 Ezra 7:87, 95\u201398, 113; 8:1\u20133, 39, 51\u201354; Wis. 2:16\u201320; 3:7\u201313; 5:15\u201316). It is also interesting to note that 4 Ezra, the Wisdom of Solomon, and 2 Maccabees are all indebted to Daniel 12 for their resurrection and eschatological expectations. It should also be noted that both 4 Ezra and the Wisdom of Solomon made references and allusion to Daniel 7. In addition to Daniel, 4 Ezra and 2 Maccabees also refer and allude to Isaiah 26 (2 Macc. 7:23; 4 Ezra 7:32) and to the Deuteronomistic principle of Deuteronomy 28\u201332 (2 Macc. 7:6, 9, 11, 23, 29, 36; 4 Ezra 7:129). Resurrection functions as the answer to the question of theodicy in 2 Maccabees, Wisdom of Solomon, and 4 Ezra.
\nLooking at the resurrection passages found in the Apocrypha, it becomes apparent that the earlier books, Sirach and 2 Maccabees, do not show much interest in the minute details regarding this belief, what happens to a person in the period between his\/her death and resurrection, and what reward and punishment will befall both the righteous and the wicked. The Wisdom of Solomon and 4 Ezra, on the other hand, both become much more detail-oriented in their description of the resurrection hope, where 4 Ezra resembles a primer on the subject. Chapter 3 will look at the resurrection texts found in the Apocalyptic literature of the Pseudepigrapha and the companion volume will consider the remaining literary genres of the Pseudepigrapha to determine whether there is a similar pattern and to determine what texts from the TaNaKh were used, or alluded to, when insinuating or referring to the resurrection belief. Due to the similar nature of the Old Testament Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphical writings, the Summary and Conclusion chapter of the companion volume will provide a combined list of the TaNaKh passages used by these writings.<\/p>\n
Part II<\/p>\n
OLD TESTAMENT PSEUDEPIGRAPHICAL WRITINGS<\/p>\n
The Pseudepigrapha is a \u201ccatch-all\u201d category which includes all the books of the Second Temple Period apart from the Apocrypha, Dead Sea Scrolls, Philo, Josephus, New Testament, and Rabbinic material. This monograph follows the broad definition, or rather description, suggested by James H. Charlesworth:<\/p>\n
Those writings 1) that, with the exception of Ahiqar, are Jewish or Christian; 2) that are often attributed to ideal figures in Israel\u2019s past; 3) that customarily claim to contain God\u2019s word or message; 4) that frequently build upon ideas and narratives present in the Old Testament; 5) and that almost always were composed either during the period 200 B.C. to A.D. 200 or, though late, apparently preserve, albeit in an edited form, Jewish traditions that date from that period.<\/p>\n
The term \u201cPseudepigrapha\u201d comes from the Greek words \u03c8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03ae\u03c2, \u201cfalse,\u201d and \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03ae, \u201cinscription,\u201d referring to books bearing a false inscription. David A. deSilva notes that this term \u201chighlights primarily a literary characteristic of many writings from the Hellenistic and Greco-Roman periods, that is, writings under the assumed name of a great figure from the distant past\u201d; however, he adds that Roman Catholic and Orthodox writers use the term \u201cApocrypha\u201d when referring to this body of literature while many scholars and Jewish writers often use the term \u201coutside books.\u201d
\nLike \u201cApocrypha\u201d in the previous chapter, the term \u201cPseudepigrapha\u201d also has its limitations\u2014the first term \u201cderives from canonical debates and usage; the other from a peculiar literary characteristic.\u201d Nickelsburg notes that this term \u201cignores the pseudonymous nature of some of the Apocrypha (e.g. Tobit and the Wisdom of Solomon) and some canonical (e.g. Job and Ruth) writings,\u201d and C. T. Fritsch observes that some of the Pseudepigraphical books are better described as anonymous than pseudonymous. Fritsch also states that these books were never included into the Greek and Latin manuscripts of the Bible, so their canonicity was never an issue in mainstream Christianity. However, \u201cmany of these works were preserved in the various branches of the oriental churches, and so they came down to us in such languages as Syriac, Ethiopic, Coptic, Georgian, Armenian, Slavonic, etc.\u201d
\nThe Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, like the Apocrypha discussed in the previous chapter (see Table 3), also represent several literary genres which fall into the following six categories:<\/p>\n
1. Apocalypses;
\n2. Testaments;
\n3. Expansion of TaNaKh narratives;
\n4. Wisdom and philosophical literature;
\n5. Prayers, psalms, and odes; and
\n6. Fragments of now-lost Judeo-Hellenistic works.<\/p>\n
This monograph only considers the first category, Apocalyptic Literature, while the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Pseudepigrapha, considers the remaining five. Table 15 shows the literary genres of the Pseudepigrapha, the date of composition, and the books containing a resurrection belief, either stated or implied (bolded and highlighted) based on the analysis in Appendix A of this monograph and Appendix A in the companion volume. This will help the reader see the extent of this belief in the Pseudepigraphical books. This part of the monograph considers the passages from the apocalyptic literature listed in Table 17 that imply or state a resurrection belief which also refer or allude to the TaNaKh for its foundation of this belief.<\/p>\n
Table 15. The literary genres of the Pseudepigrapha<\/p>\n
Literary Genre
\nPseudepigraphical Texts
\nDate
\nApocalyptic Literature and Related Works
\n1 Enoch
\n2 Enoch
\n3 Enoch
\nSibylline Oracles
\nTreatise of Shem
\nApocryphon of Ezekiel
\nApocalypse of Zephaniah
\nFourth book of Ezra
\n[= 2 Esdras 3\u201314]
\n(see OT Apocrypha)
\n3rd cent. BCE\u201350 CE
\nLate 1st cent. CE
\n5th\u20136th Century CE
\n2nd cent. BCE\u20137th cent. CE
\n1st cent. BCE
\n50 BCE\u201350 CE
\n100 BCE\u201370 CE
\nLate 1st cent. CE
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\nVision of Ezra
\nQuestions of Ezra
\nRevelation of Ezra
\nApocalypse of Sedrach
\n2 Baruch
\n3 Baruch
\nApocalypse of Abraham
\nApocalypse of Adam
\nApocalypse of Elijah
\nApocalypse of Daniel
\n2nd\u20139th cent. CE
\n4th\u20137th cent. CE
\n?
\n2nd\u20139th cent. CE
\n2nd\u20135th cent. CE
\nEarly 2nd cent. CE
\n1st\u20133rd cent. CE
\n1st\u20132nd cent. CE
\n1st\u20134th cent. CE
\n1st\u20134th cent. CE
\n9th cent. CE
\nTestaments (Often with Apocalyptic Sections)
\nTestament of the 12 Patriarchs
\nTestament of Reuben
\nTestament of Simeon
\nTestament of Levi
\nTestament of Judah
\nTestament of Issachar
\nTestament of Zebulun
\nTestament of Dan
\nTestament of Naphtali
\nTestament of Gad
\nTestament of Asher
\nTestament of Joseph
\nTestament of Benjamin
\n2nd cent. BCE
\nTestament of Job
\nTestament of the Three Patriarchs
\nTestament of Abraham
\nTestament of Isaac
\nTestament of Jacob
\nTestament (Assumption) of Moses
\nTestament of Solomon
\nTestament of Adam
\nEarly 1st cent. BCE
\n1st cent. CE
\n1st\u20132nd cent. CE
\n1st\u20132nd cent. CE
\n2nd\u20133rd cent. CE?
\n1st cent. CE
\n1st\u20133rd cent. CE
\n2nd\u20135th cent. CE
\nExpansions of the \u201cOld Testament\u201d and Legends
\nLetter of Aristeas
\nJubilees
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\n[3:13\u20134:22 = Testament of Hezekiah]
\n130\u201370 BCE
\n135\u2013105 BCE
\n2nd cent. BCE
\nJoseph and Aseneth
\nLife of Adam and Eve
\nPseudo-Philo
\n[= Biblical Antiquities]
\nLives of the Prophets
\n1st cent. BCE\u20132nd cent. CE
\n1st cent. BCE\u20131st cent. CE
\n2nd cent. BCE\u2013late 1st cent. CE
\nLadder of Jacob
\n4 Baruch
\n[= Omissions of Jeremiah]
\nJannes and Jambres
\n1st cent. CE
\n1st cent. CE
\nLate 1st\u2013early 2nd cent. CE
\nHistory of the Rechabites
\nEldad and Modad
\nHistory of Joseph
\n1st\u20132nd cent. CE
\n1st\u20134th cent. CE
\n> 2nd cent. CE
\n> 400 CE
\nWisdom and Philosophical Literature
\nAhiqar
\n3 Maccabees
\n4 Maccabees
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\nThe Sentences of the Syriac
\nMenander
\n6th\u20137th cent. CE
\n1st cent. CE
\n1st cent. CE
\n1st cent. BCE
\n3rd cent. CE
\nPrayers, Psalms, and Odes
\nMore Psalms of David
\nPsalm 151
\n(see OT Apocrypha)
\nPsalm 152
\nPsalm 153
\nPsalm 154
\nPsalm 155
\nPrayer of Manasseh
\n(see OT Apocrypha)
\nPsalms of Solomon
\nHellenistic Synagogal Prayers
\nPrayer of Joseph
\nPrayer of Jacob
\nOdes of Solomon
\n3rd cent. BCE\u20131st cent. CE
\n2nd\u20131st cent. BCE
\nc. 50 BCE
\n2nd\u20133rd cent. CE
\n1st cent. CE
\n1st\u20134th cent. CE
\nLate 1st\u2013early 2nd cent. CE
\nFragments of Lost Judeo-Hellenistic Work
\nPhilo the Epic Poet
\nTheodotus
\nOrphica
\nEzekiel the Tragedian
\nFragments of Pseudo-Greek Poets
\nPseudo-Hesiod
\nPseudo-Pythagoras
\nPseudo-Aeschylus
\nPseudo-Sophocles
\nPseudo-Euripides
\nPseudo-Philemon
\nPseudo-Diphilus
\nPseudo-Menander
\n3rd\u20132nd cent. BCE
\n2nd\u20131st cent. BCE
\n1st cent. BCE\/CE
\n2nd cent. BCE
\n3rd\u20132nd cent. BCE
\nFragments of Lost Judeo-Hellenistic Work
\nAristobulus
\nDemetrius the Chronographer
\nAristeas the Exegete
\nEupolemus
\nPseudo-Eupolemus
\nCleodemus Malchus
\nArtapanus
\nPseudo-Hecataeus
\n2nd cent. BCE
\n3rd cent. BCE
\nLate 2nd\u2013early 1st cent.
\nBCE
\nLate 2nd\u2013early 1st cent.
\nBCE
\n> 1st cent. BCE
\n> 1st cent. BCE
\n3rd\u20132nd cent. BCE
\nc. 300 BCE<\/p>\n
Chapter 3<\/p>\n
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE AND RELATED WORKS<\/p>\n
An apocalyptic work is \u201crevelatory literature with a narrative framework\u201d which reveals a transcendent reality. Collins notes that \u201cthe main means of revelation are visions and otherworldly journeys, supplemented by discourse or dialogue and occasionally by a heavenly book. The constant element is the presence of an angel who interprets the vision or serves as a guide on the otherworldly journey.\u201d Table 16 shows a categorization of some of the Jewish apocalypses listed in Table 15 and divides the literature into two distinctive strands, Otherworldly Journeys and \u201cHistorical\u201d Apocalypse. It should be noted that these two strands are interwoven in the Apocalypse of Abraham (chs. 15\u201332) and 1 Enoch (the Apocalypse of Weeks [91:11\u201317; 93:1\u201310] and Animal Apocalypse [chs. 83\u201390] are \u201chistorical\u201d apocalypses, while the Book of the Watchers [chs. 1\u201336] and the Similitudes of Enoch [chs. 37\u201371] describes \u201cotherworldly\u201d journeys). Regardless, all fifteen Jewish apocalypses listed in Table 16 \u201cfall within the compass of the definition of the genre\u201d despite the variations between the texts.
\nIt is important to note that all these apocalyptic texts include a judgment scene in which the wicked are destroyed and reveal that the righteous will be rewarded with some form of afterlife. In some texts, this afterlife reward is introduced by a bodily resurrection (see the highlighted sections in Table 16).
\nThe most elaborate and detailed descriptions of the events that will take place following a person\u2019s death appear in the apocalyptic literature of the Second Temple period literature, in the books which fall within the first category of Pseudepigraphical books which will be considered in this chapter. Table 17 provides a list of all the relevant resurrection passages. Special emphasis will be placed on the resurrection passages which either refer or allude to the TaNaKh.<\/p>\n
Table 16. Jewish apocalypses<\/p>\n
Jewish Apocalypses
\nOtherworldly Journeys
\n\u201cHistorical\u201d Apocalypse
\nApoc. Zephaniah
\nTest. Abraham 10\u201315
\n3 Baruch
\nTest. Levi 2\u20135
\n2 Enoch
\nSimilitudes of Enoch
\nHeavenly Lumin.
\n1 Enoch 1\u201336
\nApoc Abraham
\n2 Baruch
\n4 Ezra
\nJubilees 23
\nApoc. of Weeks
\nAnimal Apocalypse
\nDaniel 7\u201312
\nManner of Revelation
\nVision
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nEpiphanies
\n\u00d7
\nDiscourse
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nDialogue
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nWriting
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nOtherworldly mediator
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nPseudonymity
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nDisposition of recipient
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nReaction of recipient
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nTemporal Axis
\nCosmology
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nPrimordial events
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nRecollection of past
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nEx eventu prophecy
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nPersecution
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nOther eschatological upheavals
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nJudgment\/destruction of wicked
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nJudgment\/destruction of world
\n?
\n\u00d7
\n?
\n\u00d7
\n?
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nJudgment\/destruction of otherworldly beings
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n?
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nCosmic transformation
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n?
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nResurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n?
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nOther forms of afterlife
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n?
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n?
\n?
\nSpatial Axis
\nOtherworldly regions
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nOtherworldly beings
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nParaenesis by Revealer
\n\u00d7
\nConcluding Elements
\nInstructions to recipient
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nNarrative Conclusion
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7<\/p>\n
Source: John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 7 and \u201cThe Jewish Apocalypses,\u201d Semeia 14 (1979): 28.<\/p>\n
Table 17. Resurrection texts in the apocalypse category of the Pseudepigrapha<\/p>\n
Passage
\nNotes
\nResurrection
\nClassification
\nImplied
\nStated
\nRef.
\nAllude
\nPhil.
\nAssume
\n1 Enoch
\nBook I (1\u201336) The Parable of Enoch
\nJudgment Texts (Implied Resurrection)
\n1:3\u20139; 5:5\u20139; 9:2\u20133; 10:4\u20136, 11\u201313, 16\u201317, 20; 13:6; 14:2\u20136; 15:7\u201310; 16:1; 27:2\u20133
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n20:8
\nArchangel Remiel
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n22
\nResurrection of the Soul?
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n25:4\u20136
\nThe Fragrant tree
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n1 Enoch
\nBook II (37\u201371) The Book of the Similitudes
\nJudgment Texts (Implied Resurrection)
\n38; 41:1, 8\u20139; 45:2\u20136; 47; 48:7; 50:1; 54:6; 56:8; 58:1\u20134; 60:6, 24; 61:5, 8
\n————-
\n70:4\u2014Vision of earliest human ancestors
\n71:16\u2014all the righteous will follow the path of Enoch.
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n40:9
\nArchangel Phanuel
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n46:3
\nSon of Man
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n49:3
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n51
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n62:13\u201316
\nSon of Man
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBook III (72\u201382) The Book of Heavenly Luminaries
\n81:1\u20134
\nJudgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBook IV (83\u201390) The Dream Visions
\nJudgment Texts (Implied Resurrection)
\n84:4
\n89:36\u201337
\nSleep = Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n90:20\u201336
\nJudgment
\nNew Jerusalem
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBook V (91\u2013107) The Two Ways of the Righteous and the Sinner: Including the Apocalypse of Weeks
\n91:8\u201317
\nArise from sleep
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n92:2\u20135
\nArise from sleep
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nThe Destiny of the Righteous and the Wicked (94\u2013104): Judgment (Implied Resurrection)
\n94:9, 11; 95:5\u20136; 96:2\u20133, 8; 97:6; 98:6\u20138, 14; 100:4\u20135, 10; 102:4\u20138; 103:1\u20134; 104:1\u20137
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n108:2\u20133
\nBook of Life
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n108:8\u201315
\nRecompensed
\nResplendent
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n2 Enoch
\nJudgment Texts (Implied Resurrection)
\nJ 7:1; J\/A 18:7; J\/A 19:5; J 39:5\/A 39:2; J 42:3, 5, 7; J\/A 44:3\u20135; J\/A 48:8\u20139; J\/A 49:2; J\/A 50:2, 4\u20135; J\/A 51:3; J\/A 52:15; J\/A 58:4\u20136; J 60:4; J 66:6\u20137
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nJ 32
\nDust to dust
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nJ\/A 65:6\u201311
\nJudgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nJ 70:1
\nEternal inheritance
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nJ\/A 70:3
\nRest || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n3 Enoch
\n(18:24)
\nBooks of the Dead
\nBooks of the Living
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n(28:7; 30:2; 31:2; 33:1)
\nEvery Day is a Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n28:7\u201310
\nThird day he will raise us up
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n44:7\u20138
\nRest of the Righteous
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nSibylline Oracles
\nBook 1
\n355
\nLazarus\u2019 resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n378
\nAnnouncing the resurrection to the dead
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBook 2
\n221\u201351
\nResurrection\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n313\u201315
\nRewards of the Righteous
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBook 3
\n66
\nSatan\u2019s work
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n769
\nMessianic kingdom
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBook 4
\n179\u201392
\nResurrection\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBook 6
\n14
\nLazarus\u2019 resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBook 7
\n144\u201345
\nRestoration of the world
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBook 8
\n82\u201383
\nResurrection\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n170
\nEschatological upheaval
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n205\u20138
\nMessianic Age
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n226\u201328
\nResurrection\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n255
\nFaith \u2192 Eternal life
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n286
\nJesus\u2019 mission
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n293
\nJesus\u2019 mission
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n310\u201314
\nJesus\u2019 mission
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n413\u201316
\nResurrection\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nFrag. 3
\n41\u201349
\nInheritance of the Righteous
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nApocryphon of Ezekiel
\nFrag. 1
\nBody = Blind
\nSoul = Lame
\nJudgment parable
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nFourth Book of Ezra
\n2:16
\nExhortation to good work
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n2:22\u201324
\nBurial
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n2:31
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n4:35\u201337
\nPredestined time
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n4:42\u201343
\nHades || womb
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:31\u2013[44]
\nResurrection\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:75\u2013101
\nThe state of the departed before the judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n14:36
\nResurrection\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\n2:1; 5:22
\nThe righteous\/Patriarchs
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n4:36
\nTrumpet\/Resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:2
\nJesus\u2019 work
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nQuestions of Ezra
\nA. 5
\nThe fate of the righteous and the sinners
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nA. 10
\nThe prophet\u2019s question
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nB. 1\u201314
\nResurrection\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n2 Baruch
\n11:4
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n14:12\u201313
\nPossesses hope in the future || Resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n15:7\u20138
\nThe Righteous
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n21:23\u201324
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n23:5
\nAppointed number
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n24:1\u20132
\nJudgment\/Resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n30:1\u20133
\nThe end of time
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n42:7\u20138
\nDust \u2192 Resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n49\u201352
\nThe nature of the resurrection body: The final destiny of the Righteous and the wicked
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n57:2
\nPlanned from the beginning
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n66:3
\nMake sure that they are really dead
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n85:3
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n85:9
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n85:15
\nResurrect the righteous
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nApocalypseof Elijah
\n3:13
\nSatan cannot resurrect the dead
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n4:24\u201329
\nPersecution of the Saints
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n4:31
\nSatan cannot resurrect the dead
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n5:25\u201339
\nEnd-time
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7<\/p>\n
1. 1 Enoch<\/p>\n
1 Enoch is the oldest pseudepigraphical book and is attributed to the Enoch of Gen. 5:24. It is a composite book composed by several anonymous writers between the third century BCE and 50 CE. It was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, but the most complete form of the book is the Ethiopic version. Several fragments of this composition were also found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. 1 Enoch contains five distinct compositions or books, as well as two appendices. Charlesworth suggests the following dating of these sections:<\/p>\n
1. Book of the Watchers (1 En. 1\u201336)
\nc. 300\u2013200 BCE
\n2. Book of the Parables (1 En. 37\u201371)
\n37 BCE\u201366 CE
\n3. Book of Astronomical Writings (1 En. 72\u201382)
\nprior to 200 BCE
\n4. Book of Dream Visions (1 En. 83\u201390)
\nabout 160 BCE
\n5. Book of the Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 91\u2013105)
\nbefore 100 BCE
\nAppendices:
\nBirth of Noah (106\u2013107)
\nprior to 100 BCE
\nAnother Book of Enoch (108)
\nnot clear; prior to 37 BCE?<\/p>\n
Since the second book, the Book of the Parables (1 En. 37\u201371), is the only part of 1 Enoch not found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, most scholars used to advocate a late date for this composition, dating it toward the end of the Second Temple Period. However, Charlesworth argues convincingly that just because no fragment from the Dead Sea Scrolls has been identified with this book, one should not conclude a late composition is insignificant as \u201ccumulatively, perhaps we possess only about 10 to 20 percent of the manuscripts that were in the Qumran caves before, or in, June 68 CE.\u201d He adds that since this book was probably composed in Galilee, they may not have been aware of it, or the book may not have found much sympathy in the community as its members may not have been \u201copen to the claim that the Messiah is to be identified as the Son of Man; and, indeed, that an archangel revealed that the titles define only Enoch.\u201d Based on the internal evidence in the book and archaeological data, a paradigm shift has taken place in modern scholarship regarding its dating, and the emerging consensus is that the cumulative data would suggest dating \u201cto the time of Herod the Great and the Herodians.\u201d
\nDue to the composite nature of 1 Enoch and its uncertain anonymous authors and dating, this study will consider each distinctive composition by itself, rather than attempting to harmonize the eschatological view presented in the book or outline a development of the resurrection belief found in the five books of 1 Enoch.<\/p>\n
The Book of Watchers (1 Enoch 1\u201336)<\/p>\n
A universal eschatological judgment in which all will be judged (1:7, 9), both angels and humans, both righteous and wicked, is an important theme in the Book of Watchers. This theme is introduced in the first vision of Enoch (chs. 1\u20135) and is a theme that recurs throughout the book (e.g. 9:2\u20133, 10; 10:4\u20136, 11\u201313, 16\u201317, 20; 13:6; 15:7\u201310; 16:1; 19:1; 27:2\u20133). From the first vision Enoch learns that at the end of time (1:2) God will come down from his dwelling (1:3) to measure out his judgment, destroy of the wicked (1:9; 5:4\u20136, 7b), and reward the righteous (1:8; 5:7a, 8\u201310) with light, joy, peace, wisdom, and inheritance of the earth (5:7a, 8).
\nIt is clear that the main concern of these judgment texts is the theodicy, noting that everyone will be held responsible for how they lived according to God\u2019s commandments (5:4). It should also be noted that although a resurrection belief (not necessarily a bodily resurrection) is not explicitly stated, these texts presume such a belief since there must be some form of resurrection for a person to be held accountable for his\/her deeds at the time of the great judgment. As such, there are some important resurrection references in this book which will be considered below.<\/p>\n
a. 1 Enoch 20:8<\/p>\n
1 Enoch 20 gives the name and functions of Gods seven archangels who act as angelic guides during Enoch\u2019s journey to the outer extremities of the earth as recorded in chs. 21\u201323. The seventh archangel, Ramiel, oversees those who will be resurrected (v. 8). This angel does not appear again by name in the rest of this book, nor in the other books of 1 Enoch. However, Nickelsburg makes a case that the unnamed angel speaking to Enoch in 1 En. 81:1 could be identified as Ramiel. This text will be considered under the subheading \u201cThe Book of Heavenly Luminaries.\u201d<\/p>\n
b. 1 Enoch 22<\/p>\n
The second resurrection passage in the Book of Watchers is 1 Enoch 22. In this chapter, Raphael, the archangel responsible for the spirits of the deceased (20:3), shows Enoch the place where all the spirits are stored in wait for the great eschatological judgment (22:4). This passage follows the same literary structure as the other visions recorded in chs. 20\u201336 with the exception of vv. 5\u20137 (see Table 18), which breaks the pattern.
\nThe reader needs to keep in mind that 1 Enoch 17\u201336 describes Enoch\u2019s cosmic journey, and as such, the main purpose of ch. 22 is not to give a detailed description of the eschatological events, resurrection, and judgment, but rather a geographical description, showing where the souls are being stored. Be that as it may, 1 Enoch 22 is still a rich text regarding these eschatological issues.<\/p>\n
Table 18. The literary structure of 1 Enoch 22<\/p>\n
This chapter starts with an introductory statement (section 1 in the literary structure) followed by a description of the vision (section 2). This is followed by a dialogue between the guiding angel and Enoch in which Enoch asks for an interpretation of what he just saw (section 3a) and the angel\u2019s explanation (section 3b). This chapter concludes with Enoch praising God for his righteous justice (section 4). From this literary structure it becomes clear that sections 3a and 3b in the third part of the structure (vv. 8\u201313) is a continuation of section 3a and 3b of the first part of the structure (vv. 2b\u20134).
\nIn Enoch\u2019s vision, a person\u2019s soul lives on, separately from the body, at the time of death. While the body is buried in the ground (v. 10), the soul of the dead is contained in one of the four \u201cdeep and very smooth\u201d (v. 2a) chambers God has made for the souls in \u201ca great and high mountain of hard rock\u201d (v. 2a). A soul\u2019s placement is based on the person\u2019s behavior during their life. The first chamber is made for the righteous souls while the remaining three chambers were made for the souls of the wicked (see Table 19).
\nThus, the vision presents three categories of wicked souls. The second compartment contains the souls of those who did not receive just punishment for all the wickedness they did in their life. The third compartment is more difficult to classify but it seems to contain the souls of the wicked who suffered an unjust death. Although they were wicked, they did not deserve this type of death. The fourth compartment contains a third category of wicked souls. These souls do not seem to experience any suffering following death, nor will they be a part of the eschatological judgment or resurrection (v. 13). Nickelsburg suggests the simplest explanation for why these souls are different from the previously mentioned categories of wicked souls is that \u201cthese sinners were judged during their lifetime, and for that reason they need not be recompensed either immediately after death or at the great day of judgment.\u201d In other words, they received their just punishment prior to their death (see Table 19).
\nIt is only the righteous souls and the souls of the most wicked, the ones who still need to receive more punishment, that will be resurrected at the time of the eschatological resurrection. The souls in the third and the fourth chamber do not seem to need any more punishment than what they have already received\u2014hence, there is little need to resurrect these souls (v. 13b). This view seems very similar to the view presented in Dan. 12:2\u20133, which suggests that there will not be a universal resurrection but only a resurrection for the most righteous and the most wicked\u2014although 1 Enoch 22 implies all righteous souls will be resurrected on the day of judgment.
\nHowever, the view that only the souls of the first two chambers will experience resurrection seems to contradict the judgment scene described in the introduction of the book (chs. 1\u20135), which has a strong emphasis on the universal nature of the eschatological judgment (see above).<\/p>\n
Table 19. The four holding compartments for the souls in 1 Enoch 22<\/p>\n
1st Compartment v. 9b
\n2nd Compartment vv. 10\u201311
\n3rd Compartment v. 12
\n4th Compartment v. 13
\nRighteous
\nWicked
\nNot received just punishment in their life (v. 10)
\nSuffered an unjust death (v. 12)
\nAlready received their just punishment in their life
\nLight\/Fountain of water (vv. 2b, 9b)
\nDark (v. 2b)
\nDark (v. 2b)
\nDark (v. 2b)
\nConscious: Can request justice (e.g. vv. 5\u20137)
\nConscious: Suffers great torment until the day of judgment (v. 11)
\nConscious: Seeking vengeance for their murder (v. 12)
\nUnconscious?
\nDo not seem to suffer any torment
\nResurrection
\nResurrection
\nNo resurrection mentioned
\nNo need for Resurrection
\nReceive their reward
\n(1 En. 24:2\u201325:6)
\nJudgment which will give them their deserved punishment
\nNo judgment mentioned
\nNo judgment needed
\nSuffer eternal punishment for their evil deeds (v. 11)<\/p>\n
There could be several reasons for this apparent contradiction. First, it could be due to the composite nature of this book. 1 Enoch 1\u20135 may have been written by a different author who may have held a different theological emphasis than the author of 1 Enoch 22. As previously outlined, 1 Enoch 22 is a part of Enoch\u2019s cosmic journey, where he is shown the geographical location of the souls of the dead, while 1 Enoch 1\u20135 has an emphasis on God\u2019s theodicy, that everyone will be judged according to their deeds. Second, it could be argued that both 1 Enoch 1\u20135 and 22 are in agreement in the sense that all souls\/humans receive the reward they deserve. The souls in the third and fourth chambers have already received their deserved justice\/punishment, and, as such, have no further need for punishment. The \u201call\u201d in chs. 1\u20135 would then be referring to the souls who still need to be rewarded (righteous souls in chamber one) or punished (wicked souls in chamber two). Third, there is an inconsistency of the number of chambers in ch. 22 (see Table 18, vv. 2a, 9\u201313). Verse 2a mentions that there are four chambers while v. 9 only mentions three. However, vv. 9b\u201313 describe the souls in all four chambers. This has led Wacker to see evidence for a literary development of ch. 22 in which the first stage of the development had a mountain, with unspecified numbers of dark caves, where the souls of the dead were kept. The second stage of the development would have introduced the elements of the current text, the four different chambers for the four different categories of souls, and the preliminary judgment of the souls upon the person\u2019s death, to determine the appropriate holding chamber. The first stage of this tradition would require a universal resurrection of the souls in order to judge them and give them their appropriate reward or punishment. The second stage of this development would only need the resurrection of the souls held in the first and second chambers since there has already been a preliminary sorting of the souls. Regardless of the explanation of this apparent contradiction, the text does emphasize the justice of God\u2019s judgment of the souls of the dead (v. 14).<\/p>\n
1) The Souls Are Conscious. Reading 1 Enoch 22 it becomes apparent that the souls in the first three chambers are conscious and the souls\u2019 condition in the chamber is a part of their reward or punishment. The only souls who seem to be unconscious are the ones kept in the fourth chamber since these wicked souls have already received all the punishment they deserved (see Table 19). The souls of the righteous in the first chamber are blessed with light and a fountain of water (vv. 2b, 9b). This may be an allusion to the benevolence, described in Ps. 36:9, that God shows to those who seek refuge under his wings: \u201cFor with you is the fountain of life; in your light we see light.\u201d Both these images are associated with the righteous. The water image with life-giving force (e.g. Jer. 2:13; 17:12), alludes to God\u2019s life-giving force itself, while light is often associated with God\u2019s presence and life itself (e.g. Pss. 27:1; 49:19; 56:13). Thus, there are two very powerful symbols, life and God\u2019s presence, associated with the souls of the righteous who are with God. In a more literal sense, the souls of the righteous are provided water so they will not thirst. This theme is reflected in Jesus\u2019 parable of the rich man and Lazarus where the rich man experiences thirst (Lk. 16:24).
\nThe souls of the wicked in the second chamber have a very different experience than the righteous in the first. Instead of dwelling in light, in God\u2019s presence, they are in darkness (v. 2b). This already hints at the punishment that is in store for them, where they will not be protected by God\u2019s presence. Moreover, these souls have already started their suffering by experiencing great torment (v. 11a) while they are awaiting the great judgment which will bring them the full measure of God\u2019s wrath in the abyss, where they will be bound forever (v. 11). Nickelsburg notes: \u201cThe transferral [of the wicked souls at the time of judgment] and the distinction between now and then [in v. 13] also indicates that the sinners\u2019 present suffering is not to be understood as final and full judgment.\u201d He adds: \u201cThe contrast between \u2018here\u2019 (\u1f67\u03b4\u03b5, baze) [v. 11a] and \u2018there\u2019 (\u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6, baheya) suggests that at the judgment they will be transferred to another place of torment, presumably Gehenna.\u201d
\nThe souls in the third chamber do not seem to suffer physical pain per se, but rather suffer a restless existence while they wait for justice due to their unjustified violent death (v. 12). In some ways, their situation is similar to that suffered by Abel (vv. 5\u20137), who was murdered by his brother Cain and who also suffered an unjustified violent death (see discussion in the following section)\u2014although Abel\u2019s soul is righteous, while the souls of the third chamber are wicked. Importantly, the text does not specify whether or not these wicked souls will resurrect. The lack of resurrection may be due to the \u201crest\u201d they will receive when their murderer is judged at the time of the eschatological judgment, at which time they will have no further grievance.
\nThe souls of the last chamber seem to be unconscious since they have already suffered enough in their life. As such, no further punishment is necessary, hence, no resurrection occurs.<\/p>\n
2) Abel\u2019s Suit unto Heaven. The middle section of the literary structure (see Table 18, vv. 5\u20137) interprets and elaborates on God\u2019s comment to Cain after he had murdered his brother Abel: \u201cWhat have you done? Listen! Your brother\u2019s blood cries out to me from the ground\u201d (Gen. 4:10). John Byron notes that the next narrative, in which the word \u05d0\u05b8\u05d7\/\u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03cc\u03c2, brother appears, is at the end of the flood narrative (Gen. 9:4\u20136), in a passage that also contains the word \u05d3\u05b8\u05bc\u05dd\/\u03b1\u1f37\u03bc\u03b1, \u201cblood,\u201d and the same subject matter, the killing of a human being\u2014see the highlighted sections of the text. It seems like the author of Gen. 9:5 points back to the Cain and Abel narrative as if to say, \u201cWhoever takes human life is like Cain.\u201d Gordon Wenham also notes a close link between Gen. 9:1\u20137 and Gen. 1:28\u201329 and considers this link as more than a simple reassertion of the pre-flood food law, but rather, a modification and a reassertion of \u201cthe sanctity of human life in light of chapter 4.\u201d<\/p>\n
Genesis 4:9\u201310
\nGenesis 9:4\u20136
\n9\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b9\u05bc\u05d0\u05de\u05b6\u05e8 \u05d9\u05b0\u05d4\u05d5\u05b8\u05d4 \u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05be\u05e7\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05df
\n\u05d0\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d4\u05b6\u05d1\u05b6\u05dc \u05d0\u05b8\u05d7\u05b4\u05d9\u05da\u05b8
\n\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b9\u05bc\u05d0\u05de\u05b6\u05e8 \u05dc\u05b9\u05d0 \u05d9\u05b8\u05d3\u05b7\u05e2\u05b0\u05ea\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9 \u05d4\u05b2\u05e9\u05b9\u05c1\u05de\u05b5\u05e8 \u05d0\u05b8\u05d7\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b8\u05e0\u05b9\u05db\u05b4\u05d9\u05c3
\n10\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b9\u05bc\u05d0\u05de\u05b6\u05e8 \u05de\u05b6\u05d4 \u05e2\u05b8\u05e9\u05b4\u05c2\u05d9\u05ea\u05b8
\n\u05e7\u05d5\u05b9\u05dc \u05d3\u05b0\u05bc\u05de\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b8\u05d7\u05b4\u05d9\u05da\u05b8 \u05e6\u05b9\u05e2\u05b2\u05e7\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05b5\u05dc\u05b7\u05d9 \u05de\u05b4\u05df\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b2\u05d3\u05b8\u05de\u05b8\u05d4\u05c3
\n4\u05d0\u05b7\u05da\u05b0\u05be\u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05e9\u05b8\u05c2\u05e8 \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05e0\u05b7\u05e4\u05b0\u05d5\u05e9\u05c1\u05d5\u05b9 \u05d3\u05b8\u05de\u05d5\u05b9 \u05dc\u05b9\u05d0 \u05ea\u05b9\u05d0\u05db\u05b5\u05dc\u05d5\u05bc\u05c3
\n5\u05d5\u05d0\u05b7\u05da\u05b0 \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea\u05be\u05d3\u05b4\u05bc\u05de\u05b0\u05db\u05b6\u05dd \u05dc\u05b0\u05e0\u05b7\u05e4\u05b0\u05e9\u05b9\u05c1\u05ea\u05b5\u05d9\u05db\u05b6\u05dd \u05d0\u05b6\u05d3\u05b0\u05e8\u05b9\u05e9\u05c1
\n\u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05b7\u05bc\u05d3 \u05db\u05b8\u05bc\u05dc\u05be\u05d7\u05b7\u05d9\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4 \u05d0\u05b6\u05d3\u05b0\u05e8\u05b0\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05e0\u05bc\u05d5\u05bc
\n\u05d5\u05bc\u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05b7\u05bc\u05d3 \u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd \u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05b7\u05bc\u05d3 \u05d0\u05b4\u05d9\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d0\u05b8\u05d7\u05b4\u05d9\u05d5
\n\u05d0\u05b6\u05d3\u05b0\u05e8\u05b9\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea\u05be\u05e0\u05b6\u05e4\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd\u05c3
\n6\u05e9\u05b9\u05c1\u05e4\u05b5\u05da\u05b0 \u05d3\u05b7\u05bc\u05dd \u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd
\n\u05d9\u05b4\u05e9\u05b8\u05bc\u05c1\u05e4\u05b5\u05da\u05b0 \u05d3\u05b8\u05bc\u05de\u05d5\u05b9 \u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd
\n\u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9 \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05e6\u05b6\u05dc\u05b6\u05dd \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05e2\u05b8\u05e9\u05b8\u05c2\u05d4 \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd\u05c3<\/p>\n
9\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u039a\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd
\n\u0391\u03b2\u03b5\u03bb \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f41 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50
\n\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03c9 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c6\u03cd\u03bb\u03b1\u03be \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03bf\u03cd \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03b9 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce
\n10\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2 \u03a4\u03af \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\u1f74
\n\u03b1\u1f35\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b2\u03bf\u1fb7 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2
\n4\u03c0\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03c1\u03ad\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f35\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c6\u03ac\u03b3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5
\n5\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f51\u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f37\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1ff6\u03bd
\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03b6\u03b7\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd
\n\u03b8\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03b6\u03b7\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2
\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b6\u03b7\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5
\n6\u1f41 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c7\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f37\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6
\n\u03b1\u1f35\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c7\u03c5\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b9
\n\u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd
\n9 Then the LORD said to Cain, \u201cWhere is your brother Abel?\u201d \u201cI don\u2019t know,\u201d he replied. \u201cAm I my brother\u2019s guardian?\u201d
\n10 Then He said, \u201cWhat have you done? Your brother\u2019s blood cries out to Me from the ground!
\n4 However, you must not eat meat with its lifeblood in it.
\n5 I will require the life of every animal and every man
\nfor your life and your blood. I will require the life of each man\u2019s brother for a man\u2019s life.
\n6Whoever sheds man\u2019s blood, his blood will be shed by man, for God made man in His image.<\/p>\n
In Gen. 4:10, Abel\u2019s blood has been personified and cries out to God for justice. A case could be made that the author of 1 Enoch 22 understood this personification literally, especially in light of Gen. 9:4 which sees a connection between \u05d3\u05b8\u05bc\u05dd\/\u03b1\u1f37\u03bc\u03b1, \u201cblood,\u201d and \u05e0\u05b6\u05e4\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1\/\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae, \u201clife.\u201d Given these two closely connected texts, the ancient interpreter may have understood these texts to suggest that \u201csomething\u201d survives a person\u2019s death and that \u201csomething\u201d is conscious and, in the case of Abel, demands justice from God due to the great injustice committed against him. Moreover, the interpreter may have identified the \u05e0\u05b6\u05e4\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1\/\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae, \u201clife,\u201d of Gen. 9:4 with \u05e0\u05b0\u05e9\u05b8\u05c1\u05de\u05b8\u05d4\/\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u03ae or \u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7\/\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1, \u201cbreath,\u201d which is the word used in the creation story when God \u201cformed man of the dust of the ground (\u05e2\u05b8\u05e4\u05b8\u05e8 \u05de\u05b4\u05df\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b2\u05d3\u05b8\u05de\u05b8\u05d4) and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life (\u05e0\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05b7\u05ea \u05d7\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dd) and man became a living being (\u05dc\u05b0\u05e0\u05b6\u05e4\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d7\u05b7\u05d9\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4)\u201d (Gen. 2:7). In Eccl. 12:7, the writer describes death as the reversal of the creation act and uses \u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7\/\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1, \u201cbreath,\u201d for spirit instead: \u201cThen the dust will return to the Earth as it was, and the spirit (\u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7\/\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1) will return to God.\u201d Thus, the \u201csomething\u201d is the spirit\/soul that God placed in the body to make a living person and this \u201csomething\u201d leaves the body at the point of death. This is how 1 Enoch 22 can suggest that Abel\u2019s voice\/soul will be heard until the final judgment when Cain and his seed will receive all the punishment they are due. Byron adds that this notion could also be supported by the present tense of the verbs describing Abel\u2019s blood crying out, suggesting that the blood would never go silent. Thus, Abel\u2019s cry for vengeance would be ongoing.
\nByron also observes that Abel\u2019s blood in Gen. 4:9 is in the plural form, \u05d3\u05b0\u05bc\u05de\u05b5\u05d9, \u201cbloods.\u201d This indicates that the blood is not only the blood of Abel but would also include the blood of all his descendants who were never born. This would explain Abel\u2019s demand that Cain\u2019s descendants need to be erased too, based on the lex talionis principle. Thus, Cain became the arch-type of the wicked while Abel serves as an arch-type of any innocent person who has been murdered.
\nIt is easy to see how this interpretation of Gen. 4:9\u201310 fits nicely into the context of 1 Enoch 22, where it almost functions as the exegetical foundation of the chapter. If the \u201cessence\u201d of the person survives death, where is it going? 1 Enoch 22 reveals that there are holding chambers for these \u201csouls.\u201d If Abel\u2019s soul is demanding justice, it must be conscious in the period it is in the chamber, as is expanded upon in 1 Enoch 22. Since Cain did not suffer the deserved punishment for his murderous act at the time of this heinous deed due to God\u2019s \u201cprotection\u201d (Gen. 4:15), Abel still has an \u201copen case\u201d against Cain, hence, why his voice is still heard, and Cain still has a punishment in store for him in the last judgment (1 En. 22:7). Since Cain functions as a type of all murderers and is the father of the \u201cevil seed\u201d (v. 7), 1 Enoch 22 finds support for the destiny of the souls in the second chamber (the wicked souls who did not receive all their punishment in this life). If Abel\u2019s \u201csoul\u201d can demand justice for his unjust death, it would be reasonable to assume that even the wicked souls could have such a demand (souls in the third chamber) if they suffered a similar fate. This is supported by the law in Gen. 9:5\u20136 which does not differentiate between righteous and wicked but presents a universal law protecting everyone.<\/p>\n
3) Bodily or Spiritual Resurrection. The Book of Watchers does not explicitly address the nature of the eschatological resurrection\u2014whether it will be a bodily or just a resurrection of the soul. In 1 En. 22:11b and 13b, Raphael seems to indicate that it will only be a resurrection of the spirit for the wicked, rather than body and soul, and it is the soul which will receive the punishment. Chapter 22 does not reveal what will happen to the righteous souls on the day of judgment, however, 1 En. 20:8 reveals that the archangel Ramiel is in charge of those who resurrect. Nickelsburg suggests that Ramiel may be identified with the angel Jeremiel in 4 Ezra 4:35\u201337, who is associated with the souls of the righteous who await the resurrection. 1 Enoch 5:7\u201310 and 25:1\u20137 reveal the destiny intended for the righteous, after the resurrection and the great judgment. The righteous will be rewarded with \u201clight, joy, and peace, and they shall inherit the earth\u201d (5:7). The righteous will also be able to touch the fragrant fruit tree and eat of its fruit for life (25:4\u20135). Moreover, the fragrance from this place of reward shall penetrate their bones (25:6). Collectively this suggests that the resurrection in store for the righteous will be a bodily one. Although, Elledge notes 1 Enoch 25 does not describe this eschatological life as everlastting but, rather, as antediluvian\u2014similar in length to those described in Genesis 5\u20139 that were very long, but did have an end point. This unique feature seems to contradict 1 Enoch 22, which suggests the wicked souls will exist past the eschatological Day of Judgment (1 En. 22:13) and be bound and plagued forever (1 En. 22:11). Thus, the net effect of the view presented in the Book of Watchers is that while the wicked soul will exist forever, the lives of the resurrected righteous will not. Figure 6 illustrates the death and resurrection concept in the Book of Watchers.<\/p>\n
Figure 6. Death and Resurrection in the Book of Watchers.<\/p>\n
The Book of Parables (1 Enoch 37\u201371)<\/p>\n
The Book of Parables is the second and the longest section of 1 Enoch. Most scholars consider these parables to be the latest addition to the 1 Enoch collection. Nickelsburg and VanderKam date them \u201cbetween the latter part of Herod\u2019s reign and the early decades of the first century C.E., with some preference for the earlier part of this time span.\u201d Charlesworth notes that the consensus view has come to date the chapters \u201cto the time of Herod the Great and the Herodians.\u201d The introduction, ch. 37, introduces Enoch by providing his genealogy (v. 1) and notes that there are three \u201cthings\u201d that he would like to reveal \u201cto those who dwell upon the earth\u201d (v. 5). These three \u201cthings\u201d are revealed through the three parables, which is the main content of this book. The first, regards the coming judgment of the wicked (chs. 38\u201344). The second, the lot of the sinners (chs. 45\u201357). The third, the destiny of the righteous and the elect ones (chs. 58\u201369).
\nThe eschatological judgment is the dominant theme and, as such, permeates the book. Nickelsburg and VanderKam note that each parable \u201cbegins with an oracular introduction and then features scenes that take place in heaven,\u201d these heavenly scenes \u201cfocus on the developing drama of the judgment over which the chosen one [Son of Man] will preside\u201d Since the book seems to call for an eschatological judgment of both the righteous and the wicked, the judgment would require a resurrection of all who have lived. As such, the judgment texts of this book imply a resurrection belief. Although there are many hints of a resurrection belief, there are only two clear resurrection texts in this book, 1 Enoch 51 and 61.<\/p>\n
a. 1 Enoch 51<\/p>\n
The first resurrection passage can be divided into three subsections, introduced by the phrase \u201cin those days\u201d (highlighted in gray), a term associated with the judgment (see Table 20). Based on this structure, resurrection is considered a part of the eschatological judgment, which is presided over by the Chosen One (v. 2) who is \u201cthe second-most-dominating figure in the Parable.\u201d It is he who functions as God\u2019s agent, who has been given the authority to sit upon God\u2019s throne, and who reveals the God-given secrets of wisdom (v. 3). At the conclusion of this judgment, all the righteous, whom the Son of Man has found among the resurrected, will dwell on the transformed earth (vv. 4\u20135) while the wicked will receive their punishment (50:4\u20135; 52\u201354).
\nAlthough the main focus is on the role and function of God\u2019s Chosen One (bolded in the text), the text still reveals some interesting details regarding the resurrection of the dead. From the second subsection (vv. 1a\u20133), it becomes apparent that both the righteous and the wicked will partake in this resurrection, since the Chosen One will \u201cchoose the righteous and holy from among them\u201d (v. 2a). The \u201cthem\u201d is a reference to all those who were resurrected, meaning that he chooses the righteous from this group, the un-chosen members presumably are the wicked. Thus, it seems the author of this parable expects a double resurrection, if not a universal resurrection and judgment. This fits nicely with the introduction to the Book of Watchers, which states unequivocally that \u201cthere will be judgment on all\u201d (1 En. 1:7; see the discussion above).
\nThe first subsection regards the nature of the resurrection and makes it clear to the reader that it will be a bodily resurrection. Nickelsburg and VanderKam note that \u201cthe three lines of the tristich stand in complementary and almost synonymous parallelism to one another\u201d (see the boxed words in Table 20) and adds that the three words, entrusted-entrusted-owes, for the dead who will be resurrected \u201cderives from the world of finance\u201d (see the underlined words in Table 20). This vocabulary emphasizes the temporalness of death and God\u2019s ownership of all the people. The text considers the dead bodies (and souls?) as great treasures which were only placed in the earth or in Sheol (v. 1a\u2013b) for safekeeping awaiting the eschatological judgment (\u201cin those day\u201d), or as a great debt which needs to be repaid in full by the destruction (v. 1c) whenever God decides to collect what belongs to him.<\/p>\n
Table 20. Literary structure of 1 Enoch 51<\/p>\n
Resurrection
\n51:1 In those days, the earth will give back what has been entrusted to it,
\nand Sheol will give back what has been entrusted to it,
\nand destruction will restore what it owes.
\nJudgment
\n(Presided over by the Son of Man)
\n5a For in those days, my Chosen One [Son of Man] will arise,
\n2 and choose the righteous and holy from among them,
\nfor the day on which they will be saved has drawn near.
\n3 And the Chosen One [Son of Man], in those days, will sit upon my throne,
\nand all the secretes of wisdom will go forth from the counsel of his mouth,
\nfor the Lord of Spirits [God] has given (them) to him and glorified him.
\nThe Earth to Come
\n(The Righteous will live on a transformed earth)
\n4 In those days the mountain will leap like rams,
\nand the hills will skip like lambs satisfied with milk;
\nand the faces of all the angels in heaven will be radiant with joy,
\n5b and the earth will rejoice,
\nand the righteous will dwell on it,
\nand the chosen will go upon it.<\/p>\n
How the tristich relates to each other is a matter of interpretation. If earth-Sheol-destruction are considered as synonyms, they would all refer to the earth where the body was buried, with no reference to the soul\/spirit of the person which was the main concern of 1 Enoch 22, in the first book of 1 Enoch. However, if Earth, Sheol and Destruction are viewed as complementing each other by referring to two different places, earth and Sheol, it would imply that the body would be returned from the earth and the Spirit from Sheol (e.g. 1 En. 102:5) on the day of resurrection. Thus, the soul\/spirit would reunite with the body before the judgment takes place. \u201cDestruction\u201d could either be read as a synonym of Sheol, where the soul\/spirit dwells, or as literal destruction or decaying which takes place after a person has died. In either case, the earth, Sheol, and destruction all have to give back what belongs to God. These three phrases parallel 4 Ezra 7:32 (see the section on 4 Ezra in the previous chapter) and Pseudo-Philo 3:16, which will be discussed later.
\nThe last subsection of the text reveals the reward that will be experienced by the chosen on the transformed earth, those who the Son of Man found righteous (vv. 4\u20135b), using the words from Ps. 114:4. This psalm describes God\u2019s deliverance of his people from the land of Egypt, a fitting analogy to the ultimate salvation (v. 2) God\u2019s people will experience when the kings, the mighty, and the sinners will be made powerless as a result of the eschatological judgment. Thus, the righteous will be liberated from their suffering and abuse and be rewarded, much like the slaves were liberated from their slave masters in Egypt and were made into the people of God with whom he dwelt.
\nNickelsburg and VanderKam observe several shared elements between 1 Enoch 51 and Dan. 12:1\u20133 but present them in a different order:<\/p>\n
Daniel 12
\n1 Enoch 51
\nMichael arises (v. 1a)
\nTime of trouble (v. 1b)
\nYour people will be saved (v. 1c\u03b1)
\nThe book (v. 1c\u03b2)
\nResurrection (v. 2a)
\nLong life in Jerusalem (v. 2\u03b2)
\nCondemnation of wicked (v. 2\u03b3)
\nEverlasting life in Jerusalem
\nRighteous will shine like the stars (v. 3)
\nChosen One arises (v. 5a)
\nPresumed from previous context
\nRighteous and holy will be saved (v. 2)
\n\u2014(but see 47:5)
\nResurrection (v. 1)
\nLife on renewed earth (v. 5b-d)
\nCondemnation of sinners (v. 3b)
\nRighteous will dwell on the earth
\nAngels are radiant (v. 4c)<\/p>\n
It is the activity of Michael (he will raise up) that introduces the judgment scene (Dan. 12:1) in which the resurrection is a key element (Dan. 12:2), while in 1 Enoch 51 the judgment follows the resurrection event in which the Chosen One will arise. This reordering of the author of 1 Enoch 51 may be to emphasize that it is not the Chosen One who will resurrect the dead, but rather, that God has only placed him in charge of the judgment.<\/p>\n
b. 1 Enoch 61:1\u20135 and 62:12\u201316<\/p>\n
The second resurrection passage, 1 En. 61:1\u20135, begins with the same phrase, \u201cin those days,\u201d as the first passage (1 En. 51), thus appearing in the same context, the eschatological judgment. This resurrection statement is also mentioned before God \u201cseated the Chosen One up on the throne of glory and he will judge all the works of the holy ones\u201d (v. 8). It follows a similar literary pattern as 1 Enoch 22 by giving the new setting (v. 1a\u2014\u201cin those days\u201d), followed by a vision shown (v. 1), Enoch\u2019s question to the guiding angel (v. 2a), and the angels\u2019 explanation of the vision (vv. 2b\u20135), see Table 21.<\/p>\n
Table 21. The literary structure of 1 Enoch 61:1\u20135<\/p>\n
Setting
\n1a And I saw in those days,
\nVision
\n1b Long cords were given to those angels,
\nand they took for themselves wings and flew and went towards the North
\nQuestion
\n2a And I asked the angel, \u201cWhy did these take the cords and go?\u201d
\nExplanation
\n2b And he said me, \u201cThey went so that they may measure.\u201d
\n3 And the angel who went with me said to me,
\n\u201cThese will bring the measurements of the righteous,
\nand the ropes of the righteous to the righteous;
\nso that they may rely on the name of the Lord of Spirits forever and ever.
\n4 And the chosen will begin to dwell with the chosen;
\nand these are the measurements that will be given to faith,
\nand they will strengthen righteousness.
\n5 And these measurements will reveal all the secrets of the depths of the earth,
\nand those who were destroyed by the desert,
\nand those who were devoured by beasts,
\nand those who were devoured by the fish of the sea;
\nso that they may return and rely on the day of the Chosen One,
\nfor no one will be destroyed in the presence of the Lord of Spirits,
\nand no one is able to be destroyed.\u201d<\/p>\n
The vision shows angels bringing measuring cords with them (vv. 1, 2b) to measure the place which has been prepared for the righteous in the North (v. 1; cf. 1 En. 32:1\u20133; 70:3; 77:3; Zech. 2). It is only after their return that they reveal these measurements to the righteous. This revelation, according to the angel, gives great hope and strengthens the faith of the righteous (v. 4). Nickelsburg and VanderKam note \u201cthe point here seems to be that, by bringing to the righteous the measurements of the place of their future habitation, the angels provide the righteous with the \u2018ropes\u2019 or the moorings that stabilize them, or enables them to rely (lit. \u2018to lean\u2019), through faith, on the name of the Lord of Spirits.\u201d This will ensure their steadfastness and give them the strength to remain righteous so that they can receive their reward at the resurrection.
\nSince this is the backdrop of the resurrection passage, it should not be too surprising that it only concerns itself with the resurrection of the righteous (v. 5). According to the angel, the measurement, the great promise regarding the future dwelling place of the righteous, is also given to the righteous dead (v. 5a), to those who have been destroyed by the desert (v. 5b), devoured by beasts (v. 5c), or devoured by the fish of the sea (v. 5d). Nickelsburg and VanderKam state that these modes of death, by focusing on those who died outside \u201cthe limits of human habitation,\u201d the desert and the sea (v. 5b, d), or by the beasts or fish (v. 5c, d) inhabiting those areas, are still included in the resurrection hope. In other words, regardless of how and where you died, if you are righteous, you will be resurrected in order to receive your reward. This is the good news which the angels would share with those who are currently dwelling in the depths of the earth, perhaps referring to the souls of the righteous residing in Sheol (v. 5a).
\nThe second half of the resurrection promise (v. 5e-g) reinforces the all-inclusive nature of the resurrection of the righteous, noting that \u201cno one will be destroyed in the presence\u201d of God (v. 5f) and \u201cno one is able to be destroyed\u201d (v. 5g). Thus, death is not the final destination but a temporary condition while waiting for the eschatological judgment presided over by the Chosen One (61:8\u20139). The righteous will then be rewarded with a bodily existence that will never end (62:13\u201315). The resurrection language of 1 En. 62:15a, referring to the garment of glory (eschatological bodies), sounds similar to Paul\u2019s depiction of the resurrection in 1 Cor. 15:40\u201345. Nickelsburg and VanderKam observe that the language used in v. 15a is traditional and parallels Isa. 52:1\u20132 \u201cwith its double reference to rising from the dust and putting on new garments of strength\u201d adding that \u201cthe language of 62:15 may refer to the assumption of new bodies both by the living, whose degradation could be described as laying in the dust (cf. Isa. 52:2), and by the dead, whose bodies have been committed to the earth.\u201d The last verse refers to the garments of glory as the garments of life (v. 16a) which will never wear out (v. 16b), since they will dwell with God forever (v. 16c).<\/p>\n
c. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
The main difference between these two resurrection passages is the function held by the resurrection. In 1 Enoch 51, the resurrection takes place in order for the judgment to take place. However, in 1 Enoch 61, the resurrection is a part of the judgment, since the righteous will receive their reward. This is probably the reason why the resurrection of the wicked is specifically mentioned in the second passage.
\nThe difference in emphasis between the resurrection passages in the Book of Watchers and the Book of Parables should also be noted. In 1 Enoch 22, the main focus is where the souls will be stored while waiting for the eschatological judgment, while the actual resurrection itself is only implied as a part of the judgment scene. In 1 Enoch 51 and 61, the resurrection is the key event for the commencement of the judgment (ch. 51) or is a part of the judgment (ch. 61). The details of the phase between death and resurrection seems less important. The resurrection passage in the first book has more of a geographical function while the passage in the second book has more of a theological function.<\/p>\n
The Book of Astronomical Writings (1 Enoch 72\u201382)<\/p>\n
The third book contained in 1 Enoch is mainly concerned with astronomical data. It was originally written in Aramaic, attested by the copies found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (4Q208\u2013211), and was later translated into Greek. Based on the Aramaic script of the oldest fragments, this composition is dated to about 200 BCE. Due to the content of this book, it only contains one possible allusion to the resurrection as a part of a reference to a future judgment. In 1 En. 81:1\u20134, the angel Uriel shows Enoch all the heavenly tablets (v. 1), one of which contains the actions of all people who will be living on earth for all the generations of the world (v. 2). At the end of Enoch\u2019s study of these books, he states \u201cblessed is the one who dies righteous and good; regarding him no book of wickedness has been written and no day of judgment will be found\u201d (v. 4). This alludes to a future resurrection due to the expected judgment where everyone will be kept responsible for their deeds written in the book. Apart from revealing a possible resurrection view, this text provides little information regarding that possible resurrection belief.<\/p>\n
The Book of Dream Visions (1 Enoch 83\u201390)<\/p>\n
The fourth book of 1 Enoch dates to the time of the Maccabees, this dating being based on the content of the two dream visions contained in the book. However, some of the material in these dreams may be dated earlier. These visions were originally written in Aramaic, which is attested by the fragments found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (4QEn-c-f). The first vision (chs. 83\u201384) reveals the coming judgment of the flood while the much larger second vision, the animal apocalypse (chs. 85\u201390), gives an allegorical description of the world\u2019s history starting with Adam and ending with the eschatological judgment. Nickelsburg notes that Noah\u2019s flood functions as a type in these two dream visions for the eschatological judgment.
\nThere are three passages which may allude to a future resurrection. The first, 1 En. 84:4\u20136, mentions the great day of judgment which is paralleled with the judgment of the flood story. Enoch\u2019s request and supplication (vv. 5\u20136) asks God to differentiate between the sinful humanity and the righteous humanity, by keeping a remnant, much like Noah and his family, who survived the judgment and became like \u201cseed-bearing plants forever\u201d (v. 6).
\nThe second allusion to a resurrection belief is the use of the word \u201csleep\u201d as an allegory for \u201cdeath\u201d (89:36\u201338). In the dream vision, regarding the Exodus to the death of Moses, the vision refers to the death of Moses as the sheep who had become a man falling asleep (v. 38). As has already been noted, the term \u201csleep\u201d emphasizes the temporary nature of death, that a person will once more awake in the great day of judgment.
\nThe last text of interest is 1 En. 90:20\u201337 which describes the eschatological judgment and the new age. In this passage, God summons certain wicked individuals who will be judged and \u201cthrown into that fiery abyss\u201d to be burned (vv. 26\u201327). These individuals belong to three separate groups of people: the first group to be judged are the first fallen stars\/angels (vv. 21, 23); the second group refers to the seventy shepherds whom God had placed in charge of his sheep but who had killed more than he had permitted (vv. 22, 25); and the last group refers to the blinded sheep (vv. 26\u201327). The identity of these blinded sheep is not clear. They may refer to the wicked who have survived until the day of judgment or they could be referring to all the wicked who have lived since the time of the golden calf, the later alternative requiring a resurrection.
\nThe description of the new age includes a new temple which will be greater than the old and will be able to house all God\u2019s righteous sheep (v. 28). Verse 33 draws the attention to 1 En. 89:75, stating that all \u201cthose who had been destroyed and dispersed\u201d have returned to the new \u201chouse.\u201d Nickelsburg suggests this pairing points to Ezekiel 34 and 37, the latter using \u201cthe metaphor of death and resurrection\u201d when describing the dispersion and the future return. Thus, \u201cthe return of those who have been \u2018destroyed\u2019 suggests a literal resurrection of the dead, which is sometimes described as a return of the dispersion.\u201d The dream vision concludes by noting that the new age will be filled with peace (v. 34) and all the sheep, the wild beasts, and all the birds of heaven (v. 37) were changed and became white cattle (v. 38). In other words, the new age will include both Jews and Gentiles, indicating a return to \u201ccreated unity\u201d and transforming them \u201cinto primordial righteousness and perfection.\u201d<\/p>\n
The Book of the Epistle of Enoch and Other Writings (1 Enoch 91\u2013105)<\/p>\n
The last book of 1 Enoch is a collection of many small literary units which have been skillfully combined into \u201ca unified work with direction and generic shape.\u201d Chapter 91, in which Enoch gives his final instruction to his son and the rest of his family (91:1), functions as a bridge chapter. It follows Enoch\u2019s instructions to his son Methuselah by recounting the Dream Visions (83\u201390) and the Apocalypse of Weeks which focuses on the judgment theme (92\u201393), followed by six lengthy discourses (94:6\u2013104:8), all dealing with the two-way theology and the problem of theodicy. The last chapters of the book contain a narrative regarding the Birth of Noah (106\u2013107) and some additional Enoch material (108). John Collins considers the dating of this collection of works to be \u201cthe same as the other early Enoch books, [dated to] the early second century B.C.\u201d
\nDue to the judgment theme and the great interest shown in the question of theodicy, it is not surprising that there are several references to the resurrection hope in this book.<\/p>\n
a. 1 Enoch 91:8\u201317<\/p>\n
The first passage of interest opens with the phrase \u201cin those days,\u201d and describes the total destruction of evil in the judgment of fire where they (the wicked) will be destroyed in fierce eternal judgment (vv. 8\u20139). At the end of this judgment scene, the text turns its attention towards the righteous, who \u201cwill arise from his sleep\u201d (v. 10a). Nickelsburg and VanderKam note that vv. 10\u201317 are textually problematic in their current location and were probably \u201cdisplaced from their original location after 93:10.\u201d They suggest the resurrection reference in v. 10 was added to create a transition between v. 9 and the misplaced section (vv. 11\u201317). Regardless of its role, v. 9 does contain evidence of a resurrection hope for the righteous, who will be given wisdom upon their resurrection. This verse uses the same metaphor, sleep for death, as other texts of 1 Enoch, emphasizing the temporary nature of death suffered by the righteous. The last statement of this narrative bridge ends with the warning that those who \u201cwalk in the path of violence\u201d will \u201cperish forever\u201d (v. 19), suggesting that those who walk in the path of the righteous will experience a different outcome.<\/p>\n
b. 1 Enoch 92:2\u20135<\/p>\n
It is not clear if this text uses the terminology \u201carise from sleep\u201d (v. 3a) as a metaphor for the resurrection or as a metaphor for awakening in a spiritual sense. The latter interpretation seems more likely since the comment that the righteous will arise in order to walk in the path of righteousness would seem strange if this passage was referring to the righteous in the world to come.<\/p>\n
c. 1 Enoch 102:4\u2013104:8<\/p>\n
In Enoch\u2019s sixth and last discourse, \u201cthe announcement of the coming judgment reaches its climax.\u201d In this section, the author contrasts the views held by the wicked and the righteous, both dead and alive, regarding the judgment and the resurrection. The author quotes and summarizes the views held by these groups before addressing and refuting them (see Table 22 for the literary structure of the sixth discourse, based on Nickelsburg\u2019s structure).<\/p>\n
Table 22. The literary structure of 1 Enoch 102:4\u2013104:8<\/p>\n
I
\nAddressed to the righteous dead
\na. Exhortation to the righteous
\nb. Quotes the speech of the sinners
\nc. Author\u2019s answer to this
\n102:4\u2013103:4
\n102:4\u20135
\n102:6\u201311
\n103:1\u20134
\nII
\nAddressed to the dead sinners
\na. Address
\nb. Quotes the speech of sinners
\nc. Author\u2019s answer to this
\n103:5\u20138
\n103:5ab
\n103:5c\u20136
\n103:7\u20138
\nIII
\nAddressed to the living righteous
\na. Address
\nb. Quotes the righteous
\nc. Author\u2019s answer to this
\n103:9\u2013104:6
\n103:9a
\n103:9b\u201315
\n104:1\u20136
\nIV
\nAddressed to the living sinners
\na. Address
\nb. Quotes the sinners
\nc. Author\u2019s answer to this
\n104:7\u20138
\n104:7a
\n104:7b
\n104:7c\u20138<\/p>\n
1) The First Section. The first section of this literary structure is addressed to the righteous dead (102:4\u2013103:4). The author tells the righteous souls to be hopeful since they have died in righteousness ensuring (that although they were not rewarded for their piety during their bodily life) their death is not the end of the matter (102:4\u20135). They will receive justice although the sinners may claim that everyone will receive the same destiny, Sheol, regardless of behavior in the bodily life, and that there is no reward for a righteous life (102:6b\u201311b).
\nThe author, however, refutes this sentiment (103:1\u20134) by noting that God has indeed prepared \u201cGood things and joy and honor for them\u201d and \u201cmuch good will be given you [them] on the place of your [their] labors\u201d (103:3). In fact, their future reward will surpass the pleasure experienced in this life by the sinners (103:3c). All this, according to the author, will be possible due to the eschatological resurrection of \u201cthe souls of the pious\u201d who will never perish but spend eternity with God (103:4). Because of this, the souls of the righteous dead should not fear (102:4; 103:4).
\nThe great news for the righteous souls is that their reward is still in store for them; God has not forgotten them (103:3a states everything has been written down). It is important to remember that the first section only addresses resurrection of the soul, excluding the body (103:3a [\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9], 4a [\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1]).<\/p>\n
2) The Second Section. The second section addresses the dead sinners (103:5\u20138) who took great pleasure in the fact that they got away with their sinful lives without suffering any consequences (see the repetition of the phrase, \u201cin their life,\u201d in v. 6b and v. 6d). They view only the present world as the place for reward or punishment.
\nHowever, the author makes it clear that there will be a day of reckoning. The souls\/spirits of the wicked will be brought to Sheol, like the souls\/spirits of the righteous, but their experience of Sheol will be quite different. The souls of the righteous are experiencing grief while the souls of the wicked will experience great anguish (103:7b). Their existence will be \u201cin darkness and in a trap and in a burning flame\u201d (103:8a). Moreover, their spirit\/souls will participate in the eschatological judgment (103:8b). Thus, they will have no peace while in Sheol (103:8c). This section continues its focus on the soul\/spirit, referring to their existence in Sheol and to their future judgment (vv. 7\u20138 using \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u03af in both cases).<\/p>\n
3) The Third Section. The third section addresses the living righteous (103:9\u2013104:6), who are experiencing the curses rather than the promised covenant blessings of Deuteronomy 28. The righteous seem to agree with the observation held by the wicked, that the theology of the two scenarios are flawed or non-factual (103:9\u201315). The author refutes this sentiment since the angels of heaven remember them and their names are written down (104:1). Moreover, their oppressors will be held responsible (104:3d), so they do not have to fear the great judgment which will hold the sinners accountable for their actions (104:5). Thus, the sinners will be dealt with in the future so the righteous are told \u201cdo not be companions with them\u201d (104:6b). Instead, the righteous will shine like \u201cthe lights of heaven\u201d (104:2b), \u201cthe portals of heaven will be open\u201d for them (104:2c), and they \u201cwill have great joy like the angels of heaven\u201d (104:4b). Rather than being companions with the sinners, the righteous will dwell with the hosts of heaven (104:6d). Although this section does not address the topic of resurrection, it does reveal that the living will be brought to heaven and become like lights (stars) or angels, alluding to Dan. 12:3.<\/p>\n
4) The Fourth Section. The last section addresses the living sinners, warning them that all of their sins are written down (104:7c). They may think there are no consequences for their sinful behavior, but at the day of judgment they will receive their full eternal punishment (104:5d).<\/p>\n
5) Concluding Remarks. These four sections share many similarities with Dan. 12:1\u20133: both texts address the day of judgment (Dan. 12:1; 1 En. 103:8; 104:5); both texts refer to books with names which will be used to measure out the judgment (Dan. 12:1; 1 En. 104:7\u20138); both texts mention the resurrection (Dan. 12:2; 1 En. 103:4a) and the permanence of the rewards and punishments (Dan. 12:2\u20133; 1 En. 103:4c, 8b); and finally, both texts mention the righteous, or wise, will shine like stars (Dan. 12:3; 1 En. 104:2b), suggesting the righteous will become like angels.
\nThere are also some significant differences between these two texts. First, in Daniel the dead sleep in the dust of the earth (\u05d0\u05b7\u05d3\u05b0\u05de\u05b7\u05ea\u05be\u05e2\u05b8\u05e4\u05b8\u05e8) while in 1 En. 102:4\u2013103:8 the souls of the dead dwell in Sheol. Second, Dan. 12:2a describes a limited resurrection of some of the righteous and some of the wicked (Dan. 12:2a) while 1 En. 102:4\u2013103:8 seems to suggest that only the righteous will be resurrected from Sheol while the wicked souls will remain in what has now become \u201cHell,\u201d but the text really is unclear. Third, Dan. 12:2 describes a bodily resurrection while 1 En. 103:3\u20134 describes only the resurrection of the soul. Fourth, Dan. 12:1\u20133 gives no indication that a soul\/spirit can live independently from the body while 1 En. 102:4\u2013104:8 says the soul\/spirit lives on after death and is what will be judged and will receive the reward or punishment. Fifth, Dan. 12:1\u20133 suggests that there will be a limited judgment for only those who have been resurrected while 1 En. 102:4\u2013104:8 claims that everyone will be judged. Sixth, in Dan. 12:1\u20133 there is no indication that the dead are conscious while in 1 En. 102:4\u2013104:8 the souls\/spirits seem to have an awareness while in Sheol. Figure 7 illustrates the death and resurrection concept in the sixth discourse of the Book of the Epistle of Enoch (102:4\u2013104:8).<\/p>\n
Figure 7. Death and Resurrection in the Book of the Epistle of Enoch.<\/p>\n
d. 1 Enoch 108<\/p>\n
The last resurrection passage of 1 Enoch appears in an addendum to the book. Although it is a later edition to the larger work and may have been written during the first century CE, elements of this addendum reflect much older material. Nickelsburg observes that this chapter \u201cis actually a summarizing and interpretive conclusion to the corpus.\u201d It reveals what will happen to the sinners (vv. 2\u20136) and the righteous (vv. 10\u201312) as the result of the eschatological judgment, their ruling being based on what has been written in the heavenly records (vv. 7\u201310a, 15b). The author concludes that it will be a transparent judgment since both the righteous and the wicked will see what happened to the other group (vv. 14\u201315); thus, the righteous are vindicated and the wicked are punished in \u201cHell.\u201d
\nIn this chapter, the author makes clear that the current life determines whose name will be written in the book of life (vv. 1b, 7\u201310), and only those who have their name written in that book will have their spirit resurrected (v. 11), transformed (into shining lights, v. 12a), manifested (shining like stars, v. 12), and exalted (heavenly enthronement, v. 12b) by this vindication.
\nAs in 1 Enoch 102\u2013104, no mention is made of a resurrection of the souls of the wicked. The text only states that they will suffer in Sheol, describing it almost as if it is \u201cHell\u201d (108:5\u20136). Thus, the wicked souls may be in no need for a resurrection since they are already experiencing \u201cHellfire.\u201d Regarding the living sinners, they will be punished on the day of judgment and will join the wicked souls in \u201cHell\u201d (v. 2). From this it seems that the judgment will be universal\u2014everyone will receive judgment according to what is written in the book, but only the righteous dead will be resurrected and will join the righteous living in heaven.
\nRegarding the nature of this resurrection, at first glance it appears that a resurrection of the spirit only, but a careful reading of the text seems to suggest a physical reality of the righteous in heaven, more like a bodily experience. The saved will sit on the throne of their honor (v. 12b) and they will shine like the righteous in Dan. 12:3. This may suggest that they will receive \u201cnew\u201d bodies which radiate light in contrast to the old ones who were buried in the earth.<\/p>\n
e. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
The five books of 1 Enoch present various views on the resurrection belief. All the books view the eschatological judgment as the solution to the problem of theodicy, and the resurrection belief is what makes the judgment possible. Without it, a person could not be held responsible for his\/her behavior and God would not be able to hand out His blessings and curses. Several of these resurrection passages share similar language and concepts with the book of Daniel, especially with the resurrection statement in Daniel 12. Genesis 4:9\u201310 functions as the foundation of the resurrection concept in 1 Enoch 22.
\nConsidering the resurrection views illustrated in Figures 6 and 7, it becomes clear that each book has a different emphasis. The first book shows a greater emphasis or interest in the \u201cextra-terrestrial\u201d geography, exploring the place where all the souls will be held in wait for the eschatological judgment. The fifth book, on the other hand, focuses on the theological problem of the two-way theology. It also becomes clear that the place prepared for the righteous influences the nature of the resurrection belief. If the righteous are to dwell on a renewed earth, a bodily resurrection becomes necessary. If a heavenly dwelling is proposed, a \u201cspiritual\u201d body, like that of the angels, seems to be the answer. Regardless of where the righteous go upon their resurrection, the wicked will spend their eternity in the fiery abyss or \u201cHell.\u201d<\/p>\n
2. 2 Enoch<\/p>\n
2 Enoch has only survived in two Old Slavonic recensions (one short [A] and one longer [J]), both translated from Greek, but may have had a Semitic origin. Craig Evans suggests a late first-century CE date for the composition, possibly authored by an Egyptian Jew. The composition expands on Gen. 5:21\u201332, from Enoch to the flood, and adds a great amount of apocalyptic material. It has three major sections: Enoch\u2019s heavenly journey (1\u201334), his revelation and instructions to his children (35\u201368), and ends with the antediluvian priesthood (69\u201373). Andersen notes the eschatological predictions in the book, which, in addition to the flood, reveal the fate of humans after their death, both the good and the bad. This revelation was, according to the author, shown to Enoch on his guided tour of the seven heavens, which included Paradise and the place of punishment (second [7\u201310], third [8\u201310] and fifth heaven [18]).
\nThe many judgment texts in 2 Enoch also allude to an eschatological resurrection (see Table 17 for a list of these texts). 2 Enoch 65:6\u201311 serves as a great example, noting that \u201ceach person will go to the Lord\u2019s great judgment\u201d (v. 6), implying also the dead will also be judged. All the righteous who survive this judgment will then be gathered in the \u201cgreat age\u201d to spend all eternity in Paradise, where they will have great light (v. 9) and shine forth like the sun (v. 11). The resurrection hope is also alluded to in 2 En. J70:1, which reveals Methusalam\u2019s hope \u201cin an eternal inheritance,\u201d and 70:3 compares his death to rest, the same metaphor used in 1 Enoch. However, there is only one clear resurrection text in 2 Enoch and it will be explored in the following section.<\/p>\n
a. 2 Enoch J32<\/p>\n
2 Enoch J32 is found at the end of the author\u2019s interpretation and expansion on the creation story which began in 2 En. J24:2b. As a consequence of Adam and Eve\u2019s transgression in Paradise, just hours after their creation, God cursed \u201cmankind\u2019s evil fruit-bearing\u201d so the \u201cfruit of doing good is sweet and exertion\u201d (J31:7\u20139), and adds an interesting exegetical, or rather a Midrashic, reading of Gen. 3:19b, the last phrase of the \u201ccurse\u201d spoken to Adam.<\/p>\n
2 Enoch J32:1
\nGenesis 3:19 (CSB)
\nYou will eat bread by the sweat of your brow
\nuntil you return to the ground,
\nYou are earth,
\nsince you were taken from it.
\nand into the earth once again you
\nFor you are dust, and you will return to dust.
\nwill return out of which I took you.
\nAnd I will not destroy you,
\nbut I will send you away to what I
\ntook you from.
\nThen I can take you once again at my second coming.<\/p>\n
The author perceives a resurrection hope in the biblical texts, noting that death will not ultimately destroy a person. Although a body will return to earth at the point of death, the person will once more be recreated from this earth at the second coming. The connection between a bodily resurrection belief and the creation account was already observed in the mother\u2019s encouraging words to her seven sons in 2 Macc. 7:23 (see the discussion regarding 2 Macc. 7 in the previous chapter of this study). This thought is also expressed in Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, one of the Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Scripture, presenting the resurrection as a part of the eschatological judgment in which everyone will be judged, as opposed to the more general reference to the second coming in 2 En. J32:1.<\/p>\n
Genesis 3:19
\nPJT\u05d1\u05dc\u05d9\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea \u05db\u05e3 \u05d9\u05d3\u05da \u05ea\u05d9\u05db\u05d5\u05dc \u05de\u05d6\u05d5\u05e0\u05d0
\n\u05e2\u05d3 \u05d3\u05ea\u05d9\u05d4\u05d3\u05d5\u05e8 \u05dc\u05e2\u05e4\u05e8\u05d0
\n\u05d3\u05de\u05d9\u05e0\u05d0 \u05d0\u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05ea
\n\u05d0\u05e8\u05d5\u05dd \u05e2\u05e4\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05e0\u05ea \u05d5\u05dc\u05e2\u05e4\u05e8\u05d0 \u05ea\u05ea\u05d5\u05d1
\n\u05d5\u05de\u05df \u05e2\u05e4\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05e0\u05ea \u05e2\u05ea\u05d9\u05d3 \u05dc\u05de\u05d9\u05e7\u05d5\u05dd
\n\u05dc\u05de\u05d9\u05ea\u05df \u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d0 \u05d5\u05d7\u05d5\u05e9\u05c1\u05d1\u05e0\u05d0 \u05e2\u05dc \u05db\u05dc \u05de\u05d4 \u05d3\u05e2\u05d1\u05d3\u05ea
\n\u05d1\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d0 \u05e8\u05d1\u05d0\u05c3
\nWTT\u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05d6\u05b5\u05e2\u05b7\u05ea \u05d0\u05b7\u05e4\u05b6\u05bc\u05d9\u05da\u05b8 \u05ea\u05b9\u05bc\u05d0\u05db\u05b7\u05dc \u05dc\u05b6\u05d7\u05b6\u05dd
\n\u05e2\u05b7\u05d3 \u05e9\u05c1\u05d5\u05bc\u05d1\u05b0\u05da\u05b8 \u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b2\u05d3\u05b8\u05de\u05b8\u05d4
\n\u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9 \u05de\u05b4\u05de\u05b6\u05bc\u05e0\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4 \u05dc\u05bb\u05e7\u05b8\u05bc\u05d7\u05b0\u05ea\u05b8\u05bc
\n\u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05be\u05e2\u05b8\u05e4\u05b8\u05e8 \u05d0\u05b7\u05ea\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4 \u05d5\u05b0\u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05be\u05e2\u05b8\u05e4\u05b8\u05e8 \u05ea\u05b8\u05bc\u05e9\u05c1\u05d5\u05bc\u05d1\u05c3<\/p>\n
By the labor of your hands you shall eat food
\nuntil you turn again to the dust
\nfrom which you were created:
\nfor dust you are, and unto dust you shall return;
\nYou will eat bread by the sweat of your brow until you return to the ground, since you were taken from it.
\nfor from the dust it is to be that you are to arise,
\nto render judgment and reckoning for all that you have done, in the day of the great judgment.
\nFor you are dust, and you will return to dust.<\/p>\n
Comparing Targum Pseudo-Jonathan with 2 En. J32:1 expansion, J32:1 places special emphasis on the belief that death will not be able to destroy the person, perhaps as an attempt to neutralize the great certainty of death God warned Adam he would suffer as a consequence of eating of the forbidden fruit: \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05d9\u05b9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d0\u05b2\u05db\u05b8\u05dc\u05b0\u05da\u05b8 \u05de\u05b4\u05de\u05b6\u05bc\u05e0\u05bc\u05d5\u05bc \u05de\u05b9\u05d5\u05ea \u05ea\u05b8\u05bc\u05de\u05d5\u05bc\u05ea, \u201con the day you eat of it [the fruit] you will certainly die\u201d (Gen. 2:17).<\/p>\n
b. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
2 Enoch does not address what happens to the soul in the intermediate period, between physical death and the physical re-embodiment at the time of resurrection based on the interpretation of Gen. 3:19. 2 Enoch J23:5 implies not only the pre-existence of the souls but also their predestination (cf. J49:2; J53:2), noting: \u201cAll the souls of men, whatever of them are not yet born, and their places, prepared for eternity. For all the souls are prepared for eternity, before the composition of the earth.\u201d
\nThe author of 2 Enoch also states that the spirits will not perish (2 En. 58:6). However, it is not revealed where the souls will be stored or whether or not they are conscious. At the time of the resurrection, everyone will be judged according to deeds while alive (2 En. 62:3 makes clear that there is no repentance after death). The righteous will receive their eternal inheritance in Paradise, located in the third Heaven (2 En. 8:1\u20139:1; 42:3\u201314; 44), receiving glorious bodies (2 En. 22:8) and becoming like the angels (2 En. 22:10; 66:7). This is the same image presented in Dan. 12:3, where the righteous will become like stars. The wicked, on the other hand, will receive their eternal reward in \u201cHell\u201d (2 En. 10:1\u20136; 40:12\u201313; 41:2; 42:1), located in the fifth heaven. There they will experience all kinds of torture and torment, in cruel darkness and lightless gloom with black fire blazing up perpetually with a river of fire (2 En. 10:1\u20132). Figure 8 illustrates the death and resurrection concept in 2 Enoch.<\/p>\n
Figure 8. Death and Resurrection in 2 Enoch.<\/p>\n
3. 3 Enoch<\/p>\n
3 Enoch, according to the introduction, was written by Rabbi Ishmael, the High Priest (3 En. 1:1; 2:3), who died in 132 CE, the year the Bar Kokhba revolt started. Although 3 Enoch has been attributed to Ishmael, most scholars believe it was written over a longer time-period, the oldest section reflecting traditions from the time of the Maccabees, while the final redaction would be dated to the fifth or sixth century CE. It was originally written in Hebrew and is a part of Jewish mystical tradition, Hekhalot literature. Collins notes that \u201cwhile this book is considerably later than 1 Enoch and 2 Enoch, it may, in a sense, be considered the culmination of the tradition about Enoch\u2019s ascent to heaven.\u201d The book records Ishmael\u2019s Heavenly journey (3 En. 1\u20132), where he meets the exalted Enoch who is called Metatron (3 En. 3\u201316), and is shown the heavenly household (3 En. 17\u201340), and the wonders of Heaven (3 En. 41\u201348).
\nThe universal judgment and resurrection themes are also important in 3 Enoch. However, unlike 1 and 2 Enoch, this book shows no interest in the eschatological judgment, nor sees any need for an eschatological resurrection. Instead, it presents an individual judgment at the point of death which includes a resurrection of the soul in order for it to be judged before God\u2019s throne. The two resurrection passages in 3 Enoch will be considered in the following sections.<\/p>\n
a. 3 Enoch 28:7\u201310<\/p>\n
The first resurrection passage appears at the end of the judgment scene found in 3 Enoch 28. In this passage, God sits on his throne of judgment every day (3 En. 28:7) to reward or punish the souls of those who have just died (cf. 3 En. 28:10; 31:2; 44:3). The language used to describe this judgment (3 En. 28:7) seems to be taken from Dan. 7:9\u201310\u2014see the highlighted sections of the text. Both texts mention \u201cthe throne of judgment,\u201d the books needed for the judgment to take place, the heavenly host and the judge.<\/p>\n
Daniel 7:9\u201310
\n3 Enoch 28:7
\n9\u05d7\u05b8\u05d6\u05b5\u05d4 \u05d4\u05b2\u05d5\u05b5\u05d9\u05ea \u05e2\u05b7\u05d3 \u05d3\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9 \u05db\u05b8\u05e8\u05b0\u05e1\u05b8\u05d5\u05b8\u05df \u05e8\u05b0\u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05d5
\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05e2\u05b7\u05ea\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05e7 \u05d9\u05b9\u05d5\u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05df \u05d9\u05b0\u05ea\u05b4\u05d1
\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05e2\u05b7\u05ea\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05e7 \u05d9\u05b9\u05d5\u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05df \u05d9\u05b0\u05ea\u05b4\u05d1
\n\u05dc\u05b0\u05d1\u05d5\u05bc\u05e9\u05b5\u05c1\u05d4\u05bc\u05c0 \u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05ea\u05b0\u05dc\u05b7\u05d2 \u05d7\u05b4\u05d5\u05b8\u05bc\u05e8 \u05d5\u05bc\u05e9\u05b0\u05c2\u05e2\u05b7\u05e8 \u05e8\u05b5\u05d0\u05e9\u05b5\u05c1\u05d4\u05bc \u05db\u05b7\u05bc\u05e2\u05b2\u05de\u05b7\u05e8 \u05e0\u05b0\u05e7\u05b5\u05d0
\n\u05db\u05b8\u05bc\u05e8\u05b0\u05e1\u05b0\u05d9\u05b5\u05d4\u05bc \u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05d1\u05b4\u05d9\u05d1\u05b4\u05d9\u05df \u05d3\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05be\u05e0\u05d5\u05bc\u05e8 \u05d2\u05b7\u05bc\u05dc\u05b0\u05d2\u05b4\u05bc\u05dc\u05b9\u05bc\u05d5\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9 \u05e0\u05d5\u05bc\u05e8 \u05d3\u05b8\u05bc\u05dc\u05b4\u05e7\u05c3
\n10\u05e0\u05b0\u05d4\u05b7\u05e8 \u05d3\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05be\u05e0\u05d5\u05bc\u05e8 \u05e0\u05b8\u05d2\u05b5\u05d3 \u05d5\u05b0\u05e0\u05b8\u05e4\u05b5\u05e7 \u05de\u05b4\u05df\u05be\u05e7\u05b3\u05d3\u05b8\u05de\u05d5\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9
\n\u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05b6\u05e3 \u05d0\u05b7\u05dc\u05b0\u05e4\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05dd \u05d9\u05b0\u05e9\u05b7\u05c1\u05de\u05b0\u05bc\u05e9\u05c1\u05d5\u05bc\u05e0\u05b5\u05bc\u05d4\u05bc
\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05e8\u05b4\u05d1\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9 \u05e8\u05b7\u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05d5\u05b8\u05df \u05e7\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05de\u05d5\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d9\u05b0\u05e7\u05d5\u05bc\u05de\u05d5\u05bc\u05df
\n\u05d3\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05e0\u05b8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05b0\u05ea\u05b4\u05d1 \u05d5\u05b0\u05e1\u05b4\u05e4\u05b0\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9\u05df \u05e4\u05b0\u05bc\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9\u05d7\u05d5\u05bc\u05c3
\n7\u05d5\u05d1\u05db\u05dc \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d5\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05db\u05e9\u05d4[\u05e7]\u05d1\u05f4\u05d4 \u05d9\u05d5\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1 \u05e2\u05dc \u05db\u05e1\u05d0
\n\u05d4\u05d3\u05d9\u05df \u05d5\u05d3\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05db\u05d5\u05dc\u05d5 \u05d5\u05e1\u05e4\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05e1\u05e4\u05e8\u05d9
\n\u05de\u05ea\u05d9\u05dd \u05e4\u05ea\u05d5\u05d7\u05d9\u05dd \u05dc\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9\u05d5. \u05db\u05dc \u05d1\u05e0\u05d9 \u05e2\u05dc\u05d9\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd \u05e2\u05d5\u05de\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd
\n\u05dc\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9\u05d5 \u05d1\u05d0\u05d9\u05de\u05d4 \u05d5\u05d1\u05d9\u05e8\u05d0\u05d4 \u05d5\u05d1\u05e4\u05d7\u05d3 \u05d5\u05d1\u05e8\u05e2\u05d3\u05d4.
\n\u05d1\u05d0\u05d5\u05ea\u05d4 \u05e9\u05e2\u05d4 \u05d4[\u05e7]\u05d1\u05f4\u05d4 \u05d9\u05d5\u05e9\u05d1 \u05e2\u05dc \u05db\u05e1\u05d0
\n\u05d4\u05d3\u05d9\u05df \u05d1\u05d3\u05d9\u05df.
\n\u05dc\u05d1\u05d5\u05e9\u05d5 \u05dc\u05d1\u05df \u05db\u05de\u05d5 \u05e9\u05dc\u05d2 \u05d5\u05e9\u05e2\u05e8 \u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d5 \u05db\u05de\u05d5
\n\u05e6\u05de\u05e8 \u05e0\u05e7\u05d9 \u05d5\u05de\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05d4 \u05db\u05d5\u05dc\u05d5 \u05db\u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 \u05e0\u05d2\u05d4 \u05d5\u05db\u05d5\u05dc\u05d5 \u05de\u05dc\u05d0
\n\u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u05d4 \u05d1\u05e9\u05e8\u05d9\u05d5\u05df
\n9\u201cAs I kept watching, thrones were set in place, and the Ancient of Days took His seat.
\nHis clothing was white like snow,
\nand the hair of His head like whitest wool.
\nHis throne was flaming fire;
\nits wheels were blazing fire.
\n10 A river of fire was flowing,
\ncoming out from His presence.
\nThousands upon thousands served Him; ten thousand times ten thousand stood before Him.
\nThe court was convened,
\nand the books were opened.
\n7And every day, as the Holy One, blessed be He, is sitting upon the Throne of Judgment and judges the whole world, and the Books of the Living and the Books of the Dead are opened before Him, then all the children of heaven are standing before him in fear, dread, awe and trembling.
\nAt that time, (when) the Holy One, blessed is He, is sitting upon the Throne of Judgment to execute judgment, his garment is white as snow, the hair on his head as pure wool and the whole of his cloak is like the shining light. And he is covered with righteousness all over as with a coat of mail.<\/p>\n
Moreover, the concept of the court officers, \u05e2\u05d9\u05e8\u05d9\u05df, \u201cwatchers,\u201d and \u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\u05d9\u05df, \u201choly ones,\u201d in 3 En. 28:8\u20139 is probably taken from Daniel 4, which refers to celestial beings descending from heaven to carry out God\u2019s judgment on King Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 4:13, 17, 23). This is the only passage in the TaNaKh where these two words appear together, also in the context of divine judgment.
\nThe main difference between these two passages is when the judgment will take place. While the judgment scene in Dan. 7:9\u201310 is a unique eschatological event, taking place after the \u201ctime and times and half a time\u201d period (Dan. 7:25), and introduces the Messianic era (Dan. 7:13\u201314, 27), the judgment scene in 3 Enoch 28 suggests that the author understood this judgment as a daily occurrence (\u05d5\u05d1\u05db\u05dc \u05d5\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd, \u201cand every day\u201d). Regardless of this difference, the outcome of both judgment scenes are in the favor of the saints (Dan. 7:27) and the righteous (3 En. 28:10).
\nIt is in the author\u2019s concluding remark on the judgment scene (v. 10) where he explains the meaning of the names of the court officers (\u05e2\u05d9\u05e8\u05d9\u05df, \u201cwatchers,\u201d and \u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\u05d9\u05df, \u201choly ones\u201d) that the resurrection is mentioned.<\/p>\n
Why are they called \u2018Irin and Qaddishin?
\nBy reason that they sanctify the body and the spirit with lashes of fire on the third day of the judgment, as it is written (Hos. 6:2):
\n\u201cAfter two days will he revive us: on the third he will raise us up, and we shall live before him.\u201d
\n\u05d5\u05dc\u05de\u05d4 \u05e0\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0 \u05e9\u05de\u05df \u05e2\u05d9\u05e8\u05d9\u05df \u05d5\u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\u05d9\u05df.
\n\u05e2\u05dc \u05e9\u05dd \u05e9\u05de\u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05d2\u05d5\u05e3 \u05d5\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05e0\u05e9\u05de\u05d4
\n\u05d1\u05e4\u05dc\u05e1\u05d0\u05d5\u05ea \u05e9\u05dc \u05d0\u05e9 \u05d1\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05d2\u05f3 \u05e9\u05dc \u05d3\u05d9\u05df
\n\u05e9\u05e0\u05d0\u05de\u05f3 ((\u05d4\u05d5\u05e9\u05e2 \u05d1\u05f3 \u05d5\u05f3))
\n\u05d9\u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05de\u05d9\u05d5\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05d4\u05d2\u05f3 \u05d9\u05e7\u05d9\u05de\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d5\u05e0\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4 \u05dc\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9\u05d5\u05c3<\/p>\n
Their names reflect their function as being in charge of the sanctifying process of both the body (\u05d4\u05d2\u05d5\u05e3) and the soul (\u05d4\u05e0\u05e9\u05de\u05d4) with the help of purifying fire, during the three-day-long judgment process everyone will experience upon death. The author quotes Hos. 6:2 in support of this \u201cjudgment of the grave\u201d phase, which will culminate in the resurrection, the reviving (\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4) and raising up (\u05e7\u05d5\u05dd) of the person to life (\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4) before God. The only difference between Hos. 6:2 and the quote in 3 Enoch 28 is the abbreviation of \u201cthe third day,\u201d \u05d1\u05b7\u05bc\u05d9\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b7\u05e9\u05b0\u05bc\u05c1\u05dc\u05b4\u05d9\u05e9\u05b4\u05c1\u05d9 in Hosea and \u05d4\u05d2\u05f3 in 3 Enoch.
\nThis resurrection text discloses little regarding the nature of the resurrection apart from revealing that it will take place after a three-day purification process and involves both the dead person\u2019s body and soul. It also seems to suggest the resurrection to be universal and the said purification process will enable everyone to come before God, whether the person was righteous or wicked during his\/her life. This understanding is supported by the judgment scene in 3 Enoch 44, which reveals that the wicked and the intermediate souls will be brought down from the presence (\u05de\u05dc\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9) of God and the \u0160ekinah in Heaven, as they are receiving their sentences (v. 3), eternal fire in Gehinnom, or a limited purification process in Sheol before they will join the righteous souls for all eternity in Heaven. This passage also supports the body and soul aspect of the resurrection suggested in 3 En. 28:10. According to 3 En. 43:2 and 44:5\u20136, the resurrected souls will have bodies. However, these bodies seem to be different from the earthly ones (see Table 23). 3 Enoch 15:1 lends further support to this belief since Enoch\u2019s earthly body was transformed when he was taken to heaven.<\/p>\n
Table 23. The bodily forms of the soul<\/p>\n
15:1
\nRighteous
\nForthwith my flesh was changed into flames, my sinews into flaming fire, my bones into coals of burning juniper, the light of my eye-lids into splendor of lightnings, my eye-balls into fire-brands, the hair of my head into hot flames, all my limbs into wings of burning fire and the whole of my body into glowing fire.
\n43:2
\nAnd he lifted me up to his side, took me by his hand lifted me up near the Throne of Glory by the place of the Shekina; and he revealed the Throne of Glory to me, and he showed me the spirits that have been created and had returned: and they were flying above to Throne of Glory before the Holy One, blessed be He.
\n44:5
\nIntermediate
\nAnd behold the appearance of their faces (and, lo, it was) as the appearance of children of men, and their bodies like eagles. And not only that but (furthermore) the color of the countenance of the intermediate was like pale grey on account of their deeds, for there are stains upon them until they have become cleaned from their iniquity in the fire.
\n44:6
\nWicked
\nAnd the color of the wicked was like the bottom of a pot on account of the wickedness of their doings.<\/p>\n
b. 3 Enoch 44:7a<\/p>\n
In the second clear resurrection reference, Rabbi Ishmael is shown the souls of the patriarchs and the righteous (3 En. 44:7a) who bring petitions before God on behalf of God\u2019s people, to intervene and redeem His people and reveal His kingdom on earth (v. 7b):<\/p>\n
And I saw the spirits of the Patriarchs and Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and the rest of the righteous whom they have brought up out of their graves and who have ascended to the Heaven. And they were praying before the Holy One, blessed be He, saying in their prayer: \u201cLord of the Universe!\u201d
\n\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0\u05d9\u05ea\u05d9 \u05e0\u05e9\u05de\u05ea\u05df \u05e9\u05dc \u05d0\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd
\n\u05d0\u05d1\u05e8\u05d4\u05dd \u05d9\u05e6\u05d7\u05e7 \u05d5\u05d9\u05e2\u05e7\u05d1 \u05d5\u05e9\u05d0\u05e8 \u05d4\u05e6\u05d3\u05d9\u05e7\u05d9\u05dd
\n\u05e9\u05de\u05e2\u05de\u05d9\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05d5\u05ea\u05dd \u05de\u05e7\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05d4\u05dd \u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd
\n\u05dc\u05e8\u05e7\u05d9\u05e2
\n\u05d5\u05de\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05dc\u05d9\u05df \u05dc\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d4[\u05e7]\u05f4\u05d1\u05d4 \u05d5\u05d0\u05d5\u05de\u05e8\u05f3 \u05d1\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4
\n\u05e8\u05e9\u05f4\u05e2.<\/p>\n
This passage does not add any new details regarding the resurrection, but it does support the reading given to the first resurrection text (3 En. 28:10) and the judgment scene in 3 Enoch 43\u201344, that the righteous will spend eternity in Heaven upon the completion of the three-day judgment of the grave.<\/p>\n
c. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
3 Enoch presents a rather developed picture of the events that will take place upon the death of a person. The person will undergo a three-day cleansing process which will enable him\/her to stand before God\u2019s throne, before he\/she is resurrected and brought to Heaven in order to receive his\/her eternal sentence based on their behavior before the point of death, which is supported by the author\u2019s interpretation of Daniel 7. Based on this outcome, they will either remain in Heaven, spend eternity in Gehinnom, or be purified in Sheol before being able to join the righteous in Heaven. Thus, 3 Enoch lacks both an eschatological judgment and resurrection due to the individual purification process, resurrection, and judgment experienced by each person upon death. The person receives his\/her punishment and reward immediately following their sentencing. Hosea 6:2 served as an important resurrection text. Figure 9 illustrates the death and resurrection concept in 3 Enoch.<\/p>\n
Figure 9. Death and Resurrection in 3 Enoch.<\/p>\n
4. Sibylline Oracles<\/p>\n
The Sibylline Oracles is a collection of Jewish and Christian vaticinium ex eventu oracles ranging in date from the second century BCE to the seventh century CE (see Table 24 for their provenance). It is important to keep in mind that these oracles were collected over a 700-year time-period, and that although some of these oracles were of Jewish origin, they were later incorporated into a Christian composition or received a Christian redaction.<\/p>\n
Table 24. The provenance of the Sibylline Oracles<\/p>\n
Oracle
\nDate of Composition
\nReligious Affiliation
\nPlace of Origin
\nPrologue
\nafter 6th cent. CE
\nMost likely Christian
\nUnknown
\n1\u20132
\nTurn of the era
\nJewish
\nAsia Minor
\n2nd cent. CE
\nChristian redaction
\n3
\nafter mid-2nd cent. BCE but before 70 CE
\nJewish
\nEgypt
\n4
\nafter Alexander but before 80 CE
\nJewish
\nSyria
\n5
\nafter 70 CE but before 132 CE
\nJewish
\nEgypt
\n6
\nbefore c. 300 CE
\nChristian
\nSyria
\n7
\n2nd cent. CE
\nChristian
\nSyria
\n8
\nbefore 180 CE
\nJewish
\nMost likely
\nNear East
\nbefore 240\u2013320 CE
\nChristian redaction
\n11\u201314
\nafter the turn of the era but before 7th cent. CE
\nJewish\/Pagan?
\nEgypt<\/p>\n
These oracles are pseudepigraphical texts attributed to the legendary Sibyls of the antiquity, depicted as an aged pagan woman who gave ecstatic prophecies. The earliest references to the Sibyl are from the fifth and fourth century BCE, but numerous Sibyls appeared in the following centuries. Collins notes: \u201cthe most famous collection of Sibylline Oracles in antiquity was the official one at Rome,\u201d which was lost in 83 BCE, when the temple of Jupiter burned down.
\nThe prologue of the composition explains the importance of the oracles and why he, the author, decided to collect them. He explains that Sibyl is a Latin word meaning \u201cprophetess\u201d and that Sibyls \u201chave lived in various times and places and are ten in number\u201d (line 30). He adds: \u201cIn manifold ways they tell of certain past history, and equally, foretell future events, and, to speak simply, they can profit those who read them in no small way\u201d (line 27).
\nWith the exception of Oracles 11\u201313, the work is saturated with eschatological material. John Collins observes that \u201cthe eschatology of the Jewish oracles is political in nature,\u201d focusing on the future messianic kingdom, while the Christian oracles show \u201cextensive interest in the fate of the individual after death.\u201d He notes:<\/p>\n
Belief in a resurrection is attested in the Jewish Sibylline Oracles 4 but only very tersely. There is some doubt as to how much of the judgment scene in Sibylline Oracles 2 is Jewish or Christian. However, the developed interest in the suffering of the condemned is most prominently displayed in Sibylline Oracles 2, which is largely Christian, the Christian Sibylline Oracles 7, and the Christian parts of Sibylline 8. Sibylline Oracles 2 is especially characterized by its detailed interest in the fiery sufferings of the damned. Even in the Christian books, however, the paradise of the resurrected saints is an earthly one, depicted in terms of a transformation of the earth.<\/p>\n
This work will not try to harmonize all the resurrection texts appearing in this collection but will consider them within the context of each book. It will also pay close attention to the religious background of the various resurrection texts, whether they are Jewish or Christian. Moreover, this work will only focus on the passages that refer or allude to the TaNaKh.<\/p>\n
a. Book 1<\/p>\n
The first book of Sibyl is a Jewish oracle with a large Christian redaction. It gives an overview of the world history (1.1\u20134) and was probably divided into ten periods. However, the last three periods are now lost due to the large Christian addition. The first five periods of the book bring the reader from the Creation (1.5\u201364) down to the destruction of the earth at the Flood Narrative (1.282), the primeval history of Genesis 1\u201311. The last five periods of the world history start with the golden period after the Flood (1.283) down to the second destruction of the world, this time by fire, which is expanded upon in Book 2 (the eighth and ninth period is missing in the current composition). Both sets of five periods seem to follow the same pattern as Daniel 2, four declining ages followed by judgment\/destruction. The resurrection passage appears in the large Christian addition at the end of the book (1.324\u2013400; see the highlighted section of the text in Appendix A, 1.349, 355, 378). Reading this addition, it becomes apparent that the author has integrated key events from Jesus\u2019 life and included references from the TaNaKh, to create an oracle which would find its fulfillment in the New Testament Jesus, who even carries the numerical value of 888 (1.326\u2013329) as the promised Messiah (see the textual references added to the text in Appendix A). The Christian author has not attempted to find any support from the TaNaKh regarding this belief, only stating it was a part of Jesus\u2019 gospel message to the righteous when warning about the eschatological judgment (1.349), adding that Jesus, upon his death, even went down to the house of Hades to announce the resurrection hope to the already dead (1.377\u2013378). This passage also alludes to Jesus\u2019 resurrection miracles during his ministry (1.355) and to the resurrection of Jesus himself after three days in Hades (1.379). All these resurrection references take the belief for granted.<\/p>\n
b. Book 2<\/p>\n
The second book of the Sibylline Oracles focuses on the events taking place during the last period of world history (2.15) and the eschatological crises leading up to the last judgment (2.32\u2013347). Collins suggests that many Christian redactions to the original Jewish composition took place, considering numerous passages as certainly Christian (2.45\u201355, 177\u2013183, 190\u2013192, 238\u2013251, 254, 311\u2013312).
\nBefore the eschatological judgment takes place, Sibyl reveals the signs of the end (2.154\u2013173), the eschatological role of the Hebrews (2.174\u2013186), and the coming of Elijah (2.187\u2013195) followed by the complete destruction of the whole creation by fire (2.196\u2013213). This eschatological destruction will even include the \u201cimplacable Hades and the Heavenly vault\u201d (2.199\u2013200) so that \u201call will melt into one and separate into clear air\u201d (2.212\u2013213). After this total destruction, the universal judgment will take place (2.217\u2013219) which will decide whether a person \u201cacted lawlessly or righteously\u201d during their lifetime (2.93\u201394). This universal judgment would demand a universal resurrection.<\/p>\n
1) Sibylline Oracles 2.221\u2013251. The resurrection passage begins by noting the central role God holds in the resurrection process since He will give \u201csouls and breath and voice to the dead\u201d (2.221\u2013222), which, according to Gen. 2:7, are the crucial divine elements required to create life. The opening statement is followed by a detailed description of the resurrection process itself, taken from Ezek. 37:1\u201310 (see the highlighted sections), concluding that the universal resurrection will happen in a single day (2.226).<\/p>\n
Ezekiel 37:1\u201310 (CSB)
\nSibylline Oracles 2.221\u2013226
\n1 The hand of the LORD was on me, and He brought me out by His Spirit and set me down in the middle of the valley; it was full of bones. 2 He led me all around them. There were a great many of them on the surface of the valley, and they were very dry. 3Then He said to me, \u201cSon of man, can these bones live?\u201d I replied, \u201cLord GOD, only You know.\u201d 4 He said to me, \u201cProphesy concerning these bones and say to them: Dry bones, hear the word of the LORD!
\n5 This is what the Lord GOD says to these bones: I will cause breath to enter you, and you will live.
\n6 I will put tendons on you, make flesh grow on you, and cover you with skin. I will put breath in you so that you come to life. Then you will know that I am the LORD.\u201d7 So I prophesied as I had been commanded.
\nThen the heavenly one will give souls and breath and voice to the dead
\nWhile I was prophesying, there was a noise, a rattling sound, and the bones came together, bone to bone. 8 As I looked, tendons appeared on them, flesh grew, and skin covered them, but there was no breath in them.
\nand bones fastened with all kinds of joinings \u2026
\nflesh and sinews and veins and skin about the flesh, and the former hairs.
\n9 He said to me, \u201cProphesy to the breath, prophesy, son of man. Say to it: This is what the Lord GOD says: Breath, come from the four winds and breathe into these slain so that they may live!\u201d
\n10 So I prophesied as He commanded me; the breath entered them, and they came to life and stood on their feet, a vast army.
\nBodies of humans, made solid in heavenly manner, breathing and set in motion, will be raised on a single day.<\/p>\n
Comparing these two texts, it becomes clear Sibyl had Ezek. 37:1\u201310 in mind when describing the resurrection. Both texts view God as the source of life and the instigator of the resurrection process. The subject of both texts is death (loss of breath) and resurrection (regaining breath), illustrated by the dry bones which will once more come alive. The resurrection process, described in both texts, is a reversal of the decaying process which starts at the time of death, although Sibyl has added a few more steps to the process. There is, however, a major difference between these two accounts. The Ezekiel prophecy was given to the people of Israel, who found themselves in exile after the destruction of their nation, to give them hope of a future resurrection of that nation. Sibyl interpreted this prophecy universally, as a reference to the eschatological resurrection\u2014a necessary element of the eschatological judgment. Elledge argues, regarding the same interpretation of Ezekiel 37 found in 4Q385 frg. 2, \u201cif our author is reading Ezekiel 37 as a prophecy about the resurrection, then he [she] likely understood the resurrection as a physical reconstitution of the same body that had been lost in death.\u201d
\nIt may be of some importance that the text describes souls and breath in a more general sense (2.221) and that Book 2 does not show any interest in the fate of the soul upon the death of a person, specifying that the soul is an integral part of a person which lives on separately from the body upon death in wait for the resurrection, when it once more can join its recreated body. However, it could be argued that the mournful forms in Hades (2.230), the souls of men from the murky dark (2.217), and the heavenly vault (2.200) are the places of the wicked and the righteous souls who are awaiting the resurrection. Regardless, the main emphasis of the resurrection statement is the universal nature of the resurrection. In the Christian addition to this Oracle (2.238\u2013250), Moses will be present at the eschatological judgment, after he has put on flesh (2.245\u2013246), perhaps suggesting that he had a non-bodily existence before the time of judgment. The Oracle also mentions the presence of the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), some of the great prophets (Joshua, Daniel, Elijah, Habakkuk, and Jonah), and the martyrs killed by the Hebrews (2.246\u2013248), insinuating that they went to Heaven upon their death and came down with Christ and His angels to be present at the judgment.
\nThe universal nature of the resurrection is made clear in the verses following the opening resurrection statement (2.227\u2013237). Sibyl reveals that Uriel, the great angel, will lead all the mournful forms he has broken out of Hades to judgment. These forms would include \u201cthose of ancient phantoms, Titans and the Giants and such as the Flood destroyed\u201d (2.231\u2013232), \u201cthose whom the wave of the sea destroyed in the oceans\u201d (2.233), \u201cthose whom wild beasts and serpents and birds devoured\u201d (2.234), and \u201cthose whom the flesh-devouring fire destroyed by flame\u201d (2.236). In other words, none will escape God\u2019s judgment. The Oracle goes on to describe the judgment by the blazing river of fire which all have to pass through, the righteous will be saved while the wicked will be destroyed for all ages (2.252\u2013255). The text describes the punishment the wicked will experience in the burning fire (2.283\u2013310) through which they are repaying \u201cthreefold what evil deed they committed burning in much fire. They will all gnash their teeth, wasting away with thirst and raging violence\u201d (2.303\u2013306). Sybil also describes the reward given to the righteous (2.313\u2013338) who will live on a recreated earth.
\nCuriously, Sibyl notes that the righteous will be able to ask God to save the wicked \u201cfrom the raging fire and deathless gnashing\u201d (2.332). God will grant the righteous\u2019 wishes by releasing the wicked \u201cfrom the undying fire\u201d (2.334) and give them eternal life \u201cwith the immortals in the Elysian plain\u201d (2.337). This limit to the punishment of the wicked is refuted by the manuscripts belonging to the \u03c8 sources, which makes a point of refuting it by remarking that the fire \u201cwhich tortures the condemned will never cease.\u201d<\/p>\n
2) Concluding Remarks. In contrast to the resurrection reference found in the Jewish Oracles of Book 2, which was supported by Ezek. 37:1\u201310, the Christian resurrection reference (2.239) does not show any attempt to support it. Instead, the Oracle takes it for granted as an integral part of the eschatological judgment. The last Christian addition to the Book 2 (2.311\u2013312) seems to be aware of the seven-day period in which the souls are shown their eschatological destiny, Phase 1 of the state of the dead, in 2 Esd. 7:101 (see Fig. 5), but unlike 4 Ezra 7:102\u2013115 which makes clear that there will be no intercession for the ungodly in the day of judgment, 2.311\u2013312 states that this seven-day period is given to the souls \u201cfor repentance through the intercession of the holy virgin.\u201d<\/p>\n
c. Book 3<\/p>\n
There are only two brief resurrection references in Book 3 of the Sibylline Oracles. The first reference appears in a section (3.1\u201396) most scholars would dissociate from the rest of the book. Sibylline Oracles 3.63\u201374 reveals that one of the deceiving powers of Beliar is his ability to raise up the dead. This resurrection should not be confused with the eschatological resurrection which is linked with the eschatological judgment.
\nThe second resurrection passage (3.767\u2013776) does address the eschatological resurrection; however, the text does not reveal any details except that God had promised the pious \u201cto open the earth and the world and the gates of the blessed and all joys and immortal intellect and eternal cheer\u201d (3.769\u2013771).<\/p>\n
d. Book 4<\/p>\n
Book 4 contains oracles pertaining to the Hellenistic era and was probably updated towards the end of the first century CE since the Oracle about the rise of Rome (4.102\u201351) seems out of place and must have been added to an earlier version of the Oracle. The Oracle divides the history into ten generations and adds that these generations will be ruled by four different kingdoms (Assyrians will rule for six generations [4.49\u201353], the Medes for two generations [4.54\u201364], the Persians for one generation [4.65\u201387], and the last generation by the fourth kingdom, the Macedonians [4.88\u2013101]). The Roman kingdom, which is a fifth kingdom, breaks this pattern, supporting the notion that the section is a later addition to the Oracle. The resurrection passage appears in the conclusion of the expanded composition (4.179\u2013192) at the end of the tenth generation, as a part of the eschatological judgment (4.40\u201347, 183\u2013192). However, Collins believes this conclusion was probably the conclusion of the original Oracle too, thus dating this resurrection passage to the Macedonian period.
\nAs in 2.196\u2013213, the resurrection and judgment will take place after God has destroyed the whole earth by fire. He \u201cwill destroy the whole race of men and all cities and rivers at once, and the sea. He will destroy everything by fire, and it will be smoking dust\u201d (4.176\u2013178). When everything has turned into \u201cdusty ashes\u201d (4.179), God will quench the fire and resurrect all the people just as they were before (4.182). Like 2.221\u2013226, also 4.181 uses the imagery of Ezek. 37:1\u201310 with the same emphasis on God as the initiator, although this is a much more abbreviated reference: \u201cGod himself will again fashion the bones and ashes of men and he will raise them up mortals again as they were before\u201d (4.181\u2013182).
\nWhile there is a strong emphasis on the bodily resurrection in this text, it remains silent regarding the spirit\/soul of the person. Those whom God deems pious in the eschatological judgment will be rewarded with a pleasant life on a fertile earth (4.45\u201346, 187) while the impious will be punished in the fire of Gehenna (4.43\u201344, 184\u2013186).<\/p>\n
e. Book 6<\/p>\n
The sixth book of the Sibylline Oracle is a short hymn to Christ. Thus, there is no reference to the eschatological resurrection nor the judgment. However, this Christian hymn does state that Jesus will resurrect from the dead.<\/p>\n
f. Book 7<\/p>\n
The seventh book of the Sibylline Oracle, although Christian in origin, has a similar eschatology to that of the Jewish Oracles of Book 2 and 4; however, it lacks the organizational structure featured so prominently in Book 2 and 4 (the ten generations of world history of Books 1 and 2 and the four-kingdoms-ten-generations structure of Book 4). The large eschatological section of the book does not seem to follow a chronological order either (7.118\u2013151); like Books 2 and 4, it reveals that the earth will be completely consumed by fire (7.119\u2013123). At this point, Book 7 shifts to the destiny of the wicked who will \u201cburn in spirit by their perishing flesh for the years of ages forever,\u201d learning through dire torture \u201cthat it is not possible to deceive the law of God\u201d (7.126\u2013129). The resurrection passage (7.144\u2013145) does not add any new elements to the belief compared with Books 2 and 4\u2014it will happen after the fire has been quenched and a recreated world appears (7.140\u2013144), in which the resurrected righteous can live (7.144\u2013151) and be provided for by God, just as He did for the Israelites when He gave them manna in the wilderness (7.148\u2013149; cf. Exod. 16). Curiously, the eschatological judgment element is lacking in this book, although it is implied since the two categories of people, the wretched and the pure-minded people (7.124\u2013129 and 144\u2013145), who are punished and blessed, would require a judgment procedure by God to determine the category to which a person belonged. Moreover, this book does not state clearly that the wicked are a part of the eschatological resurrection, although this could be assumed, since the wicked would need to be resurrected after the all-consuming fire (7.120\u2013121) if they are to receive their eternal punishment (7.126\u2013131).<\/p>\n
g. Book 8<\/p>\n
The resurrection passages in the eighth book of the Sibylline Oracles (see Table 17) appear both in the first (8.1\u2013126) and the second (8.217\u2013500) half of the book. The first half is considered by most scholars to be of Jewish origin, while the second half is clearly a Christian composition. In the first resurrection passage (8.81\u201399), Rome\u2019s oracle of woes is compared with that of the wicked who will be judged by \u201cthe universal ruler himself\u201d (8.82). Describing the ultimate destiny of the Roman Empire (8.96\u201399), the oracle alludes to Job 1:21a and Genesis 3:19b, possibly following the resurrection reading seen in Targum Pseudo-Jonathan:<\/p>\n
Gen. 3:19 (MT)
\nGen. 3:19 (PJT)
\nJob 1:21
\nSib. Or. 8.96\u201399
\nYou will eat bread by the sweat of your brow until you return to the ground, since you were taken from it. For you are dust, and you will return to dust.
\nBy the labor of your hands you shall eat food until you turn again to the dust from which you was created: for dust you are, and unto dust you shall return; for from the dust it is to be that you are to arise, to render judgment and reckoning for all that you have done, in the day of the great judgment.
\nNaked I came from my mother\u2019s womb, and naked I will leave this life. The LORD gives, and the LORD takes away. Praise the name of Yahweh.
\nYou did not perceive whence you came, naked and unworthy to the light of the sun, so that you might go again naked to the same place and later come to judgment because you judged unjustly \u2026<\/p>\n
This resurrection passage does not reveal much about the resurrection itself, only that it will be a bodily one which will take place as a part of the eschatological and universal judgment.
\nThe second and the third resurrection texts appear at the beginning (8.169\u2013170) and towards the end (8.205\u2013208) of the eschatological upheavals section concluding the first half of the book (8.169\u2013216). While the second reference only associates the eschatological resurrection with the reign of the \u201choly prince\u201d who will \u201cgain control of the scepters of the whole world for all ages\u201d (8.169\u2013170), the third reference reveals some additional details. Describing the eschatological resurrection event, it alludes to Isa. 35:4\u20137 which concerns the future judgment and salvation of God. Although this text does not address the resurrection hope directly, it could be argued that it is implied in the eschatological judgment. The Oracle may also have been alluding to Isa. 29:18\u201319, which pertains to the future world renewal, individually and spiritually, when describing the eschatological changes that will take place following the eschatological resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n
Sib. Or. 8.205\u2013212
\nMt. 11:4\u20135
\nThere will be a resurrection of the dead and most swift racing of the lame, and the deaf will hear, and the blind will see, those who cannot speak will speak, and life and wealth will be common to all. The earth will equally belong to all, not divided by the walls or fences, and will then bear more abundant fruits. It will give fountains of sweet wine and white milk and honey \u2026
\n4Jesus replied to them, \u201cGo and report to John what you hear and see: 5the blind see, the lame walk, those with skin diseases are healed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the poor are told the good news [Isa. 61:1]<\/p>\n
Sib. Or. 8.205\u2013212
\nIsa. 29:18\u201319
\nIsa. 35:4\u20137
\nThere will be a resurrection of the dead and most swift racing of the lame, and the deaf will hear, and the blind will see, those who cannot speak will speak, and life and wealth will be common to all. The earth will equally belong to all, not divided by the walls or fences, and will then bear more abundant fruits. It will give fountains of sweet wine and white milk and honey \u2026
\n29:18On that day the deaf will hear the words of a document, and out of a deep darkness the eyes of the blind will see. 19The humble will have joy after joy in the LORD, and the poor people will rejoice in the Holy One of Israel.
\n35:4Be strong; do not fear! Here is your God; vengeance is coming. God\u2019s retribution is coming; He will save you.\u201d 5Then the eyes of the blind will be opened, and the ears of the deaf unstopped. 6Then the lame will leap like a deer, and the tongue of the mute will sing for joy, for water will gush in the wilderness, and streams in the desert; 7the parched ground will become a pool of water, and the thirsty land springs of water. In the haunt of jackals, in their lairs, there will be grass, reeds, and papyrus.<\/p>\n
The eschatological resurrection texts in the first half of the book do not show much interest in the afterlife, but they do present a physical resurrection to judgment which will result in a life for the righteous on a newly created world and a punishment in Hades for the wicked.
\nThe second half of the book (8.217\u2013500) begins with an acrostic poem on the judgment with several resurrection references (8.217\u2013250). The poem summarizes Jesus\u2019 role as the eschatological judge, savior, and king, noting that he will judge all flesh, both the faithful and the faithless (8.218\u2013223, 242), who will resurrect the dead by breaking the gates of Hades (8.226\u2013228) and by the trumpet blast (8.239\u2013242), who will punish the wicked by a torturous fire forever (8.228\u2013231), and he will rule as king with his iron shepherd\u2019s rod (8.218, 248).
\nThe second poem (8.251\u2013336) focuses on Jesus\u2019 earthly aspect by summarizing the key aspects of the gospel story (first coming) rather than the eschatological aspect of his Messianic mission (second coming), and states that resurrection hope and the eternal life is pending on believing in Jesus (8.255). The poem highlights Jesus\u2019 miracles of resurrecting the dead and curing the sick (8.286), noting that he willingly died so he could speak to the dead in Hades (8.293, 310\u2013311), and resurrected on the third day as the \u201cfirst of the resurrection\u201d (8.313\u2013314).
\nThe last resurrection reference appears in God\u2019s speech against idolatry towards the end of the book (8.359\u2013428). In this speech God makes clear that there are only two paths (8.399\u2013400), one that leads to life (the way of the righteous) and one that leads to death and eternal fire (the way of the wicked). At the end of time, God will raise the dead, both the righteous and the wicked (8.413\u2013416), and judge each person by fire. Those who behaved ethically toward people in need (those who were hungry, thirsty, and naked) will receive \u201cimmortal fruits,\u201d eternal light, and unfading life (8.404\u2013411), while the lawless souls will suffer in the eternal fire (8.401) since, according to 8.350\u2013358, they did not repent from their sins when they had the chance during the \u201cseven days of ages for repentance.\u201d<\/p>\n
h. Fragment 3<\/p>\n
Fragment 3 of the Sibylline corpus reveals an implied resurrection text in its speech against idolatry. The Oracle emphasizes God as the creator and the only one deserving worship. In fact, according to the text, only by becoming sober and \u201ccom[ing] to a prudent mind and know[ing] God the king\u201d (41\u201342) and honor Him (46) will a person \u201cinherit life, dwelling in the luxuriant garden of Paradise for the time of eternity, feasting on sweet bread from starry heave\u201d (47\u201349), otherwise, he\/she will be \u201cburned with torches all day, throughout eternity\u201d (44).<\/p>\n
5. Apocryphon of Ezekiel<\/p>\n
Josephus notes that Ezekiel wrote \u201cand left behind him in writing two books\u201d (Ant. 10.5.1 [79]), the second of which may have been Apocryphon of Ezekiel. Evans notes that \u201cthe Apocalypse of Ezekiel was probably written in either Hebrew or Greek between 50 BCE and 50 CE.\u201d Only five fragments of this composition have survived, Fragment 1 being the longest. It is this fragment that is most interest for this study since it addresses the eschatological resurrection and judgment with the aid of the parable of the lame and the blind keepers. Unlike the other fragments, it has been preserved both in Greek and Hebrew versions. The Greek version attributes the parable to the Apocryphon of Ezekiel (see introduction of fragment, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u038a\u03b5\u03b6\u03b5\u03ba\u03b9\u1f74\u03bb \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f30\u03b4\u03af\u1ff3 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03c6\u1ff3) and is preserved in Against Heresies (64.70, 5\u201317) written by Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis (Cyprus), thus in a Christian composition. The Hebrew versions of the parable, however, appear in several Rabbinical texts and are attributed to either Rabbi Judah haNasi (c. 200 CE) or Rabbi Ishmael (c. 130 CE), although one version is without attribution. By comparing the various Hebrew versions of the parable, James R. Mueller concludes that Lev. Rab. 4:5 probably \u201cpreserves the more original form of the story,\u201d although it is difficult to determine if the Apocryphon had a Jewish or Christian origin.<\/p>\n
a. Fragment 1<\/p>\n
The parable about the lame and the blind men who together caused mischief in the garden of the king and later were judged together as one person, serves the same purpose in both the Christian and the Jewish texts. The parable illustrates why it is necessary for an eschatological bodily resurrection, and why the reward or punishment cannot only be given to the soul. Since both the body (\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1\/\u05d2\u05d5\u05e3) and soul (\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f74\/\u05e0\u05e9\u05de\u05d4) were together when a person behaved wickedly, it is necessary for both the body and soul to be once more together when the same person will be judged for his\/her wicked deeds. However, the Christian and the Jewish version of the parable is used to explain two different perceived resurrection texts from the TaNaKh.
\nEpiphanius, in his attack on Origen\u2019s position regarding a resurrection of a spiritual body as supposed to a physical body, quotes Isa. 26:19 from the Septuagint and said parable from the prophet Ezekiel to refute what he considered to be Origen\u2019s heresy, and prove it has to be a resurrection of a physical body.<\/p>\n
The Apocryphon of Ezekiel
\nIsaiah 26:19\u201321 (BGT and LXE)
\n\u1f08\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03c1\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u1f31\u03bd \u1f41 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u1f21\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2.
\n19\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03af \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03c1\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c6\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b3\u1fc7\u00b7 \u1f21 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f34\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b3\u1fc6 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 20\u03b2\u03ac\u03b4\u03b9\u03b6\u03b5 \u03bb\u03b1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b8\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03ac \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b8\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03b2\u03b7\u03b8\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f15\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f02\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03bb\u03b8\u1fc3 \u1f21 \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u1f74 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 21\u1f30\u03b4\u03bf\u1f7a \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03c0\u03ac\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03cd\u03c8\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f21 \u03b3\u1fc6 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b1\u1f37\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03cd\u03c8\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u1fc3\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2
\n\u201cFor the dead will be raised and those in the tombs will be lifted up,\u201d speaks the prophet.
\n19The dead shall rise, and they that are in the tombs shall be raised, and they that are in the earth shall rejoice: for the dew from thee is healing to them: but the land of the ungodly shall perish.
\n20Go, my people, enter into thy closets, shut thy door, hide thyself for a little season, until the anger of the Lord have passed away. 21For, behold, the Lord is bringing wrath from his holy place upon the dwellers on the earth: the earth also shall disclose her blood, and shall not cover her slain.<\/p>\n
It is reasonable to assume Isa. 26:19\u201321 was not quoted or even referred to in conjunction with the parable in its original setting of the Apocryphon of Ezekiel, since the reference appears in the introduction written by Epiphanius, and the rabbinic versions of the parable refer to Ps. 50:4 as the proof-text. Regardless, Epiphanius understood Isa. 26:19 to speak of a physical bodily resurrection and may also have viewed vv. 20\u201321 as a reference to the eschatological judgment which would punish the wicked, much like the broader context of the parable in which both the lame and the blind men were held responsible for the wickedness they committed together at the king\u2019s judgment.
\nIn all but one of the Rabbinic versions of the parable (Mashal), Ps. 50:4 appears in the explanation of the parable (Nimshal). This judgment psalm is used as a proof-text showing that in the same way the blind and the lame men had to be judged together, since they committed the wicked deed together as one person, so must the spirit and the body be reunited before they can be judged together and receive their sentence, punishment or reward.<\/p>\n
Psalm 50:1\u20136 CSB
\nb. Sanhedrin 91b
\n1\u05de\u05b4\u05d6\u05b0\u05de\u05b9\u05d5\u05e8 \u05dc\u05b0\u05d0\u05b8\u05e1\u05b8\u05e3 \u05d0\u05b5\u05dc
\n\u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05d9\u05b0\u05d4\u05d5\u05b8\u05d4 \u05d3\u05b4\u05bc\u05d1\u05b6\u05bc\u05e8 \u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05bc\u05e7\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0\u05be\u05d0\u05b8\u05e8\u05b6\u05e5
\n\u05de\u05b4\u05de\u05b4\u05bc\u05d6\u05b0\u05e8\u05b7\u05d7\u05be\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05de\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1 \u05e2\u05b7\u05d3\u05be\u05de\u05b0\u05d1\u05b9\u05d0\u05b9\u05d5\u05c3
\n2\u05de\u05b4\u05e6\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05b9\u05bc\u05d5\u05df \u05de\u05b4\u05db\u05b0\u05dc\u05b7\u05dc\u05be\u05d9\u05b9\u05e4\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b9\u05d5\u05e4\u05b4\u05d9\u05e2\u05b7\u05c3
\n3\u05d9\u05b8\u05d1\u05b9\u05d0 \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b5\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u05bc \u05d5\u05b0\u05d0\u05b7\u05dc\u05be\u05d9\u05b6\u05d7\u05b1\u05e8\u05b7\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d0\u05b5\u05e9\u05c1\u05be\u05dc\u05b0\u05e4\u05b8\u05e0\u05b8\u05d9\u05d5 \u05ea\u05b9\u05bc\u05d0\u05db\u05b5\u05dc
\n\u05d5\u05bc\u05e1\u05b0\u05d1\u05b4\u05d9\u05d1\u05b8\u05d9\u05d5 \u05e0\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c2\u05e2\u05b2\u05e8\u05b8\u05d4 \u05de\u05b0\u05d0\u05b9\u05d3\u05c3
\n4\u05d9\u05b4\u05e7\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05be\u05d4\u05b7\u05e9\u05b8\u05bc\u05c1\u05de\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05dd \u05de\u05b5\u05e2\u05b8\u05dc
\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05e8\u05b6\u05e5 \u05dc\u05b8\u05d3\u05b4\u05d9\u05df \u05e2\u05b7\u05de\u05b9\u05bc\u05d5\u05c3
\n5\u05d0\u05b4\u05e1\u05b0\u05e4\u05d5\u05bc\u05be\u05dc\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d7\u05b2\u05e1\u05b4\u05d9\u05d3\u05b8\u05d9
\n\u05db\u05b9\u05bc\u05e8\u05b0\u05ea\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d1\u05b0\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9 \u05e2\u05b2\u05dc\u05b5\u05d9\u05be\u05d6\u05b8\u05d1\u05b7\u05d7\u05c3
\n6\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b7\u05bc\u05d2\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05d3\u05d5\u05bc \u05e9\u05b8\u05c1\u05de\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05dd \u05e6\u05b4\u05d3\u05b0\u05e7\u05b9\u05d5
\n\u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05be\u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05e9\u05b9\u05c1\u05e4\u05b5\u05d8 \u05d4\u05d5\u05bc\u05d0 \u05e1\u05b6\u05dc\u05b8\u05d4\u05c3
\n\u05d0\u05e3 \u05d4\u05e7\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9 \u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05de\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0 \u05e0\u05e9\u05de\u05d4
\n\u05d5\u05d6\u05d5\u05e8\u05e7\u05d4 \u05d1\u05d2\u05d5\u05e3 \u05d5\u05d3\u05df \u05d0\u05d5\u05ea\u05dd \u05db\u05d0\u05d7\u05d3
\n\u05e9\u05e0\u05d0\u05de\u05e8 \u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05dc \u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05de\u05e2\u05dc
\n\u05d5\u05d0\u05dc \u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e5 \u05dc\u05d3\u05d9\u05df \u05e2\u05de\u05d5
\n\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05dc \u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05de\u05e2\u05dc \u05d6\u05d5 \u05e0\u05e9\u05de\u05d4
\n\u05d5\u05d0\u05dc \u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e5 \u05dc\u05d3\u05d9\u05df \u05e2\u05de\u05d9 \u05d6\u05d4 \u05d4\u05d2\u05d5\u05e3
\n1 A psalm of Asaph. Yahweh, the god of gods speaks; He summons the earth from east to west. 2 From Zion, the perfection of beauty, God appears in radiance. 3 Our God is coming; He will not be silent! Devouring fire precedes Him, and a storm rages around Him. 4 On high, He summons heaven and earth in order to judge His people. 5 \u201cGather My faithful ones to Me, those who made a covenant with Me by sacrifice.\u201d 6 The heavens proclaim His righteousness, for God is the Judge. Selah
\nSo the Holy One, blessed be he, brings the spirit and placing (it) in the body, he also judges them as one. For it is said, \u2018He will call to the heavens from above and the earth to judge his people.\u2019 \u2018He will call to the heaven from above\u2019\u2014this is the spirit. \u2018And the earth to judge his people\u2019\u2014this is the body.<\/p>\n
The Rabbis interpreted the reference to \u201cheaven\u201d (v. 4a) as a reference to the place where the soul went upon death while considering the \u201cearth\u201d (v. 4b) as the final resting place of the body at the time of burial. Thus, on the day of judgment, God would call both to heaven and to the earth, so the soul and the body of the deceased can once more be unified in order for the unified person to be judged in the eschatological judgment.<\/p>\n
b. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
The parable of the lame and the blind man appearing in Fragment 1 of the Apocryphon of Ezekiel serves the same general purpose both in the Christian and the Rabbinic texts. It was used to illustrate the need for the body and spirit to once more reunite at the time of the resurrection in order to be judged as one unit. Thus, the parable speaks against the Platonic or Gnostic notion (cosmological dualism) that the soul, \u201cthe spiritual,\u201d is pure while the body, \u201cthe physical or material,\u201d should be viewed as impure, the source of evil which had imprisoned the soul. They cannot be evaluated separately since they both act together. Moreover, the parable also makes it clear that everyone will be held responsible for their deeds. It was also noted that each of the religious traditions explained this parable by quoting the TaNaKh to prove the view presented by the parable, the Christian version used Isa. 26:19 while the rabbinic versions used Ps. 50:4. Both the Christian and the Rabbinic use of the parable seems to suggest a bodily and earthly existence following the resurrection. However, Fragment 1 does not expand on the final destiny of the righteous and the wicked.
\nFurthermore, the parable does not reveal much regarding the period between death and resurrection, except, according to the rabbinic versions, that the souls of the people of God (\u05e2\u05de\u05d5) will dwell in heaven until they will be reunited with their earthly bodies at the time of the eschatological judgment. The whereabouts of the wicked souls are of no interest. The Christian text, on the other hand, does not show any interest in the location of the souls. Instead, it seems to focus on the resurrection and judgment of the wicked, those who were not invited to the king\u2019s feast, a possible allusion to the \u201cgreat feast\u201d of Mt. 22:2, or those who were drafted into the king\u2019s service.
\nIt is unclear whether this parable in its original context of the Apocryphon of Ezekiel presented a universal resurrection and judgment view. Be that as it may, the two faith traditions used this parable to focus on different aspects of the eschatological resurrection and judgment. This becomes clear when considering the context of the biblical texts used by each faith group when explaining the parable\u2014Isa. 26:19\u201321, quoted in the Christian version, focuses on the judgment of the wicked, while Ps. 50:1\u20136, quoted in the Rabbinic versions, focuses on the resurrection of the righteous.<\/p>\n
6. Apocalypse of Zephaniah<\/p>\n
The Apocalypse of Zephaniah was most likely composed \u201cin Greek sometime between 100 BCE and 70 CE,\u201d by a Jewish author living in the Greek-speaking diaspora, possibly in Egypt. Carl Schmidt suggests the present text, which was partly preserved in two manuscripts by the Coptic Christians, only account for a quarter of the original composition. Although fragmentary in its current form, the text consists of several self-contained scenes and episodes which suggests some type of overall structure. The longest surviving manuscript, the eight-page long Akhmimic manuscript, gives a travelogue of Zephaniah\u2019s guided journey through the heavenly spheres which included the place of the righteous and the wicked souls, contains seven episodes (Apoc. Zeph. 1\u20138), and concludes with four trumpet scenes (Apoc. Zeph. 9\u201312).
\nIn its current form, there are two basic themes appearing in the manuscript. The first, the importance and the call for repentance (Apoc. Zeph. B6; 7:8) which will bring God\u2019s compassion upon the tormented souls (2:8\u20139; 10:10\u201314; 11:2\u20136). The second and most important, the universal nature of God\u2019s judgment in the form of the trial of Hades (Apoc. Zeph. 7\u20138) and a future (perhaps eschatological) judgment of the unrepented souls who are being punished in Hades until that time (Apoc. Zeph. 10:11).
\nThe trial of Hades takes place after the soul has been brought down to Hades, at the point of death, and is based on the records kept by the accuser (bad deeds) and God (the good deeds). The lack of reference to an eschatological resurrection in this apocalypse may be due to the trial of Hades and final destiny of the righteous, the heavenly city (Apoc. Zeph. 2:7; 5:1\u20136; 9:4\u20135), thus ruling out the necessity of a future judgment of the righteous and the need for an earthly body. However, the righteous souls will be clothed in angelic garments (8:3), while even the wicked souls will have a physical form (10:4\u20139, 12\u201314). Although resurrection is not specifically mentioned\u2014it is implied when the soul passes the trial and is able to escape Hades and \u201ccross over the crossing place\u201d (7:9; 8:1) in order to enter the heavenly realm possessing a celestial body (8:3). The resurrection is also hinted at as a possibility for unrighteous souls if they are repenting from their sins (10:10\u201311). The text is also clear that the Patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) but also Enoch, Elijah, and David are already in Heaven (9:4), suggesting that at least the patriarchs and King David must have resurrected.
\nThis apocalypse does not attempt to prove the afterlife belief which includes a resurrection of the righteous or repentant, by referring or alluding to the TaNaKh\u2014it is only assumed. Figure 10 illustrates the death and resurrection concept in the Apocalypse of Zephaniah.<\/p>\n
Figure 10. Death and Resurrection in the Apocalypse of Zephaniah.<\/p>\n
7. Other Ezra Texts<\/p>\n
In addition to 2 Esdras, which was considered in Chapter 2, there are four other texts that are pseudepigraphically attributed to Ezra of the TaNaKh. They are the Greek Apocalypse of Ezra (150\u2013850 CE), Vision of Ezra (350\u2013600 CE), Questions of Ezra (date unknown) and Revelation of Ezra (X > 9th cent. CE), all of which have a Christian provenance.
\nApart from the strictly astrological book of Revelation of Ezra, these works all deal with God\u2019s justice and what will happen to the righteous and the wicked upon death. According to these books, the souls of the righteous will be rewarded in heaven (Gk. Apoc. Ezra 1:12; 5:20\u201322; Vis. Ezra 63\u201366; Ques. Ezra A3, 6, 10, 14\u201315, 20; B2, 6), while the wicked will be punished in Tartarus (Gk. Apoc. Ezra 4:5\u201324; 5:2\u20136, 23\u201328; Vis. Ezra 1\u20132, 8\u201355) or in the eternal fire (Ques. Ezra A3, 10, 14\u201315; B2, 6\u201314). The Greek Apocalypse of Ezra and Questions of Ezra both allude (Gk. Apoc. Ezra 2:1; 5:22; Ques. Ezra A10) or mention (Gk. Apoc. Ezra 4:36; 7:2; Ques. Ezra A5; B3, 11\u201314) the resurrection belief (see the highlighted passages in Appendix A), although they do not quote or allude to the TaNaKh in support of this belief. Figures 11\u201313 illustrate the death and resurrection concept in these books.<\/p>\n
Figure 11. Death and Resurrection in the Greek Apocalypse of Ezra.<\/p>\n
Figure 12. Death and \u201cResurrection\u201d in the Vision of Ezra.<\/p>\n
Figure 13. Death and \u201cResurrection\u201d in the Questions of Ezra.<\/p>\n
8. Apocalypse of Sedrach<\/p>\n
The Apocalypse of Sedrach (second\u2014fifth cent. CE) is probably of Jewish origin (the apocalyptic section) but was later adopted by a Christian community who added the sermon of love (Apoc. Sedr. 1) and may have replaced references to Michael with ones to Jesus. In this book, Sedrach questions God\u2019s justice in punishing humans and argues that He should show mercy towards those who repent. This book presents a sharp distinction between soul (10:1\u20134) and body (11:1\u20139, 12\u201313). The soul enters a person while still in the womb (9:1), it spreads out to all the parts of the body (9:2), and is removed through the mouth at the time of death with great difficulty (9:3). Upon death, a person\u2019s soul \u201cascends where the Lord calls\u201d it, while the \u201cwretched body goes away for judgment\u201d (11:11). The righteous soul, like Sedrach, is brought to Paradise\/Third Heaven (2:5; 9:1; 16:6), God\u2019s Kingdom (15:5), or the \u201cbosom of Abraham\u201d (14:5) to \u201cbe with the just ones in a place of refreshment and rest\u201d (16:3). The soul of the wicked, however, will \u201csee the place of punishment\u201d (4:1; 14:9; 16:3). Thus, there would be no need for an eschatological and universal judgment. However, there is one clear resurrection statement in the Christian sermon on love which states that the \u201cSon of God\u201d came down, thus \u201cdeath was trampled down, Hades was made captive, Adam was recalled (from death), and through love one flock was made thereafter of angels and men\u201d (1:21). Christ also tells Sedrach, \u201cParadise has been opened to you, and after dying you will live\u201d (12:1), implying that death is not the end, but the beginning. The parting of the soul from the body at the point of death is described as a kind of resurrection of the soul. Be that as it may, there are no references or allusions to the TaNaKh regarding the resurrection belief.<\/p>\n
9. 2 Baruch<\/p>\n
2 Baruch, also known as the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch, was originally \u201ccomposed in Hebrew or Aramaic, translated in to Greek and ultimately translated from Greek into Syriac,\u201d as noted in the heading of the book. This book was written sometime after the cataclysmic events of the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, although the narrative setting is the Babylonian destruction of the First Temple in 587\/6 BCE. In both cases, there was a need for encouraging messages to the people. In the same way as Jeremiah and Baruch gave encouraging words to the Jewish people who experienced this catastrophe, both in the land of Israel but also to those already living in the Babylonian and Assyrian diaspora, encouraging messages were given once more by the words of \u201cBaruch\u201d to the Jews experiencing the second destruction of the Temple.
\nThe universal eschatological resurrection hope, judgment and reward\/punishment of the righteous and the wicked, and references to the \u201cWorld to come\u201d proliferate the book. According to 2 Baruch, the eschatological resurrection will take place after \u201ca period of national exaltation\u201d by the Messiah and will introduce a second phase of the salvation process (2 Bar. 29; 44:8\u201312; 73\u201374). The \u201cApocalypse of the Clouds\u201d (2 Bar. 53\u201374) divides the present history into twelve alternating good and evil time-periods which culminates with the Messianic era (2 Bar. 28\u201329). Collins observes that this Messianic period will be limited (2 Bar. 40:3) and thus only provides \u201ca temporal fulfillment of national eschatology before the resurrection and final judgment,\u201d introducing the \u201cworld to come,\u201d which will be the second and final stage of the salvation process (2 Bar. 30). The eschatological time-line of 2 Baruch (Fig. 14) is similar to that of 4 Ezra (Figure 4) in the sense that the Messianic era will take place before the universal resurrection\/judgment and the eternal reward for the righteous. However, there are also some important differences. Notably, unlike the three-stage worldview of 4 Ezra, with its seven-day long period of \u201cprimeval silence,\u201d 2 Baruch presents a two-stage-worldview which transitions from the present world to the world to come through the transformation of the righteous following the resurrection. In both eschatological time-lines, the resurrection and judgment functions as the beginning of the new age, which is also the case in the book of Revelation (Rev. 20:4\u20136).<\/p>\n
Figure 14. The Two-Stage Worldview Presented in 2 Baruch.<\/p>\n
Unlike 4 Ezra, which reveals that the Messianic Kingdom will last for 400 years, no such information is given in 2 Baruch. It only notes that the Messianic period is the final \u201cbright\u201d period leading up to the \u201cworld to come.\u201d Similarly, 2 Baruch does not reveal the final destiny of the Messiah at the end of his period of reign, which is death in the case of 4 Ezra 7:28\u201329. The book of Revelation does not present a Messianic Kingdom before the eschatological resurrection\/judgment.
\n2 Baruch does not state clearly the location of the \u201cworld to come\u201d or Paradise (e.g. 2 Bar. 48:50), whether it will be otherworldly (2 Bar. 51:3, 11) or on a renewed earth (2 Bar. 32:6; 44:13; 57:2) as is the case in 4 Ezra. The book of Revelation, however, presents a two stage view, in which the righteous will spend a millennium with God in heaven (Rev. 20:4\u20136) before God and the righteous will return to a renewed earth (Rev. 21:1, 4), bringing the New Jerusalem with them (Rev. 21:2, 9\u201327; 22:1\u20135), and dwell there for all eternity (Rev. 22:5).
\nApart from the many allusions to the eschatological resurrection appearing in 2 Baruch, the following three references are explicit: 2 Bar. 30:2; 42:8; 49\u201350, the last of which gives the most detailed description. However, this study will also consider 2 Baruch 14:10\u201314 since it strongly implies the universal resurrection and appears in a context with strong links to biblical wisdom literature.<\/p>\n
a. 2 Baruch 14:10\u201314<\/p>\n
Daewoong Kim observes \u201c2 Baruch deliberately uses the biblical sapiential tradition and closely connects it with the apocalyptical tradition in the book of Daniel.\u201d In 2 Baruch 14, Kim sees \u201cJob\u2019s theological skepticism\u201d expressed in \u201cBaruch\u2019s five-fold rhetorical questions that contain a polyphonic voice (2 Bar. 14:8\u20139).\u201d Both the book of Job and 2 Baruch 14 address the issue of theodicy and question the orthodox view, presented in Deuteronomy (Deut. 28\u201330) and emphasized in Proverbs (e.g. 9:9\u201310, 17; 14:27; 19:23), that the righteous will receive blessings while the wicked will be punished. Like Job, the righteous who experienced the destruction and were massacred by the hand of the Babylonians (i.e. Romans) suffered unjustly (Job 1\u20132; 32:1\u20132; 2 Bar. 14:3\u20137). Both books recognize the limitations of human wisdom, and 2 Baruch contrasts this limitation with God\u2019s ultimate wisdom by the use of the five-fold rhetorical questions which echoes the book of Job:<\/p>\n
Who can understand your judgment? (2 Bar. 14:8a)
\nWould you really challenge My justice? (Job 40:8a)
\nWho can explore the depth of your way? (2 Bar. 14:8b)
\nBut God understands the way to wisdom, and He knows its location. (Job 28:23)
\nWho can discern the majesty of your path? (2 Bar. 14:9a)
\nWho can discern your incomprehensible counsel? (2 Bar. 14:9b)
\nWho is this who obscures My counsel with ignorant words? (Job 38:2)
\nWho of those who are born has ever discovered the beginning and the end of your wisdom? (2 Bar. 14:9c)<\/p>\n
The author of 2 Baruch acknowledges that God\u2019s wisdom cannot be challenged and would seem to agree with God\u2019s answer when He finally speaks to Job (Job 38:1\u201342:6). It should be noted that God never answers Job\u2019s questions (Job 7:11\u201321). Instead, God makes it clear that only He is truly wise, thus, Job should place his trust in Him, because only the wise knows the best course of action in every situation. Interestingly, Job\u2019s comment that \u201cMy days are swifter than a weaver\u2019s shuttle and are spent without hope. Oh, remember that my life is a breath [\u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7]!\u201d (Job 7:6\u20137a) is also expressed by Baruch, who states: \u201cFor we all have been made like breath. For as breath ascends without human control and vanishes, so it is with the nature of men, who do not know what will happen to them in the end\u201d (2 Bar. 14:10\u201311).
\nThese sentiments are shared by Qohelet, who also observes the limitations of wisdom and concludes that everything is hevel, nothingness. He writes that both humans and animals will die and return to dust from where they came, adding \u201cWho knows if the spirit (\u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7) of people rises upward and the spirit (\u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7) of animals goes downward to the earth?\u201d (Eccl. 3:19\u201321). Moreover, Qohelet also laments the perversion of justice in which the righteous perish while the wicked prosper (Eccl. 7:15; 8:12\u201314). Like Job, Qohelet does not reach a satisfactory solution to the problem of theodicy but concludes that a person should remember God (Eccl. 12:1, 6), adding that, although everything is hevel, one should still fear God and keep his commandments since every work will be brought into judgment (Eccl. 12:13\u201314). This last statement could be an allusion to a future resurrection.
\nIn contrast to Job and Qohelet, 2 Baruch solves the problem of theodicy by introducing the resurrection hope. He states:<\/p>\n
12For the righteous wait rightly for the end and without fear depart from this life, because they possess with you the power of the deeds that are kept in reservoir. 13For this reason, also, they leave this world [or: age] behind without fear, and trusting with gladness they are waiting to receive the world [or: age] that you have promised them. (2 Bar. 14:12\u201313)<\/p>\n
The righteous have nothing to fear since God remembers their righteous deeds which are stored in the heavenly treasuries, a concept which is well attested in both the New Testament and in Early Rabbinic Judaism.
\nRegardless of the destiny of the righteous and the wicked in this world, God reveals to Baruch that the wicked will receive their just punishment since he\/she broke the Law and was thus aware of his\/her transgressions (2 Bar. 15:1\u20137). God emphasizes the world to come is made for the righteous who will be crowned with great glory (2 Bar. 15:7\u20138).<\/p>\n
b. 2 Baruch 30:1\u20135<\/p>\n
The first explicit resurrection text appears in 2 Bar. 30:1\u20135, which reveals this resurrection to be universal, involving both the righteous and the wicked, and it will take place at the end of the Messianic age (v. 1a). At that time, the treasuries will be opened and the souls will be released, the souls of the righteous will enjoy themselves and not be sad (v. 2) since \u201cthey know that the time has come of which it is said that it is the end of times\u201d (v. 3). However, the souls of the wicked will see the joy of the righteous and \u201cwaste away\u201d since they \u201cknow that their torment has come and that their perditions have arrived\u201d (vv. 4\u20135). There are no allusions nor references to the TaNaKh in this resurrection text.<\/p>\n
c. 2 Baruch 42:7\u20138<\/p>\n
The second explicit resurrection statement appears in 2 Bar. 42:8, following the Apocalypse of the Forest, the Vine, the Fountain, and the Cedar (2 Bar. 36\u201340), in God\u2019s expansion on the apostates and the believers (2 Bar. 41\u201343:3). Like 2 Baruch 30, this second resurrection statement also appears at the end of the Messianic age (2 Bar. 40:3); however, this passage is closely related to the apocalyptic vision of Dan. 2:31\u201345 and Dan. 7:2\u201328.
\nSimilar to Daniel 2, the apocalyptic vision in 2 Baruch 36\u201337 is also divided into four kingdoms followed by the Messianic age. The first kingdom in both visions is the Babylonian kingdom, the power which destroyed Zion (Dan. 2:37\u201338; 7:4\u20135; 2 Bar. 39:2), which will be followed by two other kingdoms (Persia and Greece). The fourth kingdom (Dan. 2:40; 7:7\u20138, 11, 19\u201326; 2 Bar. 39:5\u20136) is presented as \u201charsher and more evil than those which were before it\u201d (2 Bar. 39:5; cf. Dan. 2:40; 7:7, 19, 23), and this kingdom \u201cwill reign a multitude of times\u201d (a possible reference to the \u201ctime, times, half a time\u201d period of the little horn) and \u201cit will rule the times and exalt itself\u201d (2 Bar. 39:5\u20136; cf. Dan. 7:25). Although neither Daniel nor 2 Baruch names this fourth kingdom, it could be assumed that the author of 2 Baruch considered this fourth kingdom to represent the Roman Empire which destroyed Zion in the year 70 CE.
\nIn both Daniel and 2 Baruch, this fourth kingdom will be destroyed by the Messiah, who will establish his kingdom (2 Bar. 39:7; Dan. 2:44; 7:14, 27) and will convict the last evil ruler (2 Bar. 40:1\u20132), a possible allusion to the little horn of Dan. 7:8, 11, 24\u201325, thus protecting the \u201crest of my [God\u2019s] people who will be found in the place that I have chosen\u201d (2 Bar. 40:2; cf. Dan. 7:27). Both Daniel and 2 Baruch note that the dominion of God\u2019s Anointed will \u201clast forever\u201d (2 Bar. 40:3; Dan. 2:44\u201345; 7:14, 27). Unlike Daniel\u2019s version, the Messianic kingdom in 2 Baruch seems to be of limited time: the dominion of God\u2019s Anointed \u201cwill last forever until the world of corruption has ended and until the times which have been mentioned before have been fulfilled\u201d (2 Bar. 40:3).
\nBoth Daniel and Baruch ask for more details regarding certain parts of the visions\u2014Daniel regarding the reign of the little horn (Dan. 7:19\u201320), and Baruch regarding the time of the corruption (2 Bar. 41:1\u20136). In both expansions, the vision presents two groups of people, God\u2019s Saints, who keep His Law and who will receive all the good promises (2 Bar. 42:2; Dan. 7:22), and the wicked, who have rejected the Law and \u201cmingled themselves with the seed of the mingled nations\u201d (2 Bar. 42:4) or have associated themselves with the \u201clittle horn\u201d (Dan. 7:21). Unlike Daniel 2 and 7, 2 Bar. 42:7\u20138 concludes the Messianic age with an universal resurrection, stating: \u201cFor corruption will take away those who belong to it, and life those who belong to it. And dust will be called, and told, \u2018Give back that which does not belong to you and rise up all that you have kept until its own time.\u2019 \u201d The two-stage salvation process in 2 Baruch may be an interpretation of the Son of Man passage in Dan. 7:9\u201314 and the Michael text in Dan. 12:1, which could be read as a reference to a limited Messianic reign before the eschatological resurrection described in Dan. 12:2\u20133, 13. Be that as it may, the third explicit and most extensive resurrection text in 2 Baruch is also the text most closely connected with the resurrection text in Daniel 12.<\/p>\n
d. 2 Baruch 49\u201351<\/p>\n
The third explicit resurrection text follows a section revealing what will happen to the wicked (2 Bar. 48:26\u201347), and it is introduced by the transitional statement:<\/p>\n
48Now, then, let us leave the wicked and inquire about the righteous. 49I will recount their blessedness and will not be silent to proclaim their glory, which is preserved for them. 50For surely, just as in a little time in this world [or: age] that passes by, in which you live, you have endured much labor, so in that world [or: age] that has no end you will receive a great light. (2 Bar. 48:48\u201350)<\/p>\n
The context of the third resurrection passage presents two groups of people: the wicked, who \u201cknew when he [\/she] acted unrighteously, and they did not know my Law because of their pride\u201d (2 Bar. 48:40); and the righteous, who adhere to God\u2019s Law and keep His statutes (2 Bar. 48:22). From this, the ultimate destiny of a person is based on which group he\/she belongs to since God\u2019s \u201cjudgment asks for its own, and my [God\u2019s] Law demands its right\u201d and \u201cthere is nothing that will be destroyed unless it acted wickedly\u201d (2 Bar. 48:27\u201329).
\nBaruch\u2019s main concern regarding this universal eschatological resurrection is the nature of the resurrected body, particularly whether the resurrected dead will be able to be recognized. He asks God:<\/p>\n
2Indeed, in what shape will those live who live in your day? Or how will the splendor of those persist who [will be] after them? 3Will they indeed then take this form of the present, and will they put on these members of chains, those that are now [steeped] in evils and through which evils are wrought? Or will you perhaps change these, those that are in the world, as also the world [or: age] [itself]? (2 Bar. 49:2\u20133).<\/p>\n
This question is not only raised in the New Testament, but was also of interest in Early Rabbinic Judaism\u2014as attested by the interpretation made by Resh Lakish (b. Sanh. 91b; Gen. Rab. 95:1), Rava (b. Sanh. 91b; Gen. Rab. 102:2, also known as Abba ben Joseph bar Hama), and Hanina bar Hama (Eccl. Rab. 1:6\u20137), who all made a case that the dead would resurrect with the same body and condition they were in when they died before God \u201cheals\u201d them. Resh Lakish derived his opinion by interpreting Isa. 35:6 and Jer. 31:8 in light of each other, while Raba and R. Hanina argued their case from Deut. 32:39.
\nGod provides a similar answer to Baruch\u2019s question. However, in contrast to the Rabbis, He also provides the reason for why He would not change anything in the form of the resurrected body:<\/p>\n
2For surely the earth will then return the dead, which it now receives to preserve them, while not changing anything in their form. But as it has received them, so it returns them, and as I have handed them over to it, so too it will restore them. 3For then it will be necessary to show to the living that the dead are living again and that those have come [back] who had been gone.4And when those who know [each other] now will have recognized each other, then judgment will be strong, and those [things] that were formerly spoken of will come. (2 Bar. 50:2\u20134, my emphasis added)<\/p>\n
The lack of an initial bodily transformation upon resurrection plays an important function in the eschatological judgment. It is crucial for both the righteous and the wicked living to recognize the resurrected to presumably solve the question of theodicy, since everyone will witness the righteous and the wicked dead receive their just reward or deserved punishment. Both the living and the resurrected dead will see with their own eyes that God\u2019s judgment is universal\u2014that the wicked dead did not get away with their wickedness, and the righteous dead will still receive their reward for adhering to God\u2019s Law.
\nIt is only after this initial recognition and realization by the righteous and the wicked that the first bodily transformation will take place as a part of the universal judgment process. Both the righteous and the wicked will be transformed to expose their true character for everyone to see. The righteous will be glorified and the shape of their face will be changed into \u201cthe light of their beauty\u201d (2 Bar. 51:3), \u201cinto the splendor of angels\u201d (2 Bar. 51:5), and they will be \u201clike the angels and be equal to the stars\u201d (2 Bar. 51:10a). They will even be able to \u201cchange into any shape which they wished, from beauty to loveliness, and from light to the splendor of glory\u201d (2 Bar. 51:10b). The wicked, upon seeing the transformation of the righteous, will also be transformed; however, their \u201cshape will be made more evil\u201d (2 Bar. 51:2) and made \u201cinto startling vision and horrible shapes; and they will waste away even more\u201d (2 Bar. 51:5). At the conclusion of the judgment, the righteous will enter Paradise, the world to come (2 Bar. 51:3, 8\u201314; 52:7), while the wicked will be sent to the place of Torment (2 Bar. 51:6, 16; 52:1\u20135).
\nLiv Ingeborg Lied suggests the importance of the recognition motif as a part of the great reversal. It is only through the transformation process of the righteous and the wicked that the wicked will be able to identify the righteous and realize their true position. Their roles have been reversed. The wicked were exalted over the righteous in the corruptible world, but in the incorruptible world, it is the righteous who are exalted and will transform from earthly bodies to take on angelic bodies. Accordingly, they can possess Paradise while the wicked will diminish and receive the consequences of their decisions in the place of torment. Thus, it becomes clear to the wicked that it is the righteous who finally triumphed. Ingeborg Lied considers this as a second punishment for the wicked, stating: \u201cIt is not enough that the wicked are made aware of their transgressions and punished by the Judge in 48:40, it is just as crucial that they see their opponents excel (51:5\u20136).\u201d
\nWhile in Paradise, the righteous seem to experience a second transformation. From being like or equal to the angels (2 Bar. 51:10), they will become greater than the angels (2 Bar. 51:12). This double transformation theme seems to go beyond the transformation scene of the righteous\/wise described in Dan. 12:3\u2014\u201cThose who are wise will shine like the bright expanse of the heavens (\u05e8\u05b8\u05e7\u05b4\u05d9\u05e2\u05b7), and those who lead many to righteousness, like the stars forever and ever.\u201d It could be argued that 2 Baruch understood \u05e8\u05b8\u05e7\u05b4\u05d9\u05e2\u05b7, \u201cGod\u2019s heavenly expand,\u201d named \u05e9\u05b8\u05c1\u05de\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05dd, \u201cheaven\/sky,\u201d in Gen. 1:8, as a reference to Paradise, thus implying that there is a need for a transformation before entering the realm of Paradise. Thus, if there is a need for a transformation, it implies that the righteous must have resurrected in an untransformed shape, perhaps resurrecting with the same shape they had before they died. However, 2 Baruch takes this interpretation a step further and argues that if the righteous were to experience a transformation this would also hold true for the wicked\u2014not to prepare them for entry into Paradise (2 Bar. 51:3), but for their place of torment (2 Bar. 51:6). In contrast to a more limited resurrection event in Dan. 12:2, which seems to only concern the most wise and the most wicked,2 Baruch seems to present a universal resurrection which concerns all the righteous and all the wicked, both dead and alive. A judgment scene is only assumed in these two passages to determine who will be resurrected and who should be rewarded or punished. However, the judgment scenes appearing in 2 Baruch and Daniel are closely related:<\/p>\n
2 Bar. 24:1\u20132
\nDan. 7:10, 22
\n1For, see, days are coming and books will be opened in which are written the sins of all who have sinned, and furthermore also the reservoirs in which the righteousness is gathered of all who have been found righteous in creation. 2At that time, you and the many who are with you will see the long-suffering of the Most High that is throughout all generations, who has been long-suffering for the sake of all who are born, both sinners and righteous.
\nA river of fire was flowing, coming out from His presence. Thousands upon thousands served Him; ten thousand times ten thousand stood before Him. The court was convened, and the books were opened \u2026 until the Ancient of Days arrived and a judgment was given in favor of the holy ones of the Most High, for the time had come, and the holy ones took possession of the kingdom.<\/p>\n
The purpose of both judgment scenes is to vindicate the righteous and punish the wicked, based on detailed records of both sins and good deeds, which are kept in the books to guarantee God\u2019s theodicy.<\/p>\n
e. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
2 Baruch uses the language from the wisdom tradition and presents the resurrection belief as the solution to the problem of theodicy stated in Job and Qohelet. The wisdom element was combined with Daniel\u2019s apocalyptic perspective in the second and third explicit resurrection statements (2 Bar. 47:7\u20138; 49\u201351), dividing humans into two groups\u2014the righteous who follow God\u2019s Law and are thus wise, and the wicked who lack God\u2019s wisdom and are acting unrighteously due to their pride (2 Bar. 48:40). The resurrection belief in this book is mainly based on an interpretation, reworking, and expansion on Daniel 2; 7 and 12. 2 Baruch shows the necessity of the recognition element as a part of the judgment which is followed by a double transformation for the righteous and a single transformation for the wicked. The righteous will become equal to the angels in the first transformation and greater than the angels in the second. This transformation is crucial since it will prepare the righteous for an eternal life in the world to come. Figure 15 illustrates the resurrection concept in 2 Baruch.<\/p>\n
Figure 15. Death and Resurrection in 2 Baruch.<\/p>\n
10. Apocalypse of Elijah<\/p>\n
The Apocalypse of Elijah is an eschatological work written sometime between the first and fourth century CE. There are two versions of this apocalypse, one in Coptic (C) and one in Hebrew (H), both presenting a resurrection view. Most scholars consider the Coptic version to be of Christian origin, originally written in Greek towards the end of the third century CE in Alexandria and probably developed in three stages. However, this version is most likely a composite text, in which the Jewish stratum \u201cseems to predate the destruction of the Jewish quarter in Alexandria in A.D. 117.\u201d The Hebrew version also shows \u201cevidence of a complex reediting of earlier material.\u201d Moses Buttenwieser believes the author lived in Palestine during the Perso-Roman wars (540\u2013562\/604\u2013628 CE), but derived most of his material from an older and larger apocalypse written about 261 CE. The relationship between the Coptic and the Hebrew versions of the apocalypse is not clear, although they share certain details that are significantly different. Wintermute suggests that the section regarding the Antichrist in these two versions may indicate a common ancestor. He suggests this ancestor \u201cwould have been an episode within a Jewish Apocalypse of Elijah composed before 100 C.E.\u201d and may also have included details regarding the punishment of the wicked. The following section will consider these two traditions separately.<\/p>\n
a. Apocalypse of Elijah (C)<\/p>\n
This apocalypse reveals details \u201cconcerning the kings of Assyria and the dissolution of the heaven and the earth and the things beneath the earth\u201d (2:1). The coming of the Antichrist and his reign (3:1\u201318) takes place in the fourth year of the righteous king who sided with the Persians (2:47\u20133:1) and ruled in a Messianic-like way for three and a half years (2:52). During the reign of the Antichrist, in which the righteous will suffer and die as martyrs (4:1\u20135:1) then be resurrected (4:5, 15, 27), the righteous will be removed from this earth (5:2\u20136), natural disasters will take place due to the removal of the righteous, the Antichrist will pursue the righteous (5:7\u201321), and the earth will be destroyed (5:22\u201324). These events will be followed by God\u2019s universal judgment in favor of the righteous, punishment for the wicked, and execution of the Antichrist (5:25\u201335), concluding with the millennial kingdom (5:36\u201339).
\nThe work of the Antichrist closely parallels that of Christ since he will be able to walk on water, cause the lame to walk, the deaf to hear, the dumb to speak, and the blind to see; he will even cleanse the lepers, heal the sick, and cast out demons (3:8\u201310; cf. Mk 6:48; Mt. 11:5). According to the Apocalypse of Elijah, the son of lawlessness will be able to do every work which the Christ did, \u201cexcept for raising the dead\u201d since he will have \u201cno power to give life\u201d (3:12\u201313; 4:31). This is how the righteous will be able to know that he is not the true Christ.
\nThe Apocalypse of Elijah reveals that the righteous, those who are sealed with God\u2019s name on their forehead and his seal on their right hand (1:9), will receive thrones and crowns in heaven (1:8) and walk with the angels up to the city of God (1:10), while the sinners will be shamed and the thrones of death will seize them and rule over them (1:11). When the righteous die, their spirit and their soul will return to God while their body will turn into rock to protect it from being eaten by wild animals (4:25\u201326). On the last day of the great judgment, the righteous will be resurrected and receive their reward. There will be one reward for those who died as martyrs and a different reward for those who fled into the wilderness to escape martyrdom. The first group of righteous will be \u201cin the kingdom of the Christ as those who have endured because the Lord said, \u2018I will grant to them that they sit on my right hand.\u2019 They will receive favor over others, and they will triumph over the son of lawlessness. And they will witness the dissolution of heaven and earth. They will receive the thrones of glory and the crowns\u201d (4:27\u201329). The second group of righteous will also receive their reward, but \u201cthey will be raised up and receive a place of rest\u201d (4:27a).
\nThe final chapter of the apocalypse reveals the removal of the righteous before the natural disasters, destruction of the earth, and the eschatological judgment. During the persecution of the righteous by the hand of the Antichrist, God will pity the righteous and send his angels to gather them into his kingdom, where they will be given full access to the tree of life and will be given white garments to wear (5:6). In the eschatological judgment, the righteous dead will be resurrected (the text does not mention a resurrection of the wicked) and they \u201cwill see the sinners and those who persecuted them and those who handed them over to death in their torments\u201d while the wicked \u201cwill see the place of the righteous\u201d (5:28\u201329). Upon the final destruction of the Antichrist, the righteous will dwell on a newly created earth with Christ for a thousand years.<\/p>\n
b. Apocalypse of Elijah (H)<\/p>\n
In the Hebrew version of the Apocalypse of Elijah, Michael, the great prince of Israel (Dan. 12:1), reveals \u201cthe eschaton and what was scheduled to transpire and the End of Days at the end of the four empires (and) the things which would take place during the reign of the fourth ruler,\u201d placing the apocalypse within the eschatological framework of Daniel 2 and 7. The Antichrist is identified with the \u201clittle horn\u201d of Daniel and the text describes his physical features and evil acts; it adds that he \u201cshall encroach upon \u2018the holy beautiful mountain\u2019 (Dan. 11:45) and burn it,\u201d showing his intent of destroying God\u2019s people. Following a list of important eschatological events, which includes the war of Gog and Magog against Jerusalem which will bring in \u201cthe final day,\u201d the apocalypse ends with the five visions of Elijah (see the full text in Appendix A):<\/p>\n
1. Description of the resurrection.
\n2. Description of the punishment of the wicked and the reward for the righteous.
\n3. Description of the three patriarchs together with all the righteous ones in the Garden.
\n4. Description of the New Jerusalem descending from Heaven.
\n5. Description of the dwelling quarters of the righteous.<\/p>\n
It is not clear from this apocalypse if both the righteous and the wicked will take part in the eschatological resurrection since the current text only mentions the resurrected will \u201crender praise to God\u201d as He is the sole deity. However, the text does mention that in the Western region of the world, the souls undergo a painful judgment, each one in accordance with its deeds. Again, it is not clear if this torment only regards the wicked souls, or if it also functions as a purifying process for the righteous souls, preparing them for the resurrection. Be that as it may, the apocalypse depicts the resurrection process as the reversal of death, in which the dust of the dead is reshaped and \u201cmade like (the forms they had) when they were formerly alive.\u201d This resurrection act is supported in the apocalypse by quoting Deut. 32:39\u2014\u201cSee now that I alone am He; there is no God but Me. I bring death and I give life; I wound, and I heal. No one can rescue anyone from My hand\u201d\u2014a text also used by the Rabbis to support said view (b. Pesa\u1e25. 68a; b. Sanh. 91b; Deut. Rab. 3:15; Eccl. Rab. 1:6), and by quoting Ezek. 37:8, which concerns the resurrection scene of the valley of the bones. In Elijah\u2019s resurrection vision, God\u2019s angels play an active role. They are the ones who open the tombs, inject the dead righteous \u201cwith their \u2018animating breaths\u2019 \u201d so they will revive, and help the newly resurrected with standing on their feet. After their role in the resurrection, the angels turn their attention to the wicked, who merit punishment, and place them into a large hollow place, all while being observed by the righteous who will see the downfall of the wicked as promised by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 66:24).
\nThe second vision of Elijah reveals the punishment of the wicked who will suffer in the fire and brimstone which God sends from heaven according to Ps. 11:6. In this vision, God finds it necessary to ensure the righteous do not hear the suffering of the wicked so the righteous will not beg for mercy on their behalf. Thus, the wicked will be forgotten and it \u201cwill be as if they never were.\u201d
\nIn the third vision, Elijah is shown the patriarchs and the righteous dwelling in the Garden with the great tree which was prepared for them standing in its midst, a possible allusion to the Tree of Life (Gen. 2:9; Rev. 22:2, 14, 19) which will once more be made available for God\u2019s people. The final two visions in the Hebrew version describe the New Jerusalem and the houses which have been prepared for the righteous.<\/p>\n
c. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
The resurrection belief appears in both the Coptic and the Hebrew version of the Apocalypse of Elijah and follows the appearance of the Antichrist. Neither text states clearly whether this resurrection will be universal and would include both the righteous and the wicked, although the Hebrew version seems to suggest this. In both versions the punishment of the wicked functions as a part of the vindication of the righteous. The New Earth motif follows the resurrection and judgment in both versions. The Coptic version, however, insinuates that there will be two groups of righteous who will receive different rewards. Those who suffered a martyr\u2019s death will be a part of the kingdom of Christ, sit on His right hand, receive the thrones of glory, and crowns. Those who did not die for their faith will just be given a place of rest. The Hebrew version has no such differentiation between the righteous. Although the Coptic version used the Daniel material, it did not attempt to provide \u201cproof texts\u201d for the resurrection belief as in the case of the Hebrew version. The Hebrew version seems to be more in line with Early Rabbinic texts which also show interest in providing biblical \u201cproof texts\u201d in support of the various aspects of their resurrection beliefs.<\/p>\n
Chapter 4<\/p>\n
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS<\/p>\n
This chapter provides a brief concluding remark based on the literary work discussed in this monograph. A complete summary and conclusion based on all the afterlife and resurrection passages appearing in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha is found in the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Pseudepigrapha. Comparing the resurrection passages appearing in the Apocrypha and the apocalyptic literature, it becomes clear they present very diverse views. Each literary work containing a \u201clife-after-death\u201d view seems to present a unique perspective, even compositions presenting scant details regarding the events following death and eschatological time. This monograph identified twelve distinct and complete views (from death to eternity) regarding life-after-death with varying degrees of complexity. These views are found in: 2 Maccabees (Fig. 2); Wisdom of Solomon (Fig. 3); 4 Ezra (Fig. 5); the Book of Watchers (Fig. 6); the Book of the Epistle of Enoch (Fig. 7); 2 Enoch (Fig. 8); 3 Enoch (Fig. 9); the Apocalypse of Zephaniah (Fig. 10); the Greek Apocalypse of Ezra (Fig. 11); the Vision of Ezra (Fig. 12); the Question of Ezra (Fig. 13); 2 Baruch (Fig. 15). The companion volume to this monograph adds an additional six distinct and complete views, bringing the combined number to eighteen.
\nThere are several elements causing these diverse resurrection views. Among them is the understanding of human anthropology\u2014whether or not a person has a soul that can exist apart from the body following death. There is also a question of the nature of this soul, if it is mortal or immortal, and what happens to it when it separates from the body. An important element is what will be the state of this disembodied soul, if it will be conscious or unconscious, if the righteous and the wicked soul will face a different fortune following the death of the body. There is also the question of whether the soul will return to a physical body at one point in the future. Regarding the eschatological resurrection, the views appearing in the Apocrypha and the apocalyptic literature also differ in their scope, ranging from a universal resurrection to a more limited one. There is also the question of what this resurrected body will look like. Will it be similar or different to how it appeared at death? A closely related question regards the number and function(s) of the judgments and the final destiny of the righteous and the wicked. These questions are discussed in the summary and conclusion of the companion volume.
\nThis monograph has noted the many references and allusions to the TaNaKh in the resurrection passages found in the Apocrypha and apocalyptic literature of the Pseudepigrapha. A careful reading of these texts reveals that the most distinct views of life after death, regardless of their complexity, are often supported by several key passages from the books that later became a part of the TaNaKh or shared motifs with these books. For ease of comparison, the companion volume provides a list of the TaNaKh passages referred or alluded to in the context of the resurrection statements surveyed from the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha, in this monograph and its companion volume, with a special interest in the eighteen distinct and complete afterlife views appearing in this body of literature.
\nSome of the ramifications of the findings discussed in this monograph and its companion volume are also discussed in the summary and the concluding chapter of the companion volume\u2014again, for ease of comparison.<\/p>\n
series Jewish and Christian Texts in Contexts and Related Studies
\ntitle Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic Literature<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
FOREWORD Resurrection of the dead was in antiquity\u2014and in contemporary theological studies\u2014a celebrated, yet also controverted topic. In historical retrospect, one can appreciate how this insurgent hope that took shape in postexilic Judaism gradually emerged as a landmark eschatological doctrine within Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity. Much remains in darkness, however, regarding the formation, conceptual … <\/p>\n