FOREWORD<\/p>\n
Resurrection of the dead was in antiquity\u2014and in contemporary theological studies\u2014a celebrated, yet also controverted topic. In historical retrospect, one can appreciate how this insurgent hope that took shape in postexilic Judaism gradually emerged as a landmark eschatological doctrine within Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity. Much remains in darkness, however, regarding the formation, conceptual diversity, and social settings of resurrection within earlier Judaism. Monumental tomes have treated vast bodies of evidence; yet there also remains the need for more selective studies of particular features of resurrection.
\nIt is all the more commendable that Jan A. Sigvartsen has concentrated his energies upon one select feature of the problem: the presence of scriptural language and imagery throughout a range of early Jewish and Christian expressions for resurrection. Jon Levenson, in fact, laments the lack of scholarly attention to this problem, calling for a deeper appreciation of the intertextual features of early Jewish discourse of resurrection (Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel, 185). This unfulfilled desideratum is even surprising, since it has long been recognized that both Daniel 12 and 1 Corinthians 15, two of the most significant canonical expressions of resurrection, both rely heavily upon particular interpretive assumptions about underlying scriptural prophecies. Yet there has been no comprehensive study of this phenomenon among expressions of the afterlife in the broader literature of the Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, and other early Jewish\/nascent Christian writings.
\nSigvartsen\u2019s timely volume addresses this pressing need in a thorough exploration of the Pseudepigrapha, which preserve some of the most significant writings for understanding early expressions of resurrection. His study leads the reader on an enlightening journey into the rich interpretive culture that stood behind early references to resurrection. As a result, one may more fully appreciate the possibility that resurrection was not merely directed to the fate of human remains or to retribution per se, important as these conceptual problems were within select literary texts. Indeed, expressions for resurrection remained conceptually diverse, and the hope could offer redress to a variety of religious problems. Yet, as Sigvartsen carefully documents, one of the more unifying strands amid the often bewildering evidence is the conviction that resurrection affirmed the integrity of the divine promises to Israel, so fragile and so repeatedly endangered by the historical contexts in which resurrection originally flourished. In so doing, his focused volume presents a reservoir for more fully understanding the interrelationships between scriptural traditions, eschatological hopes, and ancient theodicies that flourish from within the writings of the Pseudepigrapha.<\/p>\n
C. D. Elledge
\nGustavus Adolphus College<\/p>\n
Chapter 1<\/p>\n
INTRODUCTION<\/p>\n
The Hebrew Scriptures reflect little regarding the destiny of the individual after their death. The overall impression from a study of TaNaKh passages relating to the afterlife is that death was not considered the start of the next life, but the end of the present one. The biblical writers focused on the present life and emphasized the covenant relationship between humans and God. Matthew Suriano suggests that \u201cwith the exception of Dan 12:1\u20133, which dates to a late stage in the Hebrew Bible\u2019s history, there is no vetting of the dead. Instead the afterlife ideal is presented as reunion with dead kind\u201d as illustrated in Gen. 15:15\u201316. He observes \u201cthat the concept of death was centered specifically on the treatment of the dead rather than their destiny. Death, in the world of the Old Testament writers, was a dynamic process \u2026 rather than a static event.\u201d Thus, he argues \u201cdeath as transition and the relational nature of the dead\u201d are interconnected aspects. He writes: \u201cIn ancient Israel, early Judaism, and the Hebrew Bible, the transition of the dead did not involve the migration of an immortal soul to some otherworldly destination. It was not a question of place\u2014heaven or hell\u2014but of status. The biblical ideal was the status of ancestor, which provided the dead with a certain form of immortality. But his status was conditioned upon how the living interacted with the dead; hence, death was relational.\u201d Suriano considers the introductory statement (Sir. 44:7\u201315) to the list of biblical heroes (Sir. 44:1\u201349:16) written by Yeshua ben Sira (second century BCE), a scribe from Jerusalem, to summarize this biblical ideal. It describes those who are forgotten, those who do not have a name which lives on past their death, those who seem to have \u201cperished as though they have never existed\u201d (Sir. 44:10), noting that they are still a part of the greater collective, thereby receiving a sense of immortality in the same manner as those who received the deity\u2019s reward of \u201coffspring and the blessedness of future generations.\u201d Sirach 44:7\u201315 (NRS) reads:<\/p>\n
7All these were honored in their generations, and were the pride of their times. 8Some of them have left behind a name, so that others declare their praise. 9But of others there is no memory; they have perished as though they had never existed; they have become as though they had never been born, they and their children after them. 10But these also were godly men, whose righteous deeds have not been forgotten; 11their wealth will remain with their descendants, and their inheritance with their children\u2019s children. 12Their descendants stand by the covenants; their children also, for their sake. 13Their offspring will continue forever, and their glory will never be blotted out. 14Their bodies are buried in peace, but their name lives on generation after generation. 15The assembly declares their wisdom, and the congregation proclaims their praise.<\/p>\n
The close of the First Temple period and the return of the Jews from Babylonian exile heralded much more exploration of the issues of the afterlife among the Jews during the Second Temple period. Scholars argue that increased interest in angels, the battle between good and evil, and the interest in a future bodily resurrection and judgment as seen in these Jewish writings, could be due to the influence of the Zoroastrian religion of the Persians. The belief in an immortal soul, which exists separately from the physical body after the moment of death, could be viewed as a part of the Hellenization of Judaism. It was also during this period that the problem of theodicy became more apparent for the Jews. The traditional belief that God would reward the righteous, Torah-observant Jews with a long and prosperous life while cutting short the life of the wicked needed adjustment. This was a period of foreign occupation and oppression; oppression of the righteous poor, religious persecution, and martyrdom. For the Torah-observant Jews, justice had been perverted: the righteous were receiving the curses of the wicked, while the wicked enjoyed the blessings promised the righteous. Only a belief in an afterlife could solve this acute problem. If there was an afterlife, it was argued, God could set things straight and give the righteous and the wicked their proper due.
\nThe Jews of the Second Temple period borrowed religious and philosophical concepts from Persia and Greece and synthesized and amalgamated these views into their own religious framework. Thus, multiple afterlife beliefs developed and appeared in their literature, in an attempt to solve the problem of theodicy. By the end of this period, a belief in a bodily resurrection had become the mainstream belief in both surviving strands of Second Temple Judaism: Rabbinic Judaism and the early Christian Church. It was a central tenet for both communities. For the Christians, questioning this doctrine was equated with questioning the historicity of Jesus\u2019 resurrection, which was the guarantor for the Christians\u2019 salvation hope (e.g. Rom. 6:3\u20136; 1 Cor. 15; 1 Pet. 1:3\u20134). For Rabbinic Judaism, questioning this faith would disqualify the person from any share in the world to come: \u201cAll Israelites have a share in the world to come.\u2026 And these are the ones who have no portion in the world to come: (1) He who says, the resurrection of the dead is a teaching which does not derive from the Torah, (2) and the Torah does not come from Heaven; and (3) an Epicurean\u201d (m. Sanh. 10:1).
\nThis monograph is a continuation of the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic Literature. Both volumes will demonstrate beliefs in resurrection were indeed abundant and, in turn, address Levenson\u2019s desideratum regarding their abundance, ensuring scholars do not \u201cunderestimate the verbal particularity and the textual character of its appearance\u2014points of great significance to the ancient Jewish culture itself.\u201d This monograph attempts to provide a better understanding of how the TaNaKh was read by Jewish sects during this important period and the role the TaNaKh played in the overall development of the resurrection belief that became a central article of faith in both Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism.
\nThis monograph has a companion monograph which systematically outlines the numerous afterlife beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic literature, and identifies and analyzes the texts from the TaNaKh that support a resurrection belief within Jewish extra-biblical passages, from the Second Temple period, the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha, which imply or state a belief in resurrection. The companion monograph identifies twelve distinct and complete views. The afterlife beliefs appearing in the non-apocalyptic literature of the Pseudepigrapha are presented in this monograph.<\/p>\n
Pseudepigrapha<\/p>\n
The Pseudepigrapha is a catch-all category which includes all the books of the Second Temple period apart from the Apocrypha, Dead Sea Scrolls, Philo, Josephus, New Testament, and Rabbinic material. This monograph follows the broad description suggested by James H. Charlesworth:<\/p>\n
Those writings 1) that, with the exception of Ahiqar, are Jewish or Christian; 2) that are often attributed to ideal figures in Israel\u2019s past; 3) that customarily claim to contain God\u2019s word or message; 4) that frequently build upon ideas and narratives present in the Old Testament; 5) and that almost always were composed either during the period 200 B.C. to A.D. 200 or, though late, apparently preserve, albeit in an edited form, Jewish traditions that date from that period.<\/p>\n
The term Pseudepigrapha comes from the Greek words \u03c8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03ae\u03c2, \u201cfalse,\u201d and \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03ae, \u201cinscription,\u201d referring to books bearing a false inscription. David A. deSilva notes that this term \u201chighlights primarily a literary characteristic of many writings from the Hellenistic and Greco-Roman periods, that is, writings under the assumed name of a great figure from the distant past,\u201d however, he adds that Roman Catholic and Orthodox writers use the term Apocrypha when referring to this body of literature while many scholars and Jewish writers often use the term \u201coutside books.\u201d
\nLike the term Apocrypha discussed in the companion monograph, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic Literature, this term also has its limitations\u2014the first term \u201cderives from canonical debates and usage; the other from a peculiar literary characteristic.\u201d Nickelsburg notes that this term \u201cignores the pseudonymous nature of some of the Apocrypha (e.g. Tobit and the Wisdom of Solomon) and some canonical (e.g. Job and Ruth) writings\u201d and C. T. Fritsch observes that some of the Pseudepigraphical books are better described as anonymous than pseudonymous. Fritsch also states that these books were never included into the Greek and Latin manuscripts of the Bible, so their canonicity was never an issue in mainstream Christianity. However, \u201cmany of these works were preserved in the various branches of the oriental churches, and so they came down to us in such languages as Syriac, Ethiopic, Coptic, Georgian, Armenian, Slavonic, etc.\u201d
\nThe Old Testament Pseudepigrapha represent several literary genres which fall into the following six categories:<\/p>\n
1. Apocalypses;
\n2. Testaments;
\n3. Expansion of TaNaKh narratives;
\n4. Wisdom and philosophical literature;
\n5. Prayers, psalms and odes; and
\n6. Fragments of now-lost Judeo-Hellenistic works.<\/p>\n
This monograph considers the last five categories, the first category, Apocalyptic literature, is considered in the companion monograph. Table 1 shows the literary genre of the Pseudepigrapha, the date of composition, and the books containing a resurrection belief, either stated or implied (bolded and highlighted) based on the analysis in Appendix A of this monograph and Appendix A in the companion monograph. This will help the reader to easily see the extent of this belief in the pseudepigraphical books.
\nChapters 2\u20135 of this monograph considers the passages from the last five categories of Charlesworth\u2019s two-volume collection of pseudepigraphical writings that imply or state a resurrection belief which also refers or alludes to the TaNaKh for the foundation of this belief. Chapter 6 considers briefly the nature of the posthumous body and the soul appearing in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha and compares it with relevant afterlife and resurrection passages from the New Testament. The final chapter provides a summary and conclusion based on all the afterlife and resurrection passages appearing in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha, thus, functioning as the conclusion not only to this monograph but also to the companion volume.<\/p>\n
Table 1. Literary genre of the Pseudepigrapha<\/p>\n
Literary Genre
\nPseudepigraphical Texts
\nDate<\/p>\n
Apocalyptic Literature and Related Works
\n1 Enoch
\n3rd cent. BCE\u201350 CE
\n2 Enoch
\nLate 1st cent. CE
\n3 Enoch
\n5th\u20136th Century CE
\nSibylline Oracles
\n2nd cent. BCE\u20137th cent. CE
\nTreatise of Shem
\n1st cent. BCE
\nApocryphon of Ezekiel
\n50 BCE\u201350 CE
\nApocalypse of Zephaniah
\n100 BCE\u201370 CE
\nFourth book of Ezra
\n[= 2 Esdras 3\u201314]
\n(see OT Apocrypha)
\nLate 1st cent. CE
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\n2nd\u20139th cent. CE
\nVision of Ezra
\n4th\u20137th cent. CE
\nQuestions of Ezra
\n?
\nRevelation of Ezra
\n2nd\u20139th cent. CE
\nApocalypse of Sedrach
\n2nd\u20135th cent. CE
\n2 Baruch
\nEarly 2nd cent. CE
\n3 Baruch
\n1st\u20133rd cent. CE
\nApocalypse of Abraham
\n1st\u20132nd cent. CE
\nApocalypse of Adam
\n1st\u20134th cent. CE
\nApocalypse of Elijah
\n1st\u20134th cent. CE
\nApocalypse of Daniel
\n9th cent. CE
\nTestaments (Often with Apocalyptic Sections)
\nTestament of the 12 Patriarchs
\nTestament of Reuben
\nTestament of Simeon
\nTestament of Levi
\nTestament of Judah
\nTestament of Issachar
\nTestament of Zebulun
\nTestament of Dan
\nTestament of Naphtali
\nTestament of Gad
\nTestament of Asher
\nTestament of Joseph
\nTestament of Benjamin
\n2nd cent. BCE
\nTestament of Job
\nEarly 1st cent. BCE
\nTestament of the Three Patriarchs
\n1st cent. CE
\nTestament of Abraham
\n1st\u20132nd cent. CE
\nTestament of Isaac
\n1st\u20132nd cent. CE
\nTestament of Jacob
\n2nd\u20133rd cent. CE?
\nTestament (Assumption) of Moses
\n1st cent. CE
\nTestament of Solomon
\n1st\u20133rd cent. CE
\nTestament of Adam
\n2nd\u20135th cent. CE
\nExpansions of the \u201cOld Testament\u201d and Legends
\nLetter of Aristeas
\n130\u201370 BCE
\nJubilees
\n135\u2013105 BCE
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\n[3:13\u20134:22 = Testament of Hezekiah]
\n2nd cent. BCE
\nJoseph and Aseneth
\n1st cent. BCE\u20132nd cent. CE
\nLife of Adam and Eve
\n1st cent. BCE\u20131st cent. CE
\nPseudo-Philo
\n[= Biblical Antiquities]
\n2nd cent. BCE\u2013late 1st cent. CE
\nLives of the Prophets
\n1st cent. CE
\nLadder of Jacob
\n1st cent. CE
\n4 Baruch
\n[= Omissions of Jeremiah]
\nLate 1st\u2013early 2nd cent. CE
\nJannes and Jambres
\n1st\u20132nd cent. CE
\nHistory of the Rechabites
\n1st\u20134th cent. CE
\nEldad and Modad
\n> 2nd cent. CE
\nHistory of Joseph
\n> 400 CE
\nWisdom and Philosophical Literature
\nAhiqar
\n6th\u20137th cent. CE
\n3 Maccabees
\n1st cent. CE
\n4 Maccabees
\n1st cent. CE
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\n1st cent. BCE
\nThe Sentences of the SyriacMenander
\n3rd cent. CE
\nPrayers, Psalms, and Odes
\nMore Psalms of David
\nPsalm 151
\n(see OT Apocrypha)
\nPsalm 152
\nPsalm 153
\nPsalm 154
\nPsalm 155
\n3rd cent. BCE\u20131st cent. CE
\nPrayer of Manasseh
\n(see OT Apocrypha)
\n2nd\u20131st cent. BCE
\nPsalms of Solomon
\nc. 50 BCE
\nHellenistic Synagogal Prayers
\n2nd\u20133rd cent. CE
\nPrayer of Joseph
\n1st cent. CE
\nPrayer of Jacob
\n1st\u20134th cent. CE
\nOdes of Solomon
\nLate 1st\u2013early 2nd cent. CE
\nFragments of Lost Judeo-Hellenistic Work
\nPhilo the Epic Poet
\n3rd\u20132nd cent. BCE
\nTheodotus
\n2nd\u20131st cent. BCE
\nOrphica
\n1st cent. BCE\/CE
\nEzekiel the Tragedian
\n2nd cent. BCE
\nFragments of Pseudo-Greek Poets
\nPseudo-Hesiod
\nPseudo-Pythagoras
\nPseudo-Aeschylus
\nPseudo-Sophocles
\nPseudo-Euripides
\nPseudo-Philemon
\nPseudo-Diphilus
\nPseudo-Menander
\n3rd\u20132nd cent. BCE
\nFragments of Lost Judeo-Hellenistic Work
\nAristobulus
\n2nd cent. BCE
\nDemetrius the Chronographer
\n3rd cent. BCE
\nAristeas the Exegete
\nLate 2nd\u2013early 1st cent. BCE
\nEupolemus
\nLate 2nd\u2013early 1st cent. BCE
\nPseudo-Eupolemus
\n> 1st cent. BCE
\nCleodemus Malchus
\n> 1st cent. BCE
\nArtapanus
\n3rd\u20132nd cent. BCE
\nPseudo-Hecataeus
\nc. 300 BCE<\/p>\n
Appendix A forms the foundation of this study as it provides a comprehensive list of resurrection passages from Second Temple period Jewish literature, compiled from the last five categories of the Pseudepigrapha. These passages are divided into appropriate tables in which they are categorized and analyzed, noting when a specific resurrection text is referring or alluding to the TaNaKh. Additionally, each table is followed by an anthology of the listed passages to show the larger context of each resurrection statement and provide the reader easy access to these resurrection texts. These anthologies are highlighted and annotated. The \u201cReference to the TaNaKh\u201d category includes both \u201ccitation\u201d (the author quotes the TaNaKh passage verbatim and includes the textual reference) and \u201cquotation\u201d (the author quotes a TaNaKh passage verbatim without including the textual reference) and is the most objective category. The \u201cAllusion-to-the-TaNaKh\u201d category is rather broad and more subjective as the original author does not quote the TaNaKh passage verbatim, but similarly rephrases, reshapes, or re-purposes the passage. It is apparent, and therefore assumed, that both the original author and the original target audience were aware of the primary source of the allusion.
\nAppendix B provides similar tables for the resurrection passages found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus, New Testament, Jewish Liturgy, and Rabbinic Literature. However, these passages will not be considered in this study (nor in the companion volume), although references to them will be made throughout this work and the companion volume, when deemed relevant. These passages are considered in a separate study currently being concluded by the author.<\/p>\n
Chapter 2<\/p>\n
TESTAMENTS (OFTEN WITH APOCALYPTIC SECTIONS)<\/p>\n
The second genre category of pseudepigraphical books, Testaments, follows the pattern of last words or blessings of Jacob to his sons in Genesis 49, and Moses\u2019 final words to the people of Israel in Deuteronomy 32\u201333. In these two passages, Jacob and Moses use poetic language, reflecting on key events in the past which are relevant to each of the sons\/tribes before turning their attention to the future. Both of these \u201cproto-testaments\u201d are introduced by the technical term, \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05d0\u05b7\u05d7\u05b2\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05b7\u05d9\u05b8\u05bc\u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd, \u201cin the last days\u201d (Gen. 49:1; Deut. 31:29), suggesting that these two poetic texts will also reveal something about the distant future, thus also including apocalyptic material. This understanding of the term becomes apparent from Targum Pseudo-Jonathan\u2019s expansion upon the introductory words of Jacob\u2019s blessings of his sons:<\/p>\n
\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05bc\u05e7\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05b7\u05e2\u05b2\u05e7\u05b9\u05d1 \u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05be\u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05e0\u05b8\u05d9\u05d5 \u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b9\u05bc\u05d0\u05de\u05b6\u05e8
\n\u05d5\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05e2\u05e7\u05d1 \u05dc\u05d1\u05e0\u05d5\u05d9 \u05d5\u05d0\u05de\u05e8 \u05dc\u05d4\u05d5\u05dd
\n\u05d0\u05d9\u05d3\u05db\u05d5 \u05de\u05e1\u05d5\u05d0\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u05d0
\n\u05d5\u05d0\u05d9\u05d7\u05d5\u05d9 \u05dc\u05db\u05d5\u05df \u05e8\u05d6\u05d9\u05d9\u05d0 \u05e1\u05ea\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05d0 \u05e7\u05d9\u05e6\u05d9\u05d0 \u05d2\u05e0\u05d9\u05d6\u05d9\u05d0
\n\u05d5\u05de\u05ea\u05df \u05d0\u05d2\u05e8\u05d4\u05d5\u05df \u05d3\u05e6\u05d3\u05d9\u05e7\u05d9\u05d9\u05d0
\n\u05d5\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u05d4\u05d5\u05df \u05d3\u05e8\u05e9\u05c2\u05d9\u05e2\u05d9\u05d9\u05d0
\n\u05d5\u05e9\u05c1\u05dc\u05d5\u05d9\u05ea\u05d0 \u05d3\u05e2\u05d3\u05df \u05de\u05d4 \u05d4\u05d5\u05d0
\n\u05db\u05d7\u05d3\u05d0 \u05de\u05ea\u05db\u05e0\u05e9\u05c1\u05d9\u05df \u05ea\u05e8\u05d9\u05e1\u05e8 \u05e9\u05c1\u05d1\u05d8\u05d9 \u05d9\u05e9\u05c2\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc \u05de\u05e7\u05e4\u05d9\u05df
\n\u05d3\u05e8\u05d2\u05e9\u05c1\u05d0 \u05d3\u05d3\u05d4\u05d1\u05d0 \u05d3\u05e8\u05d1\u05d9\u05e2 \u05e2\u05dc\u05d4
\n\u05d5\u05de\u05df \u05d3\u05d0\u05d9\u05ea\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9 \u05d0\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8 \u05e9\u05c1\u05db\u05d9\u05e0\u05ea\u05d0 \u05d3\u05d9\u05d9\u05d9
\n\u05e7\u05d9\u05e6\u05d0 \u05d3\u05e2\u05ea\u05d9\u05d3 \u05de\u05dc\u05db\u05d0 \u05de\u05e9\u05c1\u05d9\u05d4\u05d0 \u05dc\u05de\u05d9\u05ea\u05d9 \u05d0\u05d9\u05ea\u05db\u05e1\u05d9
\n\u05de\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u05d4
\n\u05d4\u05b5\u05d0\u05b8\u05bd\u05e1\u05b0\u05e4\u05d5\u05bc \u05d5\u05b0\u05d0\u05b7\u05d2\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05d3\u05b8\u05d4 \u05dc\u05b8\u05db\u05b6\u05dd
\n\u05d5\u05d1\u05db\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05de\u05e8 \u05d0\u05d9\u05ea\u05d5
\n\u05d0\u05b5\u05ea \u05d0\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05e8\u05be\u05d9\u05b4\u05e7\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea\u05b0\u05db\u05b6\u05dd \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05d0\u05b7\u05d7\u05b2\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05b7\u05d9\u05b8\u05bc\u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd\u05c3
\n\u05d5\u05d0\u05d9\u05ea\u05e0\u05d9 \u05dc\u05db\u05d5\u05df \u05de\u05d4 \u05d3\u05d9\u05d0\u05e8\u05e2 \u05d9\u05ea\u05db\u05d5\u05df \u05d1\u05e1\u05d5\u05e3 \u05d9\u05d5\u05de\u05d9\u05d0\u05c3
\n49:1 Then Jacob called his sons and said,
\n\u201cGather around, and I will tell you what will happen to you in the days to come.\u201d (CSB)
\n49:1 And Jakob called his sons and said to them,
\nPurify yourselves from uncleanness, and I will show you the hidden mysteries, the ends concealed, the recompense of reward for the righteous, the retribution of the wicked, and the bower of Eden, what it is. And the twelve tribes of Israel gathered themselves together around the golden bed whereon he reclined, and where was revealed to him the Shekina of the Lord, (though) the end for which the king Meshiha is to come had been concealed from him. Then said he, Come, and I will declare to you what shall befall you at the end of the days. (PJE)<\/p>\n
In the expansion found in the Targum, several new elements are introduced regarding \u201cthe days to come.\u201d This apocalyptic time will include the reward of the righteous and the retribution of the wicked, and the bower of Eden, a possible allusion to the eschatological universal resurrection followed by the judgment of all. This future time will also see the arrival of the king Meshiha, and, it could be assumed, the Messianic age.
\nJohn Sailhamer observes regarding the Pentateuch\u2019s use of this technical term:<\/p>\n
The author shows throughout his work an interest in past events. His repeated and strategic return to the notion of \u201cthe last days\u201d in giving his work its final shape reveals that his interest is in the future as well.\u2026 Because of the terminology he uses (viz., \u201cthe end of days\u201d), we could call it an eschatological reading of his historical narratives. The narrative texts of past events are presented as pointers to future events. Past events foreshadow the future.<\/p>\n
Thus, these \u201cproto-testaments\u201d include material from the preceding narratives, give ethical evaluations of these key events, may add new elements from the past which has not been revealed in the preceding narratives and concludes with remarks pertaining to the near and distant future. It is little wonder then that Charlesworth states the pseudepigraphical Testament genre is not well defined as it includes material which falls into several different genre categories like \u201capocalyptic, ethical, and Midrashic types of literature.\u201d During Second Temple period Judaism, several literary pieces were written containing the \u201clast words\u201d or testament of an important Patriarch or character from the TaNaKh. The apocalyptic section of these testaments often contains the resurrection hope. Table 2 provides a list of resurrection passages appearing in the Testaments:<\/p>\n
Table 2. Resurrection texts in the Testaments<\/p>\n
Passage
\nNotes
\nResurrection
\nClassification<\/p>\n
Implied
\nStated
\nRef.
\nAllude
\nPhil.
\nAssum.
\nTestament of the Twelve Patriarchs
\nSimeon
\n6
\nArise in joy
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n8:1
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\nLevi
\n18:14
\nPatriarchs share in the eschatological blessings
\n\u00d7
\nJudah
\n25
\nResurrection of Patriarchs
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n26:4
\nSleep = Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nIssachar
\n7:9
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nZebulun
\n10:1\u20137
\nRighteous\/Wicked
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nDan
\n5:7\u201313
\nThe work of the dual Messiah
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:1
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nGad
\n8:1
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nAsher
\n8:1
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nJoseph
\n20:4
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBenjamin
\n10:4\u201310
\nResurrection of patriarchs\/transformation\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nTestament of Job
\n4:9
\nRegarding the impending calamities
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n33; 41:4
\nJob\u2019s throne in Heaven
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n39:12
\nThe children have been taken up to heaven
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n43
\nThe two ways
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n47:11; 52; 53
\nComing for the immortal Soul
\nDeath || Sleep
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nTestament of the Three Patriarchs
\nTestament of Abraham
\nB7:16
\nResurrection after 7000 ages are fulfilled
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nTestament of Moses
\n1:15
\nDeath = Sleep
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n10:9
\nThe End-time
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n10:14
\nDeath = Sleep
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nTestament of Adam
\n3:2
\nCreated in God\u2019s image
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n3:4
\nResurrection\/2nd Adam
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7<\/p>\n
1. Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs<\/p>\n
The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs records the deathbed exhortation of each of the twelve patriarchs to their descendants inspired and modeled after Jacob\u2019s last words to his sons in Genesis 49 and Moses\u2019 words to the tribes of Israel in Deuteronomy 31\u201332. James L. Kugel states \u201cthe Testaments have a complicated, and much disputed, history of composition,\u201d and suggests the genre\u2019s \u201chistory probably begins in the Hasmonean period, sometimes in the last half of the 2nd century BCE.\u201d Kugel argues that the exalted position given to Levi and the importance of showing obedience towards him in these testaments would seem unwarranted following \u201cthe Roman conquest of Judah by Pompey (63 BCE).\u201d Evans believes this composition was \u201cwritten between 109 and 106 BCE by a Pharisee who greatly admired John Hyrcanus at the zenith of the Maccabean (or Hasmonean) dynasty.\u201d
\nIn contrast, Harm W. Hollander and Marinus deJonge argue that the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, in its present form, is a Christian composition which was completed late in the second century CE. Although they would acknowledge that parts of this composition probably developed in pre-Christian Jewish circles, in light of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen; 4QPBless; 11QMelch; 4QPRNab ar.; 4QFlor; 4QTLevi ara; TNap), they believe that it would be impossible to reconstruct the Jewish version of this Testament. They conclude: \u201cA fortiori, it is practically impossible to answer the question whether there ever existed Jewish Testaments in some form. If they existed, we shall never be able to reconstruct them with any degree of certainty.\u201d Robert Kugler writes in his survey of the various scholarly views held on the compositional history of the Testaments, that this latter view is the view he finds the most judicious but notes that \u201cconverts to deJonge\u2019s view are remarkably slow in coming.\u201d Kugler still believes that deJonge\u2019s \u201cinsistence that we cannot achieve sufficient consensus on a pre-Christian form of the Testaments to make the pursuit of one worthwhile seems destined to win the day.\u201d Be that as it may, the majority view is that the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is a Jewish composition with Christian interpolations. Kugel states:<\/p>\n
The most reasonable conclusion appears to be that the Testaments: 1) Started off as a Jewish text in Hasmonean times; a text that 2) was later slightly revised while still in Hebrew, with specific insertions critical of the priesthood (as well as perhaps other material); 3) was still later freely translated into Greek with a number of a [sic] new passages added; and then finally 4) was supplemented by a relatively small and easily identifiable set of Christian interpolations.<\/p>\n
Howard C. Kee suggests that each of the twelve Testaments contains six key elements, elements that have been utilized for the creation of Table 3. They are: (1) an introduction to the testament, typically laying the setting; (2) a narrative of the life of the patriarch; (3) an ethical exhortation; (4) a prediction regarding the future, an apocalyptic section, followed by (5) a second exhortation; a conclusion detailing (6) the death and burial of said patriarch.
\nIn the following table, the resurrection statements and allusions in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs have been highlighted in gray. The table shows that all but one of these statements appear in the apocalyptic section of the Testaments (T. Sim. 6:7; T. Levi 18:14; T. Jud. 25:4; T. Zeb. 10:1\u20133; T. Dan 5:7\u201313). The remaining resurrection statements appear in the second exhortation of the Testament of Benjamin (T. Benj. 10:6\u201310).
\nThe use of \u201csleep\u201d as an analogy, metaphor, or euphemism for death, implying a resurrection, will be discussed and has not been highlighted in Table 3. Table 3 also shows that most of the Christian interpolations and textual references, given in parentheses, appear in the apocalyptic sections of the Testaments with the exception of the Testaments of Reuben, Issachar, and Naphtali. It should also be noted that the narrative of the life of Levi section in the Testament of Levi alternates between events from his life and visions from God:<\/p>\n
Narrative section regarding Levi\u2019s life (2:1\u20132)
\n\u2192 First Vision (2:3\u20135:7)<\/p>\n
Narrative section regarding Levi\u2019s life (6:1\u20137:4)
\n\u2192 Second Vision (8:1\u201319)<\/p>\n
Narrative section regarding Levi\u2019s life (9:1\u201314)
\n\u2192 Third Vision (10:1\u20135)<\/p>\n
Narrative section regarding Levi\u2019s life (11:1\u201312:5)<\/p>\n
Table 3. Structural overview of the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs<\/p>\n
SON
\nIntroduction
\nNarrative of the Life
\nEthical Exhortation
\nPrediction Regarding Future
\nSecond Exhortation
\nDeath and Burial
\nReuben
\n1:1\u20135
\n1:6\u20133:15
\n4:1\u20136:4
\n6:5\u20137
\n6:8\u201312
\n7:1\u20132
\nSimeon
\n1:1\u20132
\n2:1\u201313
\n3:1\u20135:3
\n5:4\u20136:7 (6:5, 7)
\n7:1\u20133
\n7:4\u20139:2
\nLevi
\n1:1\u20132
\n2:1\u201312:5
\n(2:11; 4:1, 4; 10:2\u20133)
\n13:1\u20139
\n14:1\u201318:14
\n(14:1, 2; 16:3; 17:2; 18:7, 9)
\n19:1\u20134a
\n19:4b\u20135
\nJudah
\n1:1\u20136
\n2:1\u201312:12
\n13:1\u201320:5
\n21:1\u201325:5
\n(24:4)
\n26:1
\n26:2\u20134
\nIssachar
\n1:1
\n1:2\u20133:8
\n4:1\u20135:8
\n6:1\u20134
\n7:1\u20137
\n(7:7)
\n7:8\u20139
\nZebulun
\n1:1\u20132
\n1:3\u20134:13
\n5:1\u20138:1
\n8:2\u201310:3
\n(9:8)
\n10:4\u20135
\n10:6
\nDan
\n1:1\u20132
\n1:3\u20139
\n2:1\u20135:5
\n5:6\u201313
\n(5:10, 13)
\n6:1\u201311
\n(6:7, 9)
\n7:1\u20133
\nNaphtali
\n1:1\u20134
\n1:5\u20132:8
\n2:9\u20133:5
\n4:1\u20138:1
\n8:2\u201310
\n(8:2, 3)
\n9:1\u20132
\nGad
\n1:1\u20132
\n1:3\u20132:5
\n3:1\u20137:7
\n8:1\u20132
\n(8:2)
\n8:3a
\n8:3b\u20134
\nAsher
\n1:1\u20132
\n\u2014
\n1:3\u20136:5
\n7:1\u20133
\n(7:3)
\n7:4\u20137
\n8:1\u20132
\nJoseph
\n1:1
\n1:2\u201316:5
\n17:1\u201318:4
\n19:1\u201310
\n(19:8)
\n19:11\u201312
\n(19:11)
\n20:1\u20136
\nBenjamin
\n1:1\u20136
\n2:1\u20135
\n3:1\u20138:3
\n(3:8)
\n9:1\u20133
\n(9:3\u20135)
\n10:1\u201311:5
\n(10:7, 8, 9)
\n12:1\u20134<\/p>\n
a. Sleep as a Metaphor for Death<\/p>\n
In the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, most of the \u201cdeath and burial\u201d elements of the individual Testaments use \u201csleep\u201d as a metaphor for death (T. Sim. 8:1; T. Jud. 26:4; T. Iss. 7:9; T. Zeb. 10:6; T. Dan 7:1; T. Gad 8:1; T. Ash. 8:1; T. Jos. 20:4). Two Greek terms for sleep appear in these passages, which are in the following list: \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c9 (underlined text) and \u1f51\u03c0\u03bd\u03cc\u03c9\/\u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (bolded text). Based on the context, these two terms could be understood literally as a reference to natural sleep\u2014or metaphorically as a reference to death. In these cases, they have all been used metaphorically.<\/p>\n
Reference
\nDeath and Burial using sleep as a metaphor for death
\nT. Sim. 8:1\u20132
\nHe fell asleep (\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd) with his fathers at the age of one hundred and twenty years. They placed him in a wooden coffin in order to carry his bones up to Hebron.
\nT. Jud. 26:4
\nJudah fell asleep (\u1f10\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7 \u038a\u03bf\u03cd\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2) and his sons did everything as he had instructed them, and they buried him in Hebron with his fathers.
\nT. Iss. 7:9
\nAnd he stretched his legs and died at a good old age\u2014the fifth son, with all his members sound and still strong; he slept the eternal sleep (\u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd).
\nT. Zeb. 10:6
\nWhen he had said this, he fell into a beautiful sleep (\u1f10\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7 \u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1ff7), and his sons placed him in a coffin. Later they carried him up to Hebron and buried him with his fathers.
\nT. Dan 7:1
\nWhen he had said this, he kissed them and slept an eternal sleep (\u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd). And his sons buried him and later they carried his bones to be near Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
\nT. Gad 8:1
\nHe drew up his feet and fell asleep in peace (\u1f10\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u1fc3). And after five years they took him up and buried him in Hebron with his fathers.
\nT. Ash. 8:1
\nAfter he had said these things he gave instructions, saying, \u201cBury me in Hebron.\u201d And he died, having fallen into a beautiful sleep (\u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c2).
\nT. Jos. 20:4
\nAnd after he had said this he stretched out his feet and fell into a beautiful sleep (\u1f10\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7 \u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd). And all Israel and all Egypt mourned with great lamentation.<\/p>\n
It should be noted that the term \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c9 appears only in one other passage in the Testaments, and in that context it is used twice in its literal meaning, referring to Bilhah\u2019s drunken sleep which prevented her from waking up when Reuben raped her (T. Reu. 3:12, 13). The second term, \u1f51\u03c0\u03bd\u03cc\u03c9\/\u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, is defined by the author of Testament of Reuben as: \u201cIn addition to all these is an eighth spirit, [that] of sleep, through which is created the trance-like state [that occurs in] nature, as well as a likeness of death\u201d (T. Reu. 3:1) and is \u201cjoined to deceit and imagination.\u201d This is also the term used for Reuben\u2019s inability to sleep until he had performed the act of raping Bilhah (T. Reu. 3:12). Apart from these three passages in the Testament of Reuben, \u1f51\u03c0\u03bd\u03cc\u03c9\/\u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 is used in five additional passages in its literal sense (T. Sim. 4:9 \u00d72; T. Levi 2:5 [trance-like state?]; T. Jud. 18:4; T. Iss. 3:5). It could be argued that, based on the usage of these two terms in the rape narrative, \u1f51\u03c0\u03bd\u03cc\u03c9\/\u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 seems to also carry an \u201cunconscious\u201d aspect to this literal sleep, since Bilhah was unaware of what Reuben did to her, perhaps alluding to the unconscious state of death.
\nThese two words allude to a resurrection hope since \u201csleep\u201d suggests that death is not permanent\u2014if a person sleeps it is assumed that he\/she will wake up from said sleep at some point in the future. This figurative language is also used in Dan. 12:2 when describing death (\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b5\u03cd\u03b4\u03c9) and resurrection (\u1f00\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9), and is well attested in the New Testament, where the word \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c9 is mostly used in its metaphorical sense for death. It is interesting that the term \u1f51\u03c0\u03bd\u03cc\u03c9\/\u1f55\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 is never used when referring to death in the New Testament and only carries this meaning in three out of 21 passages in the LXX (Pss. 13:4; 76:5; Jer. 28:39). The allusion to the resurrection hope when using the metaphor of sleep becomes clear in the resurrection passage found in T. Jud. 25:4, which describes resurrection as waking up to life: \u201cAnd those who died in sorrow shall be raised in joy; and those who died in poverty for the Lord\u2019s sake shall be made rich; those who died on account of the Lord shall be wakened to life\u201d (\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03c5\u03c0\u03bd\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc7).<\/p>\n
b. Clear Resurrection Hope<\/p>\n
There are six clear resurrection passages in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (T. Sim. 6:7; T. Levi 18:14; T. Jud. 25; T. Zeb. 10:1\u20133; T. Dan 5:7\u201313; T. Benj. 10:4\u201310). However, unlike the apocalyptic books discussed in the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic Literature, they reveal little with regard to what happens upon death or give a lot of details surrounding the eschatological resurrection. These clear resurrection passages all appear in Testaments referring to the writings of Enoch as a source of eschatological knowledge (T. Sim. 5:4; T. Levi 10:5; 14:1; T. Jud. 18:1; T. Zeb. 3:4; T. Dan 3:4; T. Benj. 9:1), and all but two (T. Levi 18:14; T. Dan 5:7\u201313) use the Greek word \u1f00\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9, \u201ccause to stand up,\u201d in the context of this resurrection hope (T. Sim. 6:7; T. Jud. 25:1; T. Zeb. 10:2; T. Benj. 10:6). As mentioned previously, all but one (T. Benj. 10:6\u20138, 11) of these resurrection passages appear in the apocalyptic section of the book (see Table 3). Only two of these resurrection passages do not contain any Christian interpolation (T. Jud. 25; T. Zeb. 10:1\u20137), although the extent of the Christian interpolations in the other passages (T. Sim. 6:7; T. Levi 10:14; T. Dan 5:11; T. Benj. 10:6\u20138, 11) are still being discussed by scholars. It should also be noted that all but one (T. Dan 5:7\u201313) of these resurrection passages emphasizes the resurrection of the patriarch (T. Sim. 6:7; T. Zeb. 10:2) or the patriarchs in general (T. Levi 18:13\u201314; T. Jud. 25; T. Benj. 10:6). These six resurrection passages can also be divided into two groups, the first describing a limited resurrection of only the patriarch and the righteous (T. Sim. 6:7; T. Levi 18:14; T. Jud. 25; T. Zeb. 10:1\u20133; T. Dan 5:7\u201313) while the second describes a universal resurrection of both the righteous and the wicked (T. Benj. 10:5\u201310).<\/p>\n
1. Limited Resurrection<\/p>\n
The \u201climited resurrection\u201d passages focus on the eschatological resurrection of the patriarch and the saints, while the destiny of the wicked is mostly ignored.<\/p>\n
a. Testament of Simeon 6:7. In Testament of Simeon, the resurrection hope concludes the apocalyptic section (T. Sim. 5:4\u20136:7) which is based on what Simeon has \u201cseen in a copy of the book of Enoch\u201d (5:4). The resurrection follows a period of sexual promiscuity which will destroy the tribe (6:7), a rebellion against the leadership of the tribe of Levi and Judah which will not succeed (5:4\u20136), the glorification of Shem, the manifestation of God upon the earth [as a man] who will save Adam (6:5), and final destruction of the evil spirits (6:6). Simeon concludes his apocalyptic statement by affirming his strong conviction that he will resurrect in gladness after these tumultuous events and bless God for his marvelous work. A second Christian interpolation expands on this work by adding \u201cbecause God has taken a body, eats with human beings, and saves human beings\u201d (6:7c). It should be noted that the resurrection statement in the Testament of Simeon is limited to him personally and, as such, does not reveal the extent of it\u2014if it will include other righteous dead or if it would also include the wicked dead.<\/p>\n
b. Testament of Levi 18:14. In the Testament of Levi, Levi reveals to his sons what he has learned from the writings of Enoch regarding the end of time (14:1), more specifically what will take place during the seventy weeks (17:1), and the priesthood belonging to each of the jubilees during this time period. He concludes his apocalyptic statement revealing the events that will take place during the messianic age, when \u201cthe Lord will raise up a new priest\u201d (18:1) who will rule \u201cfrom generation to generation forever\u201d (18:8). During the reign of the Priestly Messiah, there will be peace on earth (18:4); \u201cthe knowledge of the Lord will be poured out on the earth like the water of the seas\u201d (18:5); sin will cease (18:9); Messiah ben Levi will open the gates of Paradise and provide the people full access to the tree of life (18:10); Beliar will be bound (18:12a), while the wicked spirits will lose their powers (18:12b); and there will be an eschatological resurrection of the saints. Levi declares: \u201cThen Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob will rejoice, and I shall be glad, and all the saints shall be clothed in righteousness\u201d (18:14).
\nCompared with the resurrection statement in the Testament of Simeon 6:8, this passage includes Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, together with all the saints, in the eschatological resurrection. This passage, however, does not discuss the final destiny of the wicked dead, suggesting a limited resurrection which would only include the righteous dead. If this passage is read in conjunction with T. Levi 3:1\u20132, this eschatological resurrection could also include the wicked souls who will be punished, thus describing a more universal resurrection.<\/p>\n
c. Testament of Judah 25. In the apocalyptic section of Testament of Judah (T. Jud. 21\u201325), Judah reveals to his children that the kingship has been given to him but would be subjugated to the priesthood which was given to Levi (21:2\u20135). Judah also notes that in the book of Enoch, there will be a great apostasy which will bring an end to his rulership (18:1; 22:2). However, his descendants will repent and turn back to God, who will bring them back from captivity (23:5). Only after this will the eschatological king, the \u201cStar from Jacob,\u201d the \u201cSun of Righteousness,\u201d the sinless king, \u201cthe Shoot of God,\u201d be established from Judah\u2019s posterity (24:1\u20132). This messianic king will \u201cjudge and save all that call on the Lord\u201d (24:6). It is after this eschatological king has been firmly established by God that the resurrection will take place (25:1).
\nThe resurrection described in this passage is also limited in its scope since it does not reveal the destiny of the wicked dead. In addition to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and the twelve patriarchs who will once more be chiefs among the people (T. Jud. 25:1), the resurrection will also include all those who died in sorrow, poverty, and \u201cwho died on account of the Lord shall be wakened to life,\u201d with joy and riches (25:4). The righteous will once more be one people and speak one language (25:3), a reversal of what took place at the Tower of Babel (Gen. 11:6\u20139) and a restoration of the pre-fallen condition of humanity. Beliar will be thrown into the eternal fire (T. Jud. 25:3), which will put an end to the spirit of error and \u201cthe impious shall mourn and sinners shall weep\u201d (25:5). This eschatological resurrection brings in the great reversal: curses are undone, sorrow is turned into joy, poverty into riches, death into life, while the impious shall mourn and sinners shall weep.<\/p>\n
d. Testament of Zebulun 10:1\u20133. The Testament of Zebulun also expresses a strong personal resurrection hope. The author of the testament concludes his apocalyptic statement (T. Zeb. 8:2\u201310:3) by alluding to the Messianic hope in Mal. 4:2 [MT 3:20], that the son of righteousness will rise with healing in his wings (T. Zeb. 9:8), following their repentance (9:7) after their great apostasy (9:5\u20136). However, Zebulun predicts a second apostasy which will last until \u201cthe time of the end\u201d (9:9), when the eschatological resurrection will take place (10:2\u20133). He tells his children not to view his death as the end, since he will resurrect, and once more be a leader of his tribe\u2014of those who \u201ckeep the Law of the Lord and the commandments of Zebulun\u201d (10:2). The ungodly, according to Zebulun, will be destroyed by eternal fire for all generations (\u03c0\u1fe6\u03c1 \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f15\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd, 10:3).
\nIt is not clear from this passage if this eschatological resurrection will be universal. Zebulun believes strongly that he will resurrect, but does this resurrection include all the righteous dead? He also mentions the punishment of the wicked, but will this punishment include the wicked dead?<\/p>\n
e. Testament of Dan 5:7\u201313. The apocalyptic section of the Testament of Dan also describes the future apostasy, captivity, and return to the Lord (T. Dan 5:5\u20139), which preceded the arrival of the Lord\u2019s salvation from the tribe of Judah and the tribe of Levi (5:10), who \u201cwill make war against Beliar\u201d and win, thus liberating the souls of the saints which Beliar had held captive (5:11a), implying their resurrection. This messianic figure will also turn the hearts of the disobedient people towards the Lord (5:11b) and \u201cgrant eternal peace to those who call upon the Lord (5:11c). During this messianic era, the righteous will \u201crefresh themselves in Eden\u201d and \u201crejoice in the New Jerusalem\u201d for all eternity (5:12), and the Lord will protect them by living among them (5:13c). This promised savior \u201cwill rule over them in humility and poverty\u201d (5:13d), while those who trust him \u201cshall reign in truth in heaven\u201d (5:13e).
\nThe eschatological resurrection mentioned in this text seems only to concern itself with the destiny of the righteous souls, mentioning that they will be liberated from Beliar\u2019s captivity. The destiny of the wicked dead, on the other hand, seems to be of no interest to the writer. Thus, the eschatological resurrection described in this passage seems to be limited to the righteous who will receive their everlasting reward, to dwell in the presence of the Lord.<\/p>\n
2. A Universal Resurrection<\/p>\n
The only universal resurrection passage appearing in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is T. Benj. 10:5\u201310. This passage is also unique as it does not appear in the apocalyptic section of the Testament, but rather in the second exhortation (T. Benj. 10:1\u201311:5).<\/p>\n
a. Testament of Benjamin 10:4\u201310. The apocalyptic section of the Testament of Benjamin (T. Benj. 9) also reveals, based on the words of Enoch (9:1), that there will be a great period of apostasy (9:1\u20132), but God will bring the twelve tribes back from their exile to the rebuilt temple of God, where they will remain until God \u201csends forth his salvation through the ministration of the unique prophet\u201d (9:2).
\nIn Benjamin\u2019s second exhortation to his children, he urges them to \u201ckeep God\u2019s commandments until the Lord reveals his salvation to all the nations\u201d (T. Benj. 10:5) so they will be a part of the eschatological resurrection of the righteous: \u201cAnd then you will see Enoch and Seth and Abraham and Isaac and Jacob being raised up at the right hand in great joy\u201d (10:6) and \u201cthen shall we also be raised, each of us over our tribe, and we shall prostrate ourselves before the heavenly king\u201d (10:6). Following this resurrection, everyone will be changed, \u201csome destined for glory, others for dishonor\u201d (10:8) as a result of the eschatological judgment (10:10).
\nThis resurrection statement borrows the phraseology of Dan. 12:2 (highlighted below in gray) while making an interpretative change regarding the scope of this resurrection. In Dan. 12:2, \u201cmany\u201d (\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1f76) will resurrect on that day, suggesting a limited resurrection. However, in the Testament of Benjamin \u201call\u201d (\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2) will resurrect, suggesting a universal resurrection. It should also be noted that the reward for the righteous has been changed from eternal life (\u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd) to glory (\u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1\u03bd), while the punishment in store for the wicked has been shortened from shame (\u1f40\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd), dispersion (\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd), and everlasting contempt (\u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd) to only shame\/dishonor (\u1f00\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd). The resurrection event in the Testament of Benjamin is clearly set in the context of the eschatological judgment (T. Benj. 10:8b\u201310), which is only implied in Dan. 12:1, when those who are written in the heavenly book will be saved (\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u1fb3 \u1f51\u03c8\u03c9\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03bb\u03b1\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f43\u03c2 \u1f02\u03bd \u03b5\u1f51\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03bb\u03af\u1ff3). Furthermore, both these resurrection statements follow a period of great tribulation (T. Benj. 9:1\u20132 || Dan. 12:1).<\/p>\n
Testament of Benjamin 10:8
\nDaniel 12:2 (BGT and NETS)
\n\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9,
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7
\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9
\n\u03bf\u1f31 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1\u03bd,
\n\u03bf\u1f31 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd
\n\u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd.
\n\u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd
\n\u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd.
\n\u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u038a\u03c3\u03c1\u03b1\u03ae\u03bb,
\n[\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd].
\nThen also all men will rise,
\nAnd many of those who sleep in the
\nflat of the earth will arise,
\nsome unto glory
\nsome to everlasting life
\nand some unto shame.
\nbut others to shame [reproach]
\nand others to dispersion [and contempt] everlasting.
\nAnd the Lord will judge Israel first
\n[for the unrighteousness done to him, because they did not believe that God appeared in the flesh as a deliverer].<\/p>\n
The text in italics is a Christian interpolation stating that the people of Israel will be held responsible for their unrighteous acts toward God incarnated. Be that as it may, the eschatological judgment seems to have three phases: first, God will judge the people of Israel (T. Benj. 10:8b); second, God will judge the other nations (10:9); and third, God will \u201cjudge Israel by the chosen gentiles as he tested Esau by the Midianites who loved their brothers\u201d (10:10).
\nBenjamin concludes his eschatological resurrection and judgment statement with the wish that all his children will be counted among the righteous on that day as those who fear the Lord. He exhorts his children to \u201clive in holiness, in accord with the Lord\u2019s commands.\u201d If they do, they will \u201cagain dwell with me [Benjamin] in hope; all Israel will be gathered to the Lord\u201d (T. Benj. 10:10\u201311). This exhortation does not only summarize the message of the Testament of Benjamin, but it also summarizes the message of the whole Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs.<\/p>\n
3. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs reveals little about the period between death and the resurrection, apart from the souls of the righteous being imprisoned by Belial (T. Dan 5:11) until the messianic age and that \u201cthe spirits of those dispatched to achieve the punishment of mankind\u201d are kept in the lowest heaven (T. Levi 3:1\u20132), both passages implying an eschatological resurrection. These testaments also contain several allusions to the eschatological resurrection in eight of the \u201cdeath and burial\u201d sections of the book (T. Sim. 8:1\u20132; T. Jud. 26:4; T. Iss. 7:9; T. Zeb. 10:6; T. Dan 7:1; T. Gad 8:1; T. Ash. 8:1; T. Jos. 20:4). In these passages, the word \u201csleep\u201d is used as a metaphor for death which implies that at one point in the future, they will be woken up from their sleep and regain life.
\nThere are six clear resurrection passages in these testaments (T. Sim. 6:7; T. Levi 18:14; T. Jud. 25; T. Zeb. 10:1\u20133; T. Dan 5:7\u201313; T. Benj. 10:4\u201310), but only one, T. Benj. 10:4\u201310, describes an eschatological resurrection which will also be universal, borrowing phraseology from Dan. 12:2. The other five describe a limited resurrection of only the patriarch and the righteous.<\/p>\n
2. Testament of Job<\/p>\n
The Testament of Job was most likely written in Greek during the first century BCE, or perhaps as late as the second century CE, by a Hellenistic Jew living in Egypt. Like the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, discussed in the previous section, the author uses the words of a dying biblical character as a vehicle for his\/her ethical instructions, with some added apocalyptic and eschatological material.
\nMost scholars would note that the Testament of Job is a re-writing of the Masoretic version of the book of Job adding several elements from the Septuagint version of the book and elements which parallel Rabbinic Midrash and Jewish legends (i.e., Dinah, Jacob\u2019s daughter is named as Job\u2019s second wife; Abraham\u2019s conversion journey and iconoclastic fervor). It also contains a highly developed view of Satan (T. Job 6:1\u201327:7), shows a special interest in the female characters associated with Job (his two wives and three daughters), and contains apocalyptic and mystic elements (chs. 46\u201353).
\nPerhaps the two most important elements taken from the Septuagint are the resurrection belief and the persevering theme. The resurrection belief appears in several passages throughout the Testament, the clearest and most crucial statement being found in T. Job 4:9. If it is also implied in T. Job 33; 39:12; 41:4; 43; 47:11; 52\u201353. The following outline shows the literary structure of the Testament of Job and is based on Harold W. Attridge\u2019s commentary on this Testament. The sections where the resurrection passages appear are bolded and highlighted in gray. The fourth literary division of the main body and the conclusion of the Testament have been shaded in gray to indicate that these last few chapters may be a later addition to the composition. If this is the case, then T. Job 45:1\u20134 may have served as the original conclusion of the Testament.<\/p>\n
I. Prologue (1:1\u20137)
\n– Title (1:1)
\n– Setting (1:2\u20137)
\nII. Four Literary Divisions (2:1\u201350:3)
\n1. Job and the Revealing Angel (2:1\u20135:3)
\n– Job\u2019s perplexity over idolatry (2:1\u20133:7)
\n– The angel\u2019s discourse of impending calamities (4:1\u201311)
\n– Job\u2019s destruction of the idol\u2019s shrine (5:1\u20133)
\n2. Job and Satan (6:1\u201327:7)
\n– Satan\u2019s attack and Job\u2019s tragedy (6:1\u20138:3)
\n– Satan disguised as a beggar (6:1\u201313)
\n– Satan implores the Lord for power over Job (8:1\u20133)
\n– Job\u2019s generosity and piety (9:1\u201315:9)
\n– His philanthropy (9:1\u20138)
\n– His hospitality (10:1\u20136)
\n– His underwritten charities (11:1\u201312:3)
\n– His fabulous wealth in cattle; the buttered mountains (13:1\u20136)
\n– His musical prowess (14:1\u201315:9)
\n– Job\u2019s losses (16:1\u201326:6)
\n– His cattle (16:1\u20137)
\n– His children (17:1\u201319:2)
\n– His wife (21:1\u201326:6)
\n– Sitis enslavement (21:1\u201322:2)
\n– Sitis sells her hair to Satan (22:3\u201323:11)
\n– The speech of Sitis: Begun (24:1\u201310)
\n– A lament for Sitis (25:1\u20138)
\n– The speech of Sitis: Concluded (25:9\u201310)
\n– Job\u2019s response (26:1\u20136)
\n– Job\u2019s triumph and Satan\u2019s defeat (27:1\u20137)
\n3. Job and the Three Kings (28:1\u201345:4)
\n– Job recognized and the kings astonished (28:1\u201330:3)
\n– Eliphas: Laments Job\u2019s losses (31:1\u201334:5)
\n– Eliphas confirms Job\u2019s identity (31:1\u20136)
\n– A lament for Eliphas (31:7\u201332:12)
\n– Job\u2019s psalm of affirmation (33:1\u20139)
\n– Eliphas\u2019s rejoinder (34:1\u20135)
\n– Baldad test Job\u2019s sanity (35:1\u201338:5)
\n– Sophar: Offers the royal physicians (38:6\u20138)
\n– Sitis: Laments her children, dies, and is buried (39:1\u201340:14)
\n– Job\u2019s recovery and vindication (41:1\u201345:4)
\n– Elihu\u2019s insult (41:1\u20136)
\n– The kings forgiven through Job\u2019s intercession (42:1\u20138)
\n– A hymn against Elihu (43:1\u201317)
\n– Job\u2019s restoration (44:1\u20135)
\n– Job\u2019s final counsels and division of the inheritance (45:1\u20134)
\n4. Job and His Three Daughters (46:1\u201350:3)
\n– The daughters\u2019 inheritance: Their father\u2019s phylactery (46:1\u201347:11)
\n– The charismatic sashes (48:1\u201350:3)
\nIII. Epilogue (51:1\u201353:8)
\n– Nereus\u2019s Literary Activity (51:1\u20134)
\n– Job\u2019s Death, Soul Ascent, and Burial (52:1\u201353:8)<\/p>\n
This new resurrection element reframes the entire book of Job. The Hebrew version of the canonical book of Job explores the problem of theodicy, a concern barely voiced in the Testament, placing God on trial in the proverbial courtroom. In this context, John Walton sees God as the accused and notes that it is his policies that are questioned by \u05d4\u05b7\u05e9\u05b8\u05bc\u05c2\u05d8\u05b8\u05df, haSatan, the accuser. Job, however, just happens to serve as \u201cexhibit-A\u201d for the defense team. In the Testament of Job, the resurrection belief solves the problem of theodicy, thus the focus has shifted to Job\u2019s perseverance and victory against Satan\u2019s revenge attack after Job destroyed one of his shrines (T. Job 4:4; 5:1\u20133). Job had been forewarned about the coming suffering if he proceeded with his plans (T. Job 4:1\u201311) and the ultimate reward if he persevered, turning the Hebrew Job from a passive sufferer into a Job who, in Collins words, \u201cunderstands and accepts his suffering,\u201d a Job who willingly enters into a conflict with Satan.
\nThe perseverance theme was already introduced in the LXX version of the book of Job, as Allen writes: \u201cIn the opinion of the majority of scholars the Greek translator of Job rendered the text into a Greek version [LXX] that transformed the Job of the poetic sections [in the Hebrew version] from bombastic doubter into pious and persevering sufferer.\u201d However, in this Testament, it is explored even further.<\/p>\n
a. Testament of Job 4:4\u201311<\/p>\n
The clearest resurrection statement in the Testament of Job appears in the angel\u2019s discourse of impending calamities (T. Job 4:1\u201311) before Job\u2019s destruction of the idol\u2019s shrine (5:1\u20133). In this discourse, Job is warned about the consequences of his planned actions\u2014that Satan will be enraged and take his vengeance upon Job by sending many plagues, in addition to depriving Job of his wealth and children (4:4a\u20135). However, he is also told that if he is patient and perseveres against Satan\u2019s attack, he will receive a great reward in the end. If Job is victorious, his name will be renowned throughout the world until \u201cthe consummation of the ages,\u201d his wealth will be doubled, and he will be raised up in the eschatological resurrection (4:6\u20139).
\nIn this key passage, Job is compared to an athlete who will have to suffer great pain to become victorious and win the crown (T. Job 4:10). This is the same imagery used or alluded to in the New Testament (1 Cor. 9:24\u201326; Gal. 2:2; 5:7; Phil. 2:16; 2 Tim. 2:5; 4:7; Heb. 12:1) when encouraging the followers of Christ to walk on the straight path in order to gain the ultimate reward, which will never fade. Thus, Job is told that there is a reward in store for him both in the near (after 48 years on the dung heap [T. Job 21:1] he was healed and had his possessions doubled) and in the distant future (resurrection and heavenly kingship [T. Job 31]), as long as he would persevere in his suffering. This promised reward, when Job \u201cwins the crown\u201d of victory at the end of \u201cthe race,\u201d will demonstrate that the Lord is indeed just, true, and strong, helping his elect to persevere and that he is impartial since he renders \u201cgood things to each one who obeys\u201d (T. Job 4:7\u20138, 11).<\/p>\n
Testament of Job 4:4\u201311
\nJob 42:17 (BGT\/LXE)
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\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u0399\u03c9\u03b2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd [1] \u03b3\u03ad\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u02bc \u1f67\u03bd \u1f41 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd [2] \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f11\u03c1\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03a3\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b2\u03af\u03b2\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u0391\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03c4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f41\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u0399\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f08\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03cb\u03c0\u1fc6\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 \u0399\u03c9\u03b2\u03b1\u03b2 [3] \u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u1f7c\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03ba\u03b1 \u1f08\u03c1\u03ac\u03b2\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u1fb7 \u03c5\u1f31\u03cc\u03bd \u1fa7 \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 \u0395\u03bd\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u1f26\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u0396\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u0397\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5 \u03c5\u1f31\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c5\u1f31\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u0392\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f65\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03ad\u03bc\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u0391\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b1\u03bc [4] \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u0395\u03b4\u03c9\u03bc \u1f27\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f26\u03c1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd \u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u0392\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba \u1f41 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0392\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0394\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u1f72 \u0392\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba \u0399\u03c9\u03b2\u03b1\u03b2 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u0399\u03c9\u03b2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u0391\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc \u1f41 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u1f21\u03b3\u03b5\u03bc\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u0398\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03c4\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u0391\u03b4\u03b1\u03b4 \u03c5\u1f31\u1f78\u03c2 \u0392\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4 \u1f41 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03cc\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2 \u039c\u03b1\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b5\u03b4\u03af\u1ff3 \u039c\u03c9\u03b1\u03b2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0393\u03b5\u03b8\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc [5] \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b8\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c6\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u0395\u03bb\u03b9\u03c6\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u0397\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5 \u03c5\u1f31\u1ff6\u03bd \u0398\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2 \u0392\u03b1\u03bb\u03b4\u03b1\u03b4 \u1f41 \u03a3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, \u03a3\u03c9\u03c6\u03b1\u03c1 \u1f41 \u039c\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2.
\n4If you attempt to purge the place of Satan, death upon you. He will bring on you many plagues, 5he will take away for himself your goods, he will carry off your children. 6But if you are patient, I will make your name renowned in all generations of the earth till the consummation of the age. 7And I will return you again to your goods. It will be repaid to you doubly, 8so you may know that the LORD is impartial\u2014rendering good things to each on who obeys.
\n17And Job died, an old man and full of days: [1] and it is written that he will rise again with those whom the Lord raises up. [2] This man is described in the Syriac book as living in the land of Ausis, on the borders of Idumea and Arabia: and his name before was Jobab; [3] and having taken an Arabian wife, he begot a son whose name was Ennon. And he himself was the son of his father Zare, one of the sons of Esau, and of his mother Bosorrha, so that he was the fifth from Abraam.
\n9And you shall be raised up in the resurrection. 10For you will be like a sparring athlete, both enduring pains and winning the crown. 11Then will you know that the LORD is just, true, and strong, giving strength to his elect ones.\u201d
\n[4] And these were the kings who reigned in Edom, which country he also ruled over: first, Balac, the son of Beor, and the name of his city was Dennaba: but after Balac, Jobab, who is called Job, and after him Asom, who was governor out of the country of Thaeman: and after him Adad, the son of Barad, who destroyed Madiam in the plain of Moab; and the name of his city was Gethaim. [5] And his friends who came to him were Eliphaz, of the children of Esau, king of the Thaemanites, Baldad son of the Sauchaeans, Sophar king of the Minaeans.<\/p>\n
In the Septuagint, the resurrection promise is mentioned almost as an afterthought as a part of the conclusion (Job 42:17 [1]), which also states Job\u2019s original name, Jobab (Job 42:17 [2]), biographical material (Job 42:17 [3]\u2013[4]), and additional information regarding his friends (Job 42:17 [5]), all these elements are integrated into the Testament of Job (T. Job 4:4\u201311). In contrast, the promise appears in the framing of the story in the Testament of Job, and the promise is alluded to in key places throughout the narrative. Although T. Job 4:9 reveals little regarding the nature of this resurrection, it is clear from the context that it is a part of the promised reward held in store for Job and the use of the definite article, \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, \u201cin the resurrection,\u201d suggests that this resurrection is a specific event still in the future.<\/p>\n
b. Allusions to the Resurrection<\/p>\n
The first allusion to the resurrection appears in \u201cJob\u2019s psalm of affirmation\u201d (T. Job 33:1\u20139), following Eliphas\u2019 lament over Job\u2019s great losses (31:7\u201332:12). In Job\u2019s response, he tells his friends not to judge him based on his earthly situation. Although he has lost his earthly wealth and power, Job claims his throne is in heaven, in the upper world (33:3a), among the holy ones (33:2), receiving its \u201csplendor and majesty\u201d from the right hand of the father (33:3b). According to Job, his throne and kingdom will last forever since it is in \u201cthe world of the changeless one\u201d (33:5\u20139). These words regarding Job\u2019s heavenly throne demonstrates his strong resurrection hope, and that his focus had shifted from earthly matters toward the heavenly reward, to the upper world, a world which will have no end.
\nThe second allusion to the resurrection follows Sitis\u2019 lament over her dead children, in which she begs Job\u2019s royal friends to give her ten dead children a proper burial since they are still buried in the ruins after all these years (T. Job 39:4\u201311). Job\u2019s friends are more than happy to oblige, but Job forbade them, telling them that they would not be able to find the bodies of his children since \u201cthey were taken up into heaven by the Creator their King\u201d (39:11), suggesting a bodily resurrection, although not an eschatological one. Not unexpectedly, Job\u2019s friends did not believe him, and one could also wonder how his wife Sitis reacted to Job\u2019s words, if this was the first time he had revealed their children\u2019s destiny to her or if she had not believed him earlier. Be that as it may, after Job had prayed to the heavenly Father, he asked them to \u201clook up with your eyes to the east and see my children crowned with the splendor of the heavenly one\u201d (40:1). When his wife saw her resurrected children she worshiped God and said, \u201cNow I know that I have a memorial with the Lord. So I shall arise and return to the city and nap awhile and then refresh myself before the duties of my servitude\u201d (40:4). With this newfound resurrection hope, Job\u2019s wife died in good spirit that very night (40:6).
\nThe third allusion to the resurrection belief appears in the hymn against Elihu (T. Job 43:1\u201317), which concerns the destiny of the righteous and the wicked. God is righteous, and his judgment is true, and he will judge everyone together (\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd) without showing favoritism (43:13), a possible allusion to the eschatological judgment which would require an eschatological resurrection. The first half of the hymn concerns those, like Elihu, whose sins are not forgiven by God. They will have \u201cno memorial among the living\u201d (43:5)\u2014instead, \u201cthe honor of his tent lies in Hades\u201d (43:7). He will be forgotten by the Lord and abandoned by the holy ones (43:10), \u201cwrath and anger shall be his tent,\u201d and he will have no hope or peace (43:11). The righteous, on the other hand, represented by Job\u2019s three friends, Eliphas, Baldad, and Sophar, will receive the splendor they awaited (43:16) since their sins are gone and their lawlessness cleansed (43:17).
\nThe last allusion to the resurrection belief is found in the conclusion of the Testament (T. Job 46:1\u201353:8), which has a strong emphasis on the better world, the future life in heaven (47:2; 48:2; 49:1; 50:2). In this final section of the Testament, Job reveals to his three daughters that \u201cthe creatures [angels?] of God\u201d are about to come for his soul (47:11), which takes place three days later when a gleaming chariot arrives and then, journeying east, takes his soul back to heaven (52:6). Job\u2019s body, however, was left behind and was prepared for proper burial in a tomb (52:11; 53:5). Three days later, \u201cthey laid him in the tomb in a beautiful sleep (53:7).<\/p>\n
c. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
The separation of body and soul upon Job\u2019s death (T. Job 52:10) is different from the view presented earlier in the Testament, where Job stated the bodies of his dead children would not be found among the ruins since they had already been taken to heaven by their Creator (T. Job 39:11). There could be two explanations for this important difference; first, the concluding chapters could be a later addition to the Testament (see the outline of the book) and the author of this addition held a different death and resurrection view than the author of the preceding chapters; second, these two views could be harmonized in the sense that the death of Job and the death of his children represent two different death scenarios. Job\u2019s case could be the type of death most people would experience, where there will be an eschatological resurrection, while the death of his children represents more of a unique situation in which a person is resurrected not long after their death and are brought to heaven, similar to the case of Moses.
\nBased on the clear resurrection statement which seems to derive from the concluding remarks from the Septuagint version of the book of Job (Job 42:17 [1]), and the several allusions to this hope found in the Testament of Job, it is still not clear whether there will be a universal eschatological resurrection of both the righteous and the wicked dead, although there are hints in the text to support such a view. However, there is little doubt that the righteous can rest in the hope of a coming resurrection which would bring them great heavenly reward while the wicked will dwell in Hades. On the other hand, whether the soul will be separated from the body until the day of the resurrection (as with Job), or whether body and soul go directly to heaven upon death (like in the case of Job\u2019s children), is still open for scholarly discussion, as is the question of whether these two views could be harmonized.<\/p>\n
3. Testament of Abraham<\/p>\n
The Testament of Abraham was most likely written during the first or the second century CE by a Hellenistic Jewish author in Egypt. Ed P. Sanders notes that this testament was probably a part of a larger work which together with the Testament of Isaac and the Testament of Jacob, would have formed the Testament of the Three Patriarchs. Even so, the Testament of Abraham exists in two manuscript traditions, the longer manuscript tradition being referred to as Recension A and the shorter as Recension B. Both traditions probably derive from a common source which is believed to have been closer to the longer manuscript tradition. Although the title of this literary work suggests that it falls within the testament genre, it is very different from the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs and the Testament of Job, as discussed earlier. John Collins writes: \u201cit is now well-known that the Testament of Abraham is not a testament at all, since it contains no farewell discourse by Abraham\u201d; instead, he argues that the testament could be \u201cviewed either as a narrative or as an apocalypse, but it is clearly not a testament.\u201d
\nIn the Testament of Abraham, the archangel Michael is sent by God to inform Abraham that he is \u201cabout to leave this vain world and depart from the body,\u201d and Abraham\u2019s soul will come to dwell with God (T. Abr. A1:7). However, before Abraham is willing to give up his soul and leave this world, he requests to see \u201call the inhabited world and all the created things\u201d which God had established (T. Abr. A9:6; cf. B7:8). Upon seeing the evil on earth, Abraham demands the destruction of the sinners (A10:6, 9, 11; cf. B12:3, 7, 10), which causes God to put an end to Abraham\u2019s tour since God fears that if Abraham \u201cwere to see all those who pass their lives in sin, he would destroy everything that exists\u201d (A10:13; cf. B12:12). This lack of mercy on sinners by Abraham causes God so much concern that Abraham is brought to the first gate of heaven, \u201cso that he may see the judgments and the recompenses and repent over the souls of the sinners which he destroyed\u201d (A10:15).
\nMichael reveals to Abraham that each person will experience three tribunals (T. Abr. A13:8). The first judgment (A11:1\u201313:5) is an individual judgment which takes place upon a person\u2019s death, when the soul parts the body and is brought to the first gate of heaven. Abel determines, based on the record, which gate they should enter\u2014the Strait Gate is for the righteous and leads to life in Paradise (A11:10) while the Broad Gate is intended for the wicked and \u201cleads to the destruction and eternal punishment (A11:11). The second judgment is the universal eschatological judgment in which everyone will be \u201cjudged by the twelve tribes of Israel\u201d (A13:6). The third and final judgment is given by God himself (A13:7). These three judgments will ensure that the matter of God\u2019s justice is ultimately settled, following the directions of Deut. 19:15, which requires three witnesses to give a sentence in a criminal matter. The Targum adds that the Word of the Lord is also required since only he knows the crimes committed in secrecy.<\/p>\n
T. Abr. A13:8
\nDeut. 19:15\u2014BGT\/LXT
\nDeut. 19:15\u2014PJT\/PJE
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u1f11\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bf \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03c3\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u02bc \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u1f70\u03bd \u1fe5\u1fc6\u03bc\u03b1.
\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03bc\u03ac\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f37\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03ac\u03c1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f23\u03bd \u1f02\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03ac\u03c1\u03c4\u1fc3 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bf \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u1fe5\u1fc6\u03bc\u03b1
\n\u05dc\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05e7\u05d9\u05d9\u05dd \u05e1\u05d4\u05d3\u05df \u05d3\u05d7\u05d3 \u05d1\u05d2\u05d1\u05e8 \u05dc\u05db\u05dc \u05e1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d7\u05df \u05e0\u05e4\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d5\u05dc\u05db\u05dc \u05d7\u05d5\u05d1 \u05de\u05de\u05d5\u05df \u05d5\u05dc\u05db\u05dc \u05d7\u05d8\u05d0 \u05d3\u05d9\u05d7\u05e4\u05d9 \u05d1\u05e8\u05dd \u05e2\u05dc \u05de\u05d9\u05de\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d3\u05d9\u05d9\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05dc\u05de\u05ea\u05e4\u05e8\u05e4\u05d0 \u05e2\u05dc \u05d8\u05d5\u05de\u05e8\u05d9\u05d0 \u05e2\u05dc \u05de\u05d9\u05de\u05e8 \u05e1\u05d4\u05d9\u05d3 \u05d7\u05d3 \u05d9\u05d5\u05de\u05d9 \u05dc\u05de\u05d9\u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d9\u05ea \u05de\u05d4 \u05d3\u05de\u05e1\u05d4\u05d9\u05d3 \u05e2\u05dc\u05d5\u05d9 \u05d5\u05e2\u05dc \u05de\u05d9\u05de\u05e8 \u05ea\u05e8\u05d9\u05df \u05e1\u05d4\u05d3\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05d5 \u05ea\u05dc\u05ea\u05d0 \u05e1\u05d4\u05d3\u05d9\u05df \u05d9\u05ea\u05e7\u05d9\u05d9\u05dd \u05e4\u05d9\u05ea\u05d2\u05de\u05d0\u05c3
\nAnd therefore a matter is not ultimately established by one or two witnesses, but every matter shall be established by three witnesses.
\nOne witness shall not stand to testify against a man for any iniquity, or for any fault, or for any sin which he may commit; by the mouth of two witnesses, or by the mouth of three witnesses, shall every word be established.
\nThe testimony of one (witness) shall not be valid against a man for any crime (regarding the taking) of life, or guilt concerning money, or any sin with which one may be charged with sinning; but, by the Word of the Lord, (to ensure) retribution upon secret crimes, (while) one witness may swear to deny what hath been attested against him, the sentence shall be confirmed upon the mouth of two witnesses, or of three.<\/p>\n
Abraham also learns that there are some souls who are found neither righteous nor wicked and would have needed one more righteous deed than sin to have been saved (T. Abr. A14:4; cf. SrB9:8). These souls will be kept in limbo until the second coming, unless someone does supplications and offers prayers on their behalf (A14:6). The Testament ends with the death of Abraham, when he is tricked by death to give up his soul (A20:9), and Michael and the other angels \u201cbore his precious soul in their hands in divinely woven linen\u201d (A20:10), while his body was prepared for funeral and was buried three days later (A20:11).
\nThere are only two clear resurrection passages in this testament. The first case is a temporary resurrection (T. Abr. A18:9\u201311; B14:6), which regards the resurrection of Abraham\u2019s servants who died from the shock of seeing the true nature of death (A18:3, 6; B14:5). The second case only appears in Recension B and describes the universal resurrection which will take place in the eschatological future:<\/p>\n
Testament of Abraham B7:15b\u201316
\n15b \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2, 16 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03ac \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f15\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f02\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f11\u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b9\u03c3\u03c7\u03af\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03c1\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0 \u03c3\u03b1 \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03be.
\n15b and you will be taken up into the heaven. 16 while your body remains on the earth until seven thousand ages are fulfilled. For then all flesh will be raised.<\/p>\n
According to this text, the soul gets separated from the body upon death. From the chapters that follow, Abraham learns that the soul will then proceed directly to the place of judgment where it will be led through one of two gates, either for punishment or reward, paralleling the first judgment in Recension A (T. Abr. A11:1\u201313:5). However, unlike Recension A, this textual tradition does not mention the additional two judgments which are both eschatological and universal. The body, on the other hand, remains on the earth (\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2), in the grave, until it will be resurrected at the end of the seven thousand ages in a universal judgment of both the righteous and the wicked. At this point, it could be assumed that the soul will once more unite with the body, in order to reverse the process of dying, when the soul left the body. Although Recension B does not mention the two eschatological and universal judgments, and this could be a point of divergence between these two traditions, it would not be difficult to speculate that the second and third judgment, which are both universal, would take place following this universal resurrection. However tempting it is to harmonize the recensions, one element they do have in common is the ambiguity regarding what happens to the soul between the first judgment and the eschatological events, the two universal judgments (Recensions A), the bodily resurrection (Recension B), or a combination of the two (harmonized view). Do the souls receive the described reward or punishment upon the completion of the first judgment or are the souls only shown the reward or punishment held in store for them in the eschatological time? If the former, will the souls receive additional reward or punishment in the eschatological time? If the latter, what will be the condition of the righteous and the wicked souls while waiting for that eschatological time? From this, it seems the main concern of the Testament of Abraham is the importance of the judgment scene, that the judgment follows a set procedure, that everyone will be judged by the same standard, whether the person is a Jew or Gentile, and that God is full of mercy but at the same time he is also ultimately just. This justice is beyond reproach. This message is in line with the canonical wisdom literature. Figure 1 illustrates the resurrection concept in the Testament of Abraham.<\/p>\n
Figure 1. Death and Resurrection in the Testament of Abraham<\/p>\n
4. Testament of Moses<\/p>\n
The Testament of Moses, also known as the Assumption of Moses, was most likely written by a Jewish author living in Levant \u201cduring the 1st century BCE and later updated or composed during the 1st century CE.\u201d While it was probably composed in Hebrew or Aramaic, it has only survived in a badly damaged manuscript in Latin, dated to the sixth century CE. It is estimated that only half or two-thirds of the composition has survived to the present day. Thus, the concluding section of the Testament is missing.
\nNickelsburg notes this testament is a \u201crewriting of Deuteronomy 31\u201334,\u201d and follows closely the historical scheme outlined in Moses\u2019 final words to the twelve tribes as demonstrated by the following outline:<\/p>\n
Theme
\nDeuteronomy
\nTestament of Moses
\nSin
\n28:15
\n2:1\u20139
\n5:1\u20136
\nPunishment
\n28:16\u201368
\n3:1\u20134
\n8:1\u20135
\nRepentance
\n30:2
\n3:5\u20134:4
\n9:1\u20137
\nSalvation
\n30:3\u201310
\n4:5\u20138
\n10:1\u201315<\/p>\n
Moses\u2019 prophetic deathbed words to Joshua is a great example of ex eventu prophecy. John Priest observes: \u201cDeuteronomy 31\u201334 is clearly the author\u2019s model, though he has recast his own work in light of the history of the people from the conquest to his own day and through the prism of his own apocalyptic outlook.\u201d Interestingly, the author of the testament, in the process of recasting Moses\u2019 prophecy, gave Deuteronomy 32\u201333 an eschatological reading by providing his own speculation of the events which will take place leading up to the eschatological judgment (T. Mos. 10), when God will finally \u201cavenge the blood of His servants, and render vengeance to His adversaries\u201d and \u201cprovide atonement for His land and His people\u201d (Deut. 32:43, NKJV). This is due to the great covenant loyalty demonstrated by Taxo, the Levite, and his seven sons\u2019 suggested martyrdom (T. Mos. 9:6\u20137). This eschatological reading of Moses\u2019 final words, however, should not come as a surprise since his words are introduced by the technical term, \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05d0\u05b7\u05d4\u05b2\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05b7\u05d9\u05b8\u05bc\u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd, \u201cin the last days\u201d (Deut. 31:29), referring to the eschatological time.
\nThere are three allusions to the resurrection belief in the Testament of Moses. In two texts, sleep is used as a metaphor for death (T. Mos. 1:15; 10:14), similar to the usage in the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs (T. Sim. 8:1\u20132; T. Jud. 26:4; T. Iss. 7:9; T. Zeb. 10:6; T. Dan 7:1; T. Gad 8:1; T. Ash. 8:1; T. Jos. 20:4) and the Testament of Job (T. Job 53:7), suggesting a future resurrection. The second sleep-death metaphor (T. Mos. 10:14) and the third resurrection allusion (10:9) both appear in the eschatological salvation-judgment section at the end of Moses\u2019 prophetic revelation, in which God will defeat the devil and put an end to sorrow (10:1). At that moment, God\u2019s appointed messenger will avenge the enemies of the righteous (10:2) and God will appear to \u201cwork vengeance on the nations\u201d and destroy their idols (10:3\u20137). This judgment scene borrows language from several eschatological judgment texts in the TaNaKh, in which it is associated with earthquakes, the sun losing its light, the moon turning into blood, and the stars being thrown into disarray (Isa. 13:10; 24:23; 34:4; Ezek. 32:7; Joel 2\u20133; Amos 5:20; 8:9; Mic. 1:3\u20134; Hab. 3; Zeph. 1; Eccl. 12:2). The drying up of the waters or rivers is also viewed as a part of God\u2019s act of judgment (Isa. 11:15; 19:5\u20138).
\nFollowing the judgment upon the nations, the prophecy turns to the destiny of Israel (T. Mos. 10:8\u201310), who will be exalted \u201cabove the necks and the wings of an eagle\u201d (T. Mos. 10:8b), a possible allusion to God\u2019s work of salvation and loving care for his people in the past and promised blessing in store for those who show loyalty towards the covenant (Exod. 19:4; Deut. 32:11\u201313; Isa. 40:31). The testament also notes that God \u201cwill fix you [Israel] firmly in the heaven of the stars, in the place of their habitations\u201d (T. Mos. 10:9)\u2014a very similar language used in Dan. 12:3 when describing the reward of the resurrected righteous: \u201cThose who are wise will shine like the bright expanse of the heavens, and those who lead many to righteousness, like the stars forever and ever\u201d (Dan. 12:3, CSB). The final phase of the exaltation process is to see the destiny of their enemies, who are still living on earth or, as suggested by Robert Charles, in Gehenna (T. Mos. 10:10b). Recognizing the destiny of their former enemies, they will rejoice and give praise to God and confess their creator (T. Mos 10:10c\u2013d). If Charles\u2019 translation of the Latin phrase in terram as \u201cGehenna\u201d is accepted, the described punishment seems to be individual in nature, describing the final destiny of the wicked. This suggests the described exaltation of Israel could also be understood as individual in nature, describing the final destiny of the righteous as being in heaven or receiving astral immortality.
\nIn addition to the similar image used when describing the reward of Israel or the righteous (T. Mos. 10:9 || Dan. 12:3), the overall structure of this eschatological salvation-judgment scene parallels the prophetic vision of Daniel 11\u201312. Both visions describe a prophetic vision starting with the key character, Daniel or Moses. Both visions end with the eschatological judgment. Both prophecies reveal the final destiny of the righteous and the wicked before they conclude with a statement that Daniel and Moses will fall asleep as a metaphor for death. In Dan. 12:13, Daniel is asked to rest until the day of resurrection when he will receive his reward, while Moses states that he will sleep with his fathers (T. Mos. 10:14), noting that 250 times will pass between his burial until his coming (T. Mos. 10:12) and the beginning of the judgment. It should also be noted that, in both accounts, instructions were given to keep the prophetic visions in a book for future generations (Dan. 12:4 [Daniel] || T. Mos. 10:11 [Joshua]).
\nHowever, in contrast to Dan. 12:2\u20133, the surviving part of the Testament of Moses does not explicitly state a resurrection hope. It is not even clear from the context if the judgment scene described in the Testament will be individual\u2014referring to the righteous and the wicked person, or corporate\u2014referring to the nation of Israel and her enemy nations. Even if we assume this eschatological judgment will be individual in scope, there is still a question of whether this judgment will be limited or universal in nature. Will God judge all the righteous and wicked who are alive during the eschatological judgment or only some, or will he also include the righteous and wicked dead? The latter option would require a limited or universal resurrection. Since a large part of the testament is missing, any attempt to answer these questions would involve speculation.<\/p>\n
5. Testament of Adam<\/p>\n
The Testament of Adam was most likely written by a Jewish author in Syriac, though it contains Christian interpolations in the prophetic section of the Testament. Stephen Robinson notes the three sections of the Testament, the Horarium (T. Adam 1:1\u20132:12), the Prophecy (3:1\u20136), and the Hierarchy (4:1\u20138), \u201cwere not written at the same time, but the final Christian redaction, in which the testament took on its present form, probably occurred in the middle or late third century A.D.\u201d However, he adds that \u201cthe Jewish portions of the testament are likely older than the Christian additions, the Horarium and perhaps some of the Prophecy may date from considerably before the third century A.D.\u201d The resurrection hope appears in two statements in Adam\u2019s prophecy to his son Seth, alluded to in T. Adam 3:2 and explicitly stated in 3:4 in a Christian interpolation.
\nAdam\u2019s prophecy reveals key events, with an emphasis on God\u2019s act of salvation. It begins with the incarnation of God and summarizes His miraculous work while dwelling among the people (T. Adam 3:1), noting that God had revealed this to him, Adam, in Paradise \u201cafter I [Adam] picked some of the fruit in which death was hiding\u201d (T. Adam 3:2). This was probably an explanation of the cryptic words to the Serpent in Gen. 3:15 in which a future seed of the woman would crush the head of the Serpent, but in the process would have his heel struck by the Serpent, prophesying death for both parties. The prophecy also reveals the reason for Adam eating the fruit, noting that Adam wanted to become a god (T. Adam 3:2, 4), an allusion to the promised effect of the fruit (Gen. 3:5) and God\u2019s described consequence following the act of eating it (Gen. 3:22). Interestingly, Adam\u2019s motivation to be a god becomes a central part of the two resurrection promises in the Testament.
\nFollowing Adam\u2019s failed attempt to become a god, God reveals to him that He will grant him the wish and will make him a god. However, Adam must first be handed over to death, and he and his descendant\u2019s bodies will be eaten by maggots and worms since he had listened to the Serpent (T. Adam 3:2b\u20133b). However, Adam will be shown mercy since he was created in God\u2019s image, and as such, will not be left in Sheol to waste away forever (T. Adam 3:3c\u2013f), hinting at a future resurrection.
\nAt this point in the prophecy, there is clear Christian interpolation which adds to God\u2019s act of salvation mentioned at the beginning of the prophecy (T. Adam 3:1). It reveals how the promise of restoration given to Adam will be realized (3:3\u20135), and the time frame (3:5). In the following extract the resurrection statement is highlighted in gray, while the time reference is highlighted in italic. It should also be noted that this part of the prophecy places the blame for the creation of sin squarely on Eve. It provides a rationale for Cain\u2019s murderous act of Abel as being due to a great passion for his sister Lebuda who was intended as a wife for Abel, and suggests that the daughters of men in Gen. 6:2, 4 are the daughters of Cain (T. Adam 3:5).<\/p>\n
Testament of Adam 3:3\u20135 (OTP 1:994)<\/p>\n
For your sake I will be born of the Virgin Mary.
\nFor your sake I will taste death and enter the house of the dead.
\nFor your sake I will make a new heaven,
\nand I will be established over your posterity.
\nAnd after three days, while I am in the tomb,
\nI will raise up the body I received from you.
\nAnd I will set you at the right hand of my divinity,
\nand I will make you a god just like you wanted.
\nAnd I will receive favor from God,
\nand I will restore to you and to your posterity that which is the justice of heaven.<\/p>\n
You have heard, my son Seth, that a Flood is coming and will wash the whole earth because of the daughters of Cain, your brother, who killed your brother Abel out of passion for your sister Lebuda, since sins had been created through your mother, Eve.<\/p>\n
And after the Flood there will be six thousand years (left) to the form of the world, and then its end will come.<\/p>\n
God makes it clear to Adam that it was for his sake that he would come to the earth and die, make a new heaven, receive favor from God, and become a ruler over Adam\u2019s posterity\u2014all this in order to bring salvation to him and his posterity. God will die; however, he will resurrect from the tomb after three days and bring Adam\u2019s body with him. Upon Adam\u2019s resurrection, Adam will be established on the right hand of God\u2019s divinity and have his wish of becoming a god granted. The final phase of God\u2019s salvation work is perhaps the most important detail in this prophecy since it expands God\u2019s saving work from just restoring Adam to also include Adam\u2019s posterity, according to the justice of heaven. This added detail would suggest a future universal resurrection for the righteous dead, probably at the end of the six thousand years after the flood, when it is suggested the end will come.
\nThe prophecy in the Testament of Adam concludes with Adam\u2019s death and funeral (T. Adam 3:6), in which Adam was borne to his grave by the angels since Adam had been created in God\u2019s image, and the sun and the moon were darkened for seven days following his death. It is important to note that this death scene, unlike the Testament of Job 52\u201353 and Testament of Abraham A20\/B14, does not mention Adam\u2019s soul parting his body upon dying, suggesting that the soul is not immortal or can be separated from the body. As far as this prophecy is concerned, Adam\u2019s body (and that of his posterity) will be buried in the grave, be consumed by maggots and worms (T. Adam 3:2), and become food for the serpent (3:3). However, God will not let Adam (and his posterity) be left to \u201cwaste away in Sheol\u201d forever (3:3), but in his grace, he will resurrect Adam\u2019s body when he comes into this world (3:3\u20134) and, it could be assumed, the bodies of his posterity at the end of the world (3:5). God will make Adam into a god, placing him at \u201cthe right hand of my divinity\u201d and restore to Adam and his posterity \u201cthat which is the justice of heaven\u201d (3:4).<\/p>\n
Chapter 3<\/p>\n
EXPANSIONS OF STORIES AND LEGENDS<\/p>\n
Due to the very economic writing style of the authors of the biblical books, the narratives of the TaNaKh emphasize the verbs, the doing, and often lack details regarding the feelings, thoughts, and emotions of the character that is the subject of the doing. There are also narrative gaps, which raises the question of what took place in those gaps. In some narratives, God is surprisingly absent (e.g. the book of Esther), which sets the stage for later writers to make additions to show God\u2019s place in the narrative and celebrate his guidance and covenant loyalty towards his faithful (e.g. the LXX version of the book of Esther). Sometimes names are mentioned in the plot-line without a proper introduction, as if they were known to the original audience, but this common knowledge has been lost to later generations of readers. Alternatively, other characters are mentioned briefly, and then just disappear from the scene. There are also unresolved ambiguities in the narrative, which raises several questions when it comes to interpretation. These are some of the reasons why biblical narratives lent themselves to narrative expansions during Second Temple period literature, and the reason legends developed around certain characters, such as Adam, Enoch, Abraham, Melchizedek, Joseph, and Moses. James Charlesworth notes \u201cthe biblical narratives were clarified, enriched, expanded, and sometimes retold from a different perspective,\u201d and some of these traditions were written down and became a part of the extensive literature from the Second Temple period.
\nSome of the books belonging to this category of pseudepigraphal literature are apocalyptic in nature (Jubilees, Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah, [Ladder of Jacob], and 4 Baruch); others are apologetic, showing the superiority of Judaism, possibly to draw converts to the faith (e.g. Joseph and Aseneth); some are legends and expansions on stories (Letter of Aristeas, Life of Adam and Eve, Lives of the Prophets, Jannes and Jambres, History of the Rechabites, Eldad and Modad, History of Joseph); and yet others are retelling of the sacred history of Israel from a different perspective and agenda (Jubilees and Pseudo-Philo). These books are interesting since, as noted by George Nickelsburg, \u201cworks that interpreted biblical stories by retelling and paraphrasing them, often adding new material,\u201d shed some light on how these narratives were understood, and provide some indicators regarding what elements of a narrative these pseudepigraphal writers found troublesome, problematic, interesting, and\/or important to warrant said expansion. Rewritten Bible, according to Bruce Fisk, \u201copen[s] a window on early Jewish exegesis around the turn of the era and demonstrates the deeply held conviction that the ancient stories bore a message for the present day.\u201d Table 4 provides a list of allusions and explicit resurrection passages appearing in the books categorized as \u201cExpansions on Stories and Legends,\u201d with the main emphasis being placed on clear resurrection statements. The discussion for some of these passages will be brief since the details given in the book regarding the resurrection belief is scant.<\/p>\n
Table 4. Resurrection texts in the expansions on stories and legends<\/p>\n
Passage
\nNotes
\nResurrection
\nClassification
\nImplied
\nStated
\nRef.
\nAllude
\nPhil.
\nAssum.
\nJubilees
\n4:24; 5:10; 10:17; 23:11; 30:23; 36:10\u201311; 37:19; 39:6
\nJudgment Texts (Implied Resurrection)
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n10:15; 23:1; 36:18; 45:15
\nSleep || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n23:27\u201331
\nBones rest in the earth, Spirits will increase joy
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\n1:3\u20135
\nHezekiah\u2019s vision
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n3:18
\nFaith \u2192 salvation
\n\u00d7
\n4:14\u201322
\nSecond Coming
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:4; 8:14, 23, 27; 11:35
\nRope of Flesh
\nRope of Angels
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n9:7\u201311
\nSaints in Heaven
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n9:16\u201318
\nResurrection of Jesus and the Saints
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nJoseph and Aseneth
\n8:(10)\u2013(11)
\nJoseph\u2019s blessing of Aseneth
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n12:(12)
\nGod\u2019s gift
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n15:3\u20136, (7), 12\u00d7 16:(8)
\nThe Book of Life
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n16:21\u201323
\nResurrection of bees
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n20:7
\nGod is the life giver
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n22:(9)
\nAseneth\u2019s place of rest
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n27:10
\nThe immortality of the Soul
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nApocalypse of Moses (Life of Adam and Eve)
\n10:2
\nEve\u2019s woe
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n13:2\u20136
\nMichael\u2019s words to Seth
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n28:4
\nIf you are righteous \u2192 resurrection immortality
\n\u00d7
\n?
\n\u00d7
\n37:5
\nAdam taken to Paradise
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n39:2\u20133
\nPromise given to Adam
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n41
\nPromised resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n43:2\u20133
\nBurial practice
\nBody \u2192 earth
\nSoul \u2192 after 7 days back to heaven
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nVita (Life of Adam and Eve)
\n47:2\u20133
\nResurrection\/judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n51:2
\nThe Sabbath is a sign of the resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nPseudo-Philo
\n3:10
\nResurrection\/Judgment
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n16:3
\nRebellion of Korah
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n19:2, 6
\nDeath = sleep
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n19:12\u201313
\nResurrection of Moses
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n23:13
\nThe righteous
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n25:7
\nRepentance \u2192 resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n28:10
\nDeath = sleep
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n29:4
\nDeath = sleep
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n33:2\u20133
\nNo repentance after death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n33:6
\nDeath = Sleep
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n35:3
\nDeath = sleep
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n48:1
\nAscension of Phinehas
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n62:9
\nThe souls will know each other
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n64:6\u20139
\nSamuel\u2019s resurrection caused by Saul
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nLives of the Prophets
\n2:11\u201319
\nThe ark will appear at the resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n3:10\u201312
\nHope for Israel
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nLadder of Jacob
\n7:21
\nResurrection of Eve
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n4 Baruch
\n6:6\u201310
\nPromise to Abimelech
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:18
\nResurrection of the dead man
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n9:12\u201314
\nJesus the resurrector
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nHistory of the Rechabites
\n14\u201316
\nSoul
\nBody
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7<\/p>\n
1. Jubilees<\/p>\n
The book of Jubilees belongs to the genre of \u201crewritten Bible\u201d and retells the biblical account starting with the Creation (Gen. 1) and ending with God establishing his covenant with the people of Israel at Mt. Sinai (Exod. 19\u201324). The introduction to the book provides the setting and the purpose of God\u2019s revelation recorded in the book of Jubilees:<\/p>\n
This is The Account of the Division of Days of the Law and the Testimony for Annual Observance according to their Weeks and their Jubilees throughout all the Years of the World just as the LORD told it to Moses on Mount Sinai when he went up to receive the tablets of the Law and the commandment by the word of the LORD, as he said to him, \u201cCome up to the top of the mountain.\u201d [Exod. 24:12]<\/p>\n
Thus, the content of this book, according to the title and the first chapter, was revealed to Moses during the forty days and forty nights he was on the mountain (Jub. 1:4a || Exod. 24:18), when God \u201crevealed to him both what (was) in the beginning and what will occur (in the future), the account of the division of all of the days of the Law and the testimony\u201d (Jub. 1:4b). There are only two sections of this book which describe the distant future from the standpoint of Moses\u2014the introduction chapter of this literary work and Jub. 23:9\u201332, an excursus following the death of Abraham. The only \u201cresurrection\u201d passage in this book appears in the latter section (Jub. 23:29b\u201331). Wintermute provides the following brief outline of the book of Jubilees, showing the chapters and narrative sections. James L. Kugel\u2019s list of passages and labels, attributed to a later interpolator, have been added to this outline:<\/p>\n
Chapter
\nNarrative section
\nAttributed to the interpolator
\n1
\nIntroduction
\n2\u20134
\nCreation and Adam stories
\n2:24\u201333
\nThe laws of the Sabbath
\n3:9\u201314
\nImpurity after childbirth
\n3:29\u201331
\nNudity forbidden
\n4:5\u20136
\nCain\u2019s curse anticipates Deut. 27:24
\n4:31\u201332
\nDeath of Cain and Lev. 24:19\u201320
\n5\u201310
\nNoah stories
\n5:13\u201319
\n6:10\u201314
\nStrict justice after the Flood and the Day of Atonement
\nBlood not to be eaten, but instead used for Tamid sacrifices (connection to Exod. 29:38\u201342 and Num. 28:3\u20138)
\n6:17\u201322
\nThe Festival of Shavuot
\n6:23\u201338
\nThe 364-Day Calendar
\n11:1\u201323:8
\nAbraham stories
\n13:25\u201327
\nLaw of the Tithe
\n14:20b
\nAbraham kept Shavuot (connected to \u201cThe Festival of Shavuot\u201d in Jub. 6:17\u201322)
\n15:25\u201334
\nAddition to the Laws of Circumcision
\n16:3\u20134
\nIsaac\u2019s name was already written in Heavenly Tablets
\n16:9
\nLot condemned
\n16:28\u201331
\nSupplement to Festival of Booths Laws
\n18:18\u201319
\nThe binding of Isaac took place on Passover
\n23:9\u201332
\nDigression on Abraham\u2019s death
\n23:32
\nMoses\u2019s predictions recapitulate the Heavenly Tablets
\n24\u201345
\nJacob and his family
\n24:33
\nIsaac\u2019s curse of Philistines recapitulates the Heavenly Tablets
\n28:6b\u20137
\nWrong to marry the younger daughter first
\n30:8\u201317
\nProhibition of intermarriage operates in both directions
\n30:18\u201323
\nGod\u2019s friends and enemies
\n31:31\u201332
\nIsaac\u2019s blessing written on the Heavenly Tablets
\n32:9c\u201315
\nLaw of the Second Tithe
\n33:10\u201320
\nThe Eighth Day of Assembly
\n41:23\u201326
\nWhy Reuben and Bilhah were not killed
\n46\u201350
\nMoses stories
\n49:2\u201317
\nLaws of Passover Sacrifice
\n49:22\u201323
\nLaw of Unleavened Bread<\/p>\n
Regarding the dating and provenance of the book of Jubilees, we can say that this literary work was originally written in Hebrew by a Jew who lived in Palestine, more specifically \u201cin or near Jerusalem.\u201d Due to his special interest in such religious matters as the origin of festivals, sacred times, cults and rituals, a strict interpretation of the Law, and the focus on the tribe of Levi, the author probably belonged to a priestly family. VanderKam argues the most likely date for Jubilees is between the late 160s BCE and 100 BCE based on: (1) the oldest fragment of the book of Jubilees found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (4Q216) is dated to 125\u2013100 BCE; (2) the Damascus Document (CD 16.2\u20134) quotes Jubilees as an authority in the mid-first century BCE; and (3) that the author of the Jubilees does not seem to be aware of the Enochic Animal Apocalypse (1 En. 85\u201390) which is dated to the late 160s BCE. He concludes: \u201cit seems best to say, in view of all the evidence, that the author composed Jubilees in the period between 160\u2013150 BCE. One cannot exclude a slightly earlier date, but it was probably not written at a later time.\u201d The listed interpolations in the outline of the book of Jubilees are of a later date. However, the \u201cresurrection\u201d passage, which will be considered in the following section, is not among these texts, but is instead a part of the oldest strata of the book.<\/p>\n
a. Jubilees 23:29b\u201331<\/p>\n
The resurrection passage, Jub. 23:29b\u201331, is a part of a larger apocalypse (23:16\u201331) which describes the \u201cevents of Israelite history that lead up to and constitute the eschaton.\u201d The conclusion of this apocalypse (23:29b\u201331), as noted by Nickelsburg, describes the eschatological judgment (vv. 30f and 31c, underlined in the following texts) in which the righteous will receive mercy and their reward and the wicked their punishment (v. 30f, highlighted in bold font), emphasizing the vindication of the righteous (v. 31c, highlighted in italic font). The text is as follows (the \u201cresurrection\u201d statement has been highlighted in grey, v. 31a\u2013b):<\/p>\n
Jubilees 23:29b\u201331 (OTP 2:102)<\/p>\n
29b) and there will be no Satan and no evil (one) who will destroy,
\nc) because all of their days will be days of blessing and healing.
\n30a) And then the LORD will heal his servants,
\nb) and they will rise up and see great peace.
\nc) And they will drive out their enemies,
\nd) and the righteous ones will see and give praise,
\ne) and rejoice forever and ever with joy;
\nf) and they will see all of their judgments and all of their curses among their enemies.
\n31a) And their bones will rest in the earth,
\nb) and their spirits will increase joy,
\nc) and they will know that the LORD is an executor of judgment;
\nd) but he will show mercy to hundreds and thousands, to all who love him.<\/p>\n
The key element of this passage is the reward given to the righteous. In addition to seeing the punishment of their enemies (v. 30f), which will be an important part of their vindication by God (v. 31c), their bones will rest in the earth while their spirits will increase joy (v. 31a\u2013b), suggesting an eternal afterlife filled with joy for the righteous (v. 30e). In the contrast between the bones and spirit, Nickelsburg presumes the spirit will experience much joy in heaven. Thus, the contrast is between the bones in the earth and the spirits in heaven. However, he notes \u201cthe passage does not say whether the spirits pass directly into heaven at the time of death or whether they are resurrected at some specific time in the future, viz., at the judgment.\u201d Nickelsburg argues that it all comes down to the relationship between the \u201cservants\u201d mentioned in v. 30a\u2013b and the \u201crighteous ones\u201d in vv. 30d\u201331. If they are the same, it would support a resurrection of the souls of the righteous. If, on the other hand, the \u201cservants\u201d and the \u201crighteous ones\u201d refer to two different groups, the \u201cservants\u201d would describe those who are still alive at the time of God\u2019s intervention describing how they \u201crise from their humility and their subjugation to their enemies, or how they are taken up to join the spirits of the righteous, who are already in heaven.\u201d<\/p>\n
2. Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah<\/p>\n
The Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah is the Ethiopic title of a composite work. It consists of two distinct literary works which probably existed independently from each other. The first half of this work, chs. 1\u20135, is the oldest and is often titled the Martyrdom of Isaiah. M. Knibb notes this section is also a composite\u2014a Jewish part (1:1\u20133:12; 5:1\u201316) and a Christian part (3:13\u20134:22). He remarks that the Jewish section, Martyrdom of Isaiah, contains the tradition regarding Isaiah\u2019s martyrdom and probably dates to the second century BCE, to the period of the persecution by Antiochus Epiphanes. It was most likely written in Hebrew by a Jewish author living in Palestine. However, he adds the Christian apocalypse (3:13\u20134:22), also known by the title Testament of Hezekiah, which is embedded in the Jewish section, may also have existed as an independent work, and probably dates to the end of the first century CE, most likely written in Greek. This Christian addition explains Satan\u2019s anger towards Isaiah, which ultimately caused his death by the hand of Manasseh.
\nThe second half of this work, chs. 6\u201311, is also known as the Ascension of Isaiah or Vision of Isaiah and records Isaiah\u2019s journey through the seven heavens which took place in the \u201ctwentieth year of the reign of Hezekiah\u201d (6:1), six years prior to Isaiah\u2019s martyrdom (1:1). This is a Christian apocalypse, originating in Greek probably at the end of the first or beginning of the second century CE.
\nA final Christian redactor probably combined these three sections into the present work by the third or the fourth century CE which, as noted by Knibb, is \u201cconfirmed by the fact that Jerome seems to have known the complete book,\u201d although \u201cit is possible that there were two stages in this process, first the combination of 3:13\u20134:22 with the Martyrdom, and second the combination of the enlarged Martyrdom with the Vision.\u201d He also notes that this final Christian redactor is probably responsible for the Christian interpolation appearing in the introduction of the Martyrdom of Isaiah (1:2b\u20136a).
\nFollowing is an outline of the book and the five resurrection passages: 1:3\u20135; 3:15b\u201320; 4:14\u201322; 9:6\u201311; and 9:16\u201318 (highlighted in gray), in the larger context of the book. From this, it becomes clear that all five of the passages appear in the Christian material of the book, the first passage in the final redactor\u2019s Christian interpolation (Mar. Ascen. Isa. 1:2b\u20136a, appearing in brackets in the outline).<\/p>\n
Outline of the book
\nChapters
\nResurrection
\nI. Martyrdom of Isaiah
\n1\u20135
\nMartyrdom\u2014Part 1
\nHezekiah summons Manasseh
\n1:1\u201313
\n1:3\u20135
\n(1:2b\u20136a)
\nManasseh\u2019s wicked reign
\n2:1\u20136
\nIsaiah withdraws from Jerusalem
\n2:7\u201316
\nIsaiah is accused
\n3:1\u201312
\nTestament of Hezekiah
\nA prophecy about the beloved and the Church
\n3:13\u201320
\n3:21\u201331
\n3:15b\u201320
\nThe Corruption of the Church
\n4:1\u201313
\nThe reign of Beliar
\n4:14\u201322
\n4:14\u201322
\nThe second coming of the Lord
\nMartyrdom\u2014Part 2
\n5:1\u201316
\nThe Execution of Isaiah
\nII. The Ascension of Isaiah
\n6\u201311
\nVisits Hezekiah and has a vision
\n6:1\u201317
\nJourney through the seven heavens
\n7:1\u20138
\nThe Firmament
\n7:9\u201312
\nFirst Heaven
\n7:13\u201317
\nSecond Heaven
\n7:18\u201323
\nThird Heaven
\n7:24\u201327
\nFourth Heaven
\n7:28\u201331
\nFifth Heaven
\n7:32\u201337
\nAir of the Sixth Heaven
\n8:1\u201315
\nSixth Heaven
\n8:16\u201328
\nAir of the Seventh Heaven
\n9:1\u20135
\nSeventh Heaven
\n9:6\u201318
\n9:6\u201311, 16\u201318
\nRecord of men\u2019s deeds
\n9:19\u201323
\nRobes\/thrones\/crowns
\n9:24\u201326
\nWorship of the Lord
\n9:27\u201332
\nWorship of the angel of the Holy spirit
\n9:33\u201336
\nWorship of God
\n9:37\u201342
\nWorship of the Father by the six lower Heavens
\n10:1\u20136
\nLord Christ is commissioned by the Father
\n10:7\u201316
\nDescent of the Lord through the seven Heavens
\n10:17\u201331
\nMiraculous birth of the Lord
\n11:1\u201316
\nInfancy and life of the Lord
\n11:17\u201321
\nAscension of the Lord through the seven Heavens
\n11:22\u201333
\nConclusion of the vision
\n11:34\u201335
\nInstructions to Hezekiah
\n11:36\u201343<\/p>\n
a. Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah 1:3\u20135<\/p>\n
The first resurrection passage appears in a Christian interpolation (Mar. Ascen. Isa. 1:2b\u20136a) by the final redactor of this literary work, in which King Hezekiah summons his son Manasseh \u201cin order to hand over to him the words of righteousness\u201d which Hezekiah himself had seen (1:2). This passage provides a whole list of topics Hezekiah brought up with his son:<\/p>\n
a. the eternal judgment;
\nb. the torments of Gehenna;
\nc. the prince of this world, his angels, and his powers;
\nd. the words concerning faith in the Beloved [Christ];
\ne. the judgment of the angels;
\nf. the destruction of this world;
\ng. the robes of the saints;
\nh. the going out and the transformation, the persecution, and the ascension of the Beloved.<\/p>\n
It should be noted that no details are provided in this passage regarding these topics, although most of them are expanded upon at a later point in this literary work. Regardless, this list shows that these issues were a part of the final redactor\u2019s worldview. The resurrection is only implied in this list, which mentions the eternal judgment, the destiny of the wicked (torments of Gehenna), and the reward of the righteous (robes of the saints). Most of these themes are discussed at a later point in this literary work.<\/p>\n
b. Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah 3:15b\u201320<\/p>\n
The second resurrection passage appears at the beginning of the Testament of Hezekiah, the Christian apocalypse imbedded in Martyrdom of Isaiah (see Table 7), in a passage which summarizes the key elements of Christ\u2019s first coming and the spread of the gospel following his ascension to Heaven (Mar. Ascen. Isa. 3:13\u201320). The resurrection statement itself regards the resurrection of the Beloved (Jesus Christ), who will rise from his grave on the third day (3:16), and who will \u201csend out his twelve disciples, and they will teach all nations and every tongue the resurrection of the Beloved, and those who believe in his cross will be saved\u201d (3:17\u201318). In light of the reference to \u201cthe angel of the church which is in Heaven, whom he will summon in the last day\u201d (3:15), this passage seems to hint at a future eschatological event. The nature of this event, however, is not revealed in this passage.<\/p>\n
c. Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah 4:14\u201318<\/p>\n
The third resurrection passage appears at the end of the Testament of Hezekiah, at the climax of the vision, which summarizes the key events that will take place following the second coming of Christ (Mar. Ascen. Isa. 4:14\u201318). According to this apocalypse, the second coming of the Lord and the establishment of his temporary Messianic kingdom will take place following the 1,332-day reign of Beliar (4:12, 14), during which the saints had to flee \u201cfrom desert to desert\u201d for safety while awaiting his coming (4:13). This Apocalypse also states that following the Lord\u2019s arrival from the seventh heaven accompanied by his angels and the hosts of the saints, his first act in establishing his kingdom is to drag Beliar and his hosts into Gehenna (4:14). This act will bring \u201crest\u201d to the righteous, who were persecuted by Beliar and his hosts. In doing so, this would effectively bring an end to evil, thus establishing the supreme authority of the Lord (4:15).
\nThe hosts of saints returning from the seventh heaven to earth at the beginning of the Messianic kingdom is the resurrection of the righteous. Upon dying, the righteous leave their \u201crobes of the flesh\u201d and ascend to the seventh heaven where they receive their \u201crobes of above.\u201d The righteous will once more be clothed in the \u201crobes of the flesh\u201d when returning to the earth (Mar. Ascen. Isa. 4:16), and they will become members of the temporary earthly Messianic kingdom, which will only include the \u201cresurrected saints\u201d (those who arrived with the Lord) and the righteous remnant who were still alive at the second coming. Although there are no indications in this resurrection passage, nor in this apocalypse as a whole, regarding the duration of this Messianic kingdom, it does reveal that there will be a second resurrection at the end of this period. This second resurrection is of the wicked dead who will be judged and sentenced to eternal destruction by an all-consuming fire caused by the Beloved: \u201cit will consume all the impious, and they will become as if they had not been created\u201d (4:18). The righteous, on the other hand, will leave this earth, leaving their \u201crobes of flesh\u201d (bodies) behind and ascend to the seventh heaven where they will dwell for all eternity in their \u201crobes of above\u201d (4:17), bringing to an end the earthly Messianic kingdom. The end of this world, as noted by Knight, \u201cwould involve a full-scale destruction in which the Beloved\u2019s voice would angrily reprove\u201d the whole creation (4:18), thus returning it to the state of pre-creation. There will be no need for a recreation, a new heaven, or a new earth since all the righteous are gathered in the seventh heaven, their eternal home.
\nIt seems the author of this Christian apocalypse has expanded upon the resurrection view appearing in Dan. 12:2, which suggests there will be a resurrection of the righteous and a resurrection of the wicked, although the reader is left with the impression that these two resurrections will take place at the same time. However, as already discussed, these two resurrections bookend the earthly Messianic kingdom, although no time interval is mentioned. The book of Revelation, on the other hand, follows a similar scenario to this apocalypse, but there are also several fundamental differences. For instance, the description of the second coming in Mar. Ascen. Isa. 4:14\u201318, the resurrection of the righteous (Rev. 20:6) and the neutralization of Satan (Rev. 20:1\u20133) are the starting point of the Messianic era (Rev. 20:6), and the resurrection of the wicked will take place at the end of this special period (Rev. 20:5). However, the book of Revelation reckons the time interval between the first and second resurrection to be 1,000 years (Rev. 20:4, 6). While the apocalypse in Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah seems to suggest that the Messianic kingdom will be an earthly kingdom as opposed to a heavenly one (Mar. Ascen. Isa. 4:16), Rev. 20:4\u20136 does not provide the specific location of the millennium kingdom. Both apocalypses have the wicked resurrected, judged, and then destroyed by fire; however, the book of Revelation mentions specifically that Satan will be included in this destruction (Rev. 20:9\u201310, 15; 21:8). There is a major structural difference between these two second-coming accounts. First, the book of Revelation does not mention the saints ascending from heaven at the second coming. Instead, the righteous dead will be resurrected from the earth (20:4, 6). Moreover, following the 1,000 years, John the Revelator states that God will create a new heaven and a new earth (21:1), where the New Jerusalem will be located (21:2), and all the saints will dwell in this city with God forever (Rev. 21\u201322). According to the third resurrection passage, the righteous ascend to the seventh heaven where they will receive \u201crobes of above\u201d while leaving their \u201crobes of flesh\u201d behind on earth. They will dwell in Heaven until the second-coming when they will descend to the earth together with the Lord and take on their \u201crobes of flesh,\u201d which is the resurrection of the righteous, and dwell with Him on earth and be a part of His Messianic kingdom. At the end of the Messianic era, there will be a resurrection of the wicked, who will be destroyed by fire, and the righteous will ascend to the seventh heaven, leaving their \u201crobes of flesh\u201d to receive the \u201crobes of above.\u201d The earth will be uninhabitable, but the saints will dwell in the seventh heaven for all eternity. In the book of Revelation scenario, upon death, the righteous dwell in the ground until the resurrection of the righteous at the beginning of the millennium kingdom which also seems to be located on earth. At the end of the 1,000 years, the resurrection of the wicked and their judgment will take place before they are destroyed by the lake of fire. God will create a new heaven and a new earth on which the righteous will live together with God for all eternity.
\nFigure 2 illustrates the resurrection concept in the Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah 4:14\u201318. The final two resurrection texts in this composite work add a few more details and appear in Isaiah\u2019s description of the seventh heaven (see the outline of the book).<\/p>\n
d. Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah 9:6\u201311<\/p>\n
The fourth resurrection passage appears in Isaiah\u2019s description of the seventh heaven, where he \u201csaw all the righteous from the time of Adam onwards,\u201d including \u201cAbel and all the righteous\u201d and \u201cEnoch and all who (were) with him\u201d (Mar. Ascen. Isa. 9:7\u20139), therefore indicating that all the righteous are brought to the seventh heaven upon their death. This passage also notes that, following death, the righteous are stripped of their \u201crobes of flesh\u201d and are instead given their \u201crobes of above,\u201d thus becoming like angels in appearance (9:9).<\/p>\n
e. Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah 9:16\u201318<\/p>\n
The final resurrection passage appears in the author\u2019s description of Christ\u2019s first coming, when he descends from the seventh heaven, dies on the cross, and plunders the angel of death (Mar. Ascen. Isa. 9:12\u201316). When Jesus resurrects on the third day, Isaiah states that \u201cmany of the righteous will ascend with him to the seventh heaven (9:17\u201318). This raises the question of who these righteous people liberated from the angel of death were and why these righteous people had not ascended directly to the seventh heaven upon their death. The Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah does not provide these answers, and instead leaves these questions open for speculation.<\/p>\n
f. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
All of the aforementioned five resurrection passages are considered to be of Christian origin. The most important of these texts is Mar. Ascen. Isa. 4:14\u201318, which is also the basis for Figure 2 which illustrates the resurrection concept in Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah.<\/p>\n
Figure 2. Death and Resurrection in Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah<\/p>\n
3. Joseph and Aseneth<\/p>\n
Joseph and Aseneth is an ancient Greek novel which most likely originated in Egypt between 100 BCE and 115 CE. This novel is a rewrite of the Joseph narrative (Gen. 37\u201350) and begins \u201cin the first year of the seven years of plenty\u201d (Jos. Asen. 1:1), just following Joseph\u2019s interpretation of Pharaoh\u2019s dream (Gen. 41:1\u201336) and Pharaoh\u2019s act of making Joseph second in Egypt, only Pharaoh himself outranking him (Gen. 41:39\u201344).
\nThis novel consists of two main sections. The first section (Jos. Asen. 1\u201321) significantly expands on Gen. 41:50 concerning Joseph\u2019s marriage to Aseneth (Jos. Asen. 1\u201317), the daughter of Potiphera, the priest at On. This section concludes with the birth of Manasseh and Ephraim (Jos. Asen. 18\u201321), paralleling Gen. 41:50\u201352. The primary concern being, as stated by Klassen, \u201cHow can this famous Jewish patriarch have married a non-Jewish woman and how does this apply to the men in our community who are also tempted to marry outside the Jewish community?\u201d To solve this apparent problem, the author of the novel provides Aseneth\u2019s conversion story. The second half of the novel (Jos. Asen. 22\u201329) takes place after the family reunification (Gen. 46\u201347) and is filled with intrigues regarding the plot to have Joseph and Aseneth killed. This plot was masterminded by the son of Pharaoh, who had wanted to marry Aseneth, and involved Joseph\u2019s brothers birthed by the concubines Bilhah and Zilpah. It concludes with Joseph and Aseneth being made the king and queen of Egypt (Jos. Asen. 29:8b\u20139).
\nAlthough there are no clear eschatological bodily resurrection passages in this novel, there are several allusions to the resurrection and a future life following death (see Table 23). In Joseph\u2019s intercessory prayer on behalf of Aseneth, which refers to God as the source of all life and who calls from death to life, Joseph petitions God to restore Aseneth to \u201clife with your life\u201d (reviving her from the state of distress [Jos. Asen. 8:8(10)]), \u201clet her enter your resting place, which you prepared for your chosen one,\u201d and \u201clet her live in your eternal life forever\u201d (8:9[11]). Allusions to eternal life also appear in Aseneth\u2019s confession of sin and prayer for acceptance, when she compares worldly possessions with divine gifts: \u201cFor behold, all the gifts of my father Pentephres, which he gave me as an inheritance, are transient and obscure; but the gifts of your inheritance, Lord, are incorruptible and eternal\u201d (12:[12]). Aseneth also expresses a belief in the immortality of her soul when she was about to be killed by the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah. She addresses God, asking him to deliver her and reminded him of his promise that: \u201cyour soul shall live forever\u201d (27:10). Levi also notes Aseneth\u2019s future and saw \u201cher place of rest in the highest, and her walls like adamantine eternal walls, and her foundations founded upon a rock of the seventh heaven\u201d (22:[9]).
\nThere is also a reference to the \u201cBook of the Living\u201d in this novel, and Aseneth is told that her name is written in it: \u201cfor behold, your name was written in the book of the living in heaven; in the beginning of the book, as the very first of all, your name was written by my finger, and it will not be erased forever\u201d (Jos. Asen. 15:4[3]). This \u201cheavenly register\u201d or \u201cbook of life\u201d is not a foreign biblical concept. However, it appears more frequently in Second Temple period Jewish literature. It suggests Aseneth is a citizen of the heavenly kingdom, following her conversion which made her into a new being: \u201cBehold, from today, you will be renewed and formed anew and made alive again, and you will eat blessed bread of life, and drink a blessed cup of immortality, and anoint yourself with the blessed ointment of incorruptibility\u201d (15:5[4]). A similar point is made a few verses later when the author notes that \u201cfor all who repent she [Repentance] prepared a place of rest in the heavens. And she will renew all who repent, and wait on them herself forever (and) ever\u201d (15:[7]).
\nAllusions to the resurrection and life after death also appear in the narrative section concerning the heavenly bees (Jos. Asen. 15:13\u201317:4). The angel reveals to Aseneth that all those who repent and \u201cattach themselves to the Lord God\u201d will eat from the comb of the heavenly bees\u2014an angelic food. This comb is described as \u201cbig and white as snow and full of honey\u201d (Jos. Asen. 16:8) and full of the spirit of life (Jos. Asen. 16:14). Its honey \u201cwas like dew from heaven and its exaltation like breath of life\u201d (Jos. Asen. 16:8). As such, the comb is a \u201ccomb of life, and everyone who eats of it will not die forever (and) ever\u201d (Jos. Asen. 16:13\u201314), alluding to the life-sustaining Manna given to God\u2019s people in the wilderness (Exod. 16:31, 35; Deut. 8:3), whereas the \u201cbreath of life\u201d alludes to God\u2019s life-giving breath\/spirit as a part of the creation process of humans recorded in the Eden narrative (Gen. 2:7).
\nThe novel also describes the subservient bees who did not wish to return to heaven at the angel\u2019s request (Jos. Asen. 16:20\u201321) but instead tried to attack Aseneth. Due to their disobedience, they all died. However, the angel resurrected them and bade them to dwell in Aseneth\u2019s courtyard and settle in the fruit-trees (16:22\u201323). Although the only clear resurrection statement in the book regards these bees, this passage does reveal a familiarity with the resurrection concept and, more specifically, with the bodily resurrection concept. The closest this novel comes to a clear human resurrection statement is the reaction of Aseneth\u2019s family upon seeing her transformation as a result of her conversion: \u201cthey were amazed at her beauty and rejoiced and gave glory to God who gives life to the dead,\u201d and they sat down and celebrated with her (20:7\u20138). Burchard notes the phrase \u201cHe who gives life to the death\u201d became \u201call but a definition of God in Judaism,\u201d which emphasizes God\u2019s powers and sovereignty, even over death. Therefore, although this novel does not specifically mention an eschatological resurrection, due to the many references to eternal life and life after death, a resurrection is not excluded as a possible element within this afterlife framework.<\/p>\n
4. Books of the Life of Adam and Eve<\/p>\n
It was traditionally believed that the Life of Adam and Eve was written by a Palestinian Jew around the Common Era (100 BCE\u2013200 CE). However, among present-day scholars, there is no consensus regarding the dating and provenance of this book. Highly valued by the Christian communities who safeguarded this book, Christian interpolations were added over time. Although the original language of this composition may have been Hebrew or possibly Greek, it only survived through its two textual traditions reflected in the various translations. The longer tradition is represented in Latin (by the name, \u201cVita\u201d), Armenian, Georgian, and Slavonic, while the shorter tradition in the current Greek form (by the name, \u201cApocalypse of Moses\u201d). These five textual traditions in their different languages are labeled the Books of Adam and Eve, and with them, many textual variations reflect how the Adam and Eve tradition developed independently in the various Christian communities. The following outline by Gary Anderson shows the main content difference between the shorter (Greek) and the longer (Latin) version of the book, also known as the Apocalypse of Moses and the Vita. It shows the Latin version has two additional sections, \u201cAdam\u2019s penitence\u201d and \u201cAdam\u2019s vision,\u201d while missing one section that is found in the Greek version alone, \u201cEve\u2019s story of the fall.\u201d The resurrection passages have been added to the narrative units in brackets in this outline and are highlighted in gray. The Greek ch. 43 and Latin chs. 49\u201351 have been added to the last narrative unit.<\/p>\n
Narrative Unit
\nGreek
\nLatin
\nAdam\u2019s penitence
\n\u2014
\n1\u201321
\nCain and Abel
\n1\u20134
\n22\u201324
\nAdam\u2019s vision
\n\u2014
\n25\u201329
\nAdam\u2019s story of the fall
\n5\u201314 (10:2; 13:3\u20135)
\n30\u201344
\nEve\u2019s Story of the fall
\n15\u201330 (28:4)
\n\u2013
\nDeath and burial of Adam and Eve
\n31\u201343 (37:5; 39:2; 41:3; 43:2)
\n45\u201351 (42:1\u20135; 47:3; 51:2)<\/p>\n
The Eden narrative is the focus of this book and the \u201cblessings\u201d and \u201ccurses\u201d mentioned in Genesis 3 are expanded upon and explained in more detail. The narrative gap between Gen. 3:24 and Genesis 4 has been addressed by the author of this book, who inserted a lengthy narrative section which, when read with the Eden Narrative, adds several new elements to the story. This composition follows closely and expands upon the Eden Narrative. Table 5 shows the topic expanded upon, including the biblical reference with the corresponding reference to the Life of Adam and Eve. (The resurrection passages are added in brackets and highlighted in gray.)
\nTable 5 also shows that only one resurrection passage (Apoc. Mos. 28:4) appears in the narrative section which describes Adam and Eve\u2019s time in the Garden of Eden, although at this point in the narrative they have already eaten the forbidden fruit and God is in the process of expelling them from the Garden. The remaining six resurrection passages appear after the expulsion (Apoc. Mos. 10:2; 13:3\u20135||Vita 42:1\u20135; Apoc. Mos. 37:5||Vita 47:3; Apoc. Mos. 39:2\u20133; 41:3; 43:2||Vita 51:2). Therefore, for those who guard themselves \u201cfrom all evil, preferring death to it\u201d (Apoc. Mos. 28:4a), the resurrection hope is a crucial element in God\u2019s plan of undoing the consequences of their rebellion\u2014death and lack of access to the Garden.<\/p>\n
Table 5. The Eden Narrative and the Books of the Life of Adam and Eve<\/p>\n
Topic
\nGenesis 3
\nLife of Adam and Eve
\nPericope
\nSatan\u2019s explanation for why he tempted humans
\nVita 11:1\u201317:2 also in Ar.\/Ge.
\n4\u20135
\nTemptation of the serpent
\n3:1
\nApoc. Mos. 15:1\u201316:4b
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](15):1\u2013[44](16):4b
\nSl. 18\u201320.1\u201318\u201320.6
\n17\u201318
\nTemptation of Eve
\n3:1\u20136a
\nApoc. Mos. 17:1\u201320:5
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](17):1\u2013[44](20):5
\nSl. 18\u201320.7\u201321\u201322.4a
\n19\u201322
\nTemptation of Adam
\n3:6b\u20137
\nApoc. Mos. 21:1\u20136
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](21):1\u2013[44](21):6
\nSl. 21\u201322.4b\u201321\u201322.8
\n23
\nGod\u2019s investigation
\n3:8
\nApoc. Mos. 22:1\u20134
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](22):1\u2013[44](22):4
\nSl. 23\u201324.1\u201323\u201324.5
\n24
\nGod questions Adam
\n3:9\u201311
\nApoc. Mos. 23:1\u20133
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](23):1\u2013[44](23):5
\nSl. 23\u201324.6\u201323\u201324.9
\nAdam blames Eve
\n3:12
\nApoc. Mos. 23:4a
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](23):4a
\nEve blames Serpent
\n3:13
\nApoc. Mos. 23:4b\u20135
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](23):4b\u2013[44](23):5
\nGod gives sentence to Adam
\n3:17\u201319
\nApoc. Mos. 24:1\u20134
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](24):1\u2013[44](24):4
\n25
\nGod gives sentence to Eve
\n3:16
\nApoc. Mos. 25:1\u20134
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](25):1\u2013[44](25):4
\nGod gives sentence to Serpent
\n3:14\u201315
\nApoc. Mos. 26:1\u20134
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](26):1\u2013[44](26):4
\nAdam and Eve expelled from Garden
\n3:22\u201324
\nApoc. Mos. 27:1\u201329:6 (28:4)
\nAr.\/Ge. [44](27):1\u2013[44](29):6
\nSl. 25\u201327.1\u201325\u201327.12
\n26\u201327
\nLife outside the Garden
\n4:1\u20135:5
\nRemaining sections
\n(Apoc. Mos. 10:2;
\nApoc. Mos. 13:3\u20135||Vita 42:1\u20135;
\nApoc. Mos. 37:5||Vita 47:3;
\nApoc. Mos. 39:2\u20133; 41:3;
\nApoc. Mos. 43:2||Vita 51:2)
\n1\u201316
\n28\u201335<\/p>\n
a. Apocalypse of Moses 10:2<\/p>\n
The first reference to the resurrection in the Books of Adam and Eve appears in Apoc. Mos. 10:2 in a narrative section entitled \u201cEncounter with Beast\u201d (Pericope 12). It reveals little about the resurrection itself apart from Eve acknowledging her blame in bringing evil into this world and her sorrow that all those who have sinned will curse her on the day of resurrection, alluding to a resurrection of both the righteous and the wicked. The Armenian and Georgian tradition places Eve\u2019s fear in the context of the Day of Judgment, while the Slavonic tradition has it in the context of the second coming (see the highlighted sections in the following parallel texts). This textual variation between these traditions, however, could easily be harmonized by considering the day of resurrection, the Day of Judgment, and the second coming as a reference to the same eschatological event. The Armenian tradition notes that all sins will be blamed on Eve, the Georgian tradition states that all the sins will burn her, and the Slavonic tradition notes that Eve introduced sin into this world (see the underlined sections in the following parallel texts). The Slavonic tradition is unique in its emphasis on the perpetual blame of Eve, in contrast to the other three which consider blame in the context of the day of Judgment (Ar.\/Ge.) or the resurrection (Gr.).<\/p>\n
Gr. 10:2
\nAr. 37(10):2
\nGe. 37(10):2
\nSl. 11\u201315.6a
\nAnd Eve wept, saying, \u201cWoe is me! For when I come to the day of resurrection, all who have sinned will curse me, saying that Eve did not keep the command of God.\u201d
\nEve began to weep and she said, \u201c[When] the day of Judgment comes; all sins will be blamed upon me and (men) will say, \u2018Our mother did not hearken to the commandment of the Lord God!\u2019 \u201d
\nThen Eve began to weep and said, \u201cWoe is me, for when I arrive at the day of Judgment, all my sins will burn me and (people) will tell me, \u2018In the first instance, it was you who did not observe God\u2019s orders.\u2019 \u201d
\nEve began to cry bitterly and said, \u201cWoe is me, my sweet child, from now on until the end and until the second coming all will ruse me, because it is on my account all sorts of evil have multiplied.<\/p>\n
b. Apocalypse of Moses 13:3\u20135 || Vita 42:1\u20135<\/p>\n
The second resurrection passage appears in Michael\u2019s reply to Seth (Pericope 14) when he was requesting oil of mercy from the Garden so he could anoint his dying father, to soothe his pain. From this passage, a few more details emerge regarding the eschatological event. According to the Vita and the Georgian tradition, this event will take place 5,500 years into the future (underlined in the text).<\/p>\n
Gr. 13:3\u20135
\nVita 42:1\u20135
\nAr. 42(13):3a\u20134
\nGe. 42(13):3a\u20134
\n3For it shall not be yours now, [but at the end of the times. Then shall all flesh be raised up from Adam till that great day,\u2014all that shall be of the holy people.
\n1[For in no wise can you receive any until the last days, after 5,500 years have passed.
\n3aThis cannot be now: but then, at that time when the years of the end are filled and complete,
\n3aThis is not to be right now but in the future times, when five thousand years have been completed. Then, at the 5,500th year
\n4Then shall the delights of the Garden be given to them and God shall be in their midst
\n5And they shall no longer sin before his face, for the evil heart shall be taken from them and there shall be given them a heart understanding the good and to serve God only.]
\n2Then the most loving king of God will come upon the earth to resurrect the body of Adam and, with him, the bodies of the dead.
\n3bthen the beloved Christ will come to resurrect Adam\u2019s body, because of his sins which took place.
\n3bthe beloved Son of God, Christ, will come upon the earth to re[[surrect]] Adam\u2019s body from his fall, because of the transgression of the commands.
\n3The very Son of God, when he comes, will be baptized in the river Jordan, and when he comes forth from the water of Jordan, he will then anoint all who believe in him with the oil of mercy.
\n3cHe will come to the Jordan and be baptized [by] him, and when he will come forth from the water, then Michael will come and anoint the new Adam with the oil of joy.
\n3cHe will come and he will be baptized in the river Jordan. And as soon as he will have come forth from the water, with the (anointing) of oil, he will anoint him.
\n4This oil of mercy will be from generation to generation on those who are reborn of water and the Holy Spirit into eternal life.
\n5Then, the most loving Son of God will descend into the earth and lead your father, Adam, back into the Garden to the tree of mercy.]
\n4Then after that, it shall happen in the same fashion to all the wild beasts of the earth, who will arise in resurrection and be worthy of entering the Garden. I shall anoint them with that oil.
\n4and all his descendants, so that they will rise at the time of the resurrection. The Lord said, \u201cI will admit them into the Garden and I will anoint them with that function.\u201d<\/p>\n
From this resurrection passage, Michael reveals that everyone from the time of Adam until the \u201cgreat day,\u201d will be a part of the resurrection. The Armenian tradition even includes the wild beasts of the earth in this resurrection and suggests that they will be worthy to enter the Garden. No distinction is mentioned between the righteous and the wicked in the Apocalypse, although the Vita seems to make a distinction by focusing on those \u201cwho are reborn of water and the Holy Spirit [baptism] into eternal life\u201d (Vita 42:4b). In the Apocalypse, all the resurrected will be made into a holy people through the process of removing the evil heart and replacing it with \u201ca heart that understands the good and worships God alone\u201d (Apoc. Mos. 13:5). This is an allusion to the prophecy of Jeremiah and Ezekiel that God will give his people a new heart and write his law in their hearts (Jer. 31:33; Ezek. 18:31; 36:26). This procedure guarantees there will be no more sinners, they will \u201cbe given every joy of Paradise and God shall be in their midst\u201d (Apoc. Mos. 13:4). According to the textual tradition recorded in the Vita, Armenian, and the Georgian version, it is Christ who will resurrect Adam and all his descendants (Vita 42:2; Ge. [42](13):4). The Vita also alludes to Christ\u2019s journey to Hades: \u201cSon of God will descend into the earth and lead your father, Adam, back into the Garden\u201d (Vita 42:5). The subject of the oil of mercy or the tree of mercy (Apoc. Mos. 13:1\u20132; Vita 42:5; Ar. [42](13):4; Ge. [42](13):4) refers to the healing property of the oil\u2014a lack of access to this tree means a loss of immortal life. However, access will be regained through the resurrection and, with it, a renewed access to the Garden.<\/p>\n
c. Apocalypse of Moses 28:4<\/p>\n
The third resurrection passage appearing in Eve\u2019s tale regarding Adam\u2019s plea (Pericope 26) provides a hope for a future life even though Adam and Eve had broken God\u2019s command and eaten the fruit, an act which would lead to certain death (Gen. 2:17; 3:3, 19b). They are told that if they keep themselves from all evil after their expulsion, they will be a part of the eschatological resurrection, suggesting a different destiny for the righteous and the wicked (see the underlined sections in the following texts). Thus, there is hope for the righteous since they will be part of a future resurrection and regain access to the Tree of Life, which will make them immortal forever (highlighted in gray). The wicked, on the other hand, will not be a part of the resurrection and will not receive fruit from the Tree of Life. As such, they will not have eternal life, but instead, death. Interestingly, the general statement that they should keep themselves from all evil is expanded upon in the Armenian tradition as: \u201cslander, harlotry, adultery, sorcery, love of money, avarice, from all sin\u201d (Ar. [44](28):4).<\/p>\n
Gr. 28:4
\nAr. [44](28):4
\nGe. [44](28):4
\n\u201cYet when you have gone out of the Garden, if you keep yourself from all evil, as one wishing to die, when again the Resurrection has come to pass, I will raise you up and then there shall be given to you from the Tree of Life and you will be without death forever.\u201d
\n\u201cRather, when you go out of the Garden, guard yourself from slander, from harlotry, from adultery, from sorcery, from the love of money, from avarice and from all sins. Then, you shall arise from death (in the) resurrection which is going to take place. At that time, I will give you of the Tree of Life and you will be eternally undying.\u201d
\n\u201cIf you go out of the Garden and guard yourself from every evil, [you will die and after death you will arise in the future resurrection. Then, indeed,] I will give you of the Tree of Life and you will be undying forever.\u201d<\/p>\n
d. Apocalypse of Moses 37:5 || Vita 47:3<\/p>\n
The fourth passage appears in the \u201cassumption of Adam to Paradise\u201d section (Pericope 31) and strongly alludes to the resurrection in most textual traditions. After the whole of nature prayed on Adam\u2019s behalf, God pardoned him (Apoc. Mos. 37:2) for his rebellious deed. Upon his pardon, a Seraph came to retrieve his body and brought it to the Acherusian Lake to wash him before he was led before God. God then hands Adam over to the archangel Michael, who is in charge of souls or of dead bodies. He leads him to the third heaven where Adam will remain until God\u2019s resurrection (Sl. 45:46.2b), the day of God\u2019s judgment (Apoc. Mos. 37:5; Vita 47:3), or the day of \u201coikonomia\u201d Ge. [47](37):5), highlighted in gray in the following texts. The eschatological judgment suggests there will be a day of reckoning when everyone will be held responsible for their evil deeds, which implies there are righteous and wicked who will meet different destinies in the judgment.<\/p>\n
Gr. 37:5
\nVita 47:3
\nGe. [47](37):5
\nSl. 45\u201346.2b
\n\u201cLift him up into the Garden unto the third Heaven, and leave him there until that fearful day of my reckoning, which I will make in the world.\u201d
\n\u201cLet him be in your care until the day of retribution, in supplication until the last year when I shall change his mourning into joy. Then he will sit on the throne of him who beguiled him.\u201d
\n\u201cTake him to the third heaven, to the Garden, and leave him before the altar until the day of the \u201coikonomia\u201d which I contemplate concerning all the fleshly (beings) with my well beloved Son.\u201d
\n\u201cCarry his corpse into Paradise; his spirit shall tarry in the third Heaven, but his corpse shall remain here until my resurrection.\u201d<\/p>\n
e. Apocalypse of Moses 39:2\u20133<\/p>\n
The fifth resurrection passage is also only an allusion. It is a part of Adam and Abel\u2019s funerary rites (Pericope 32), in which God takes an active part in coming to the Garden the same way he came to the Garden when pronouncing his judgment after the rebellion (Apoc. Mos. 38:3; Ar.\/Ge. [47](38):3 || Apoc. Mos. 22:1\u20134; Ar.\/Ge. [44](22):1\u20134 and Sl. 23\u201324.1\u20134). The passage states that God grieved greatly over Adam\u2019s death, revealing God\u2019s feelings and emotions (Apoc. Mos. 39:1; Ar.\/Ge. [47](39):1). It is not clear from the text if the Garden or third Heaven is a different place than the earth. The enemy referred to in this text is clearly Satan, but the text is also referring to \u201cthose who borne you down to this place\u201d without revealing who \u201cthose\u201d are. It could be a reference to the angels who joined Satan in his rebellion. Regardless, this resurrection passage concerns the great reversal that will take place as a result of the eschatological resurrection. Those who show joy over Adam\u2019s downfall and death will see Adam reinstated following the resurrection, and Adam will be seated on the throne of his deceiver. Following Adam\u2019s future glorification, Satan and those who obeyed him \u201cshall grieve when he see [sic] you [Adam] sitting upon his throne\u201d (Apoc. Mos. 39:3) or be cast \u201cinto a place of darkness and death\u201d (Ar. [47](39):3) (see the underlined section in the following texts).<\/p>\n
Gr. 39:2\u20133
\nAr. [47](39):2\u20133
\nGe. [47](39):2\u20133
\n2Yet, I tell you that I will turn their joy to grief and your grief to joy, and I will return you to your rule, and seat you on the throne of your deceiver.
\n2But I will turn their rejoicing into sorrow, and I will turn your sorrow into rejoicing. I shall make you the beginning of rejoicing and I shall set you on the throne of him who deceived you,
\n2But I will change his joy into sorrow and I will lead you back towards this realm and I will set you upon your enemy\u2019s throne, where he was seated, close (by the place) where his rebellion was discovered.
\n3But that one [the one who sat on it prior to his becoming arrogant] shall be cast into this place that he may see you seated upon it. Then he himself shall be condemned along with those who obeyed him and he shall grieve when he see [sic] you sitting upon his throne.
\n3and I shall cast them into a place of darkness and death.\u201d
\n3He will fall in the place (where) you (are) and he will see you in that (other) place sitting upon a throne.\u201d<\/p>\n
f. Apocalypse of Moses 41:1\u20133<\/p>\n
The sixth resurrection passage appears in the dialogue between God and Adam\u2019s dead body (Pericope 32) and is based on an interpretation of Gen. 3:19. In the Eden Narrative, God reveals to Adam that he will have to work hard for a living until the day he dies, when his body will once more return to the earth from which it was once taken. The author of the Apocalypse expands on this statement and has God calling out to Adam\u2019s body, who answers Him from the earth (underlined in the following texts). The Armenian tradition makes an even stronger link by emphasizing the dust, having God call to Adam\u2019s body through the dust, and Adam\u2019s body telling the dust to answer God.
\nThe dialogue in the Apocalypse begins with God calling out to Adam\u2019s body. It continues with Adam\u2019s body answering God and concludes with God repeating the words from Gen. 3:19b (bolded in the following text), that death is inevitable and that the body will return to dust.<\/p>\n
Genesis 3:19
\nApoc. Mos. 41:1b\u20132
\n19a \u1f10\u03bd \u1f31\u03b4\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c6\u03ac\u03b3\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f15\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c3\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd, \u1f10\u03be \u1f27\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03c6\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2
\n19b \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b3\u1fc6 \u03b5\u1f36 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u1fc3
\n1b \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03b8\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f30\u03b4\u03bf\u1f7a \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce, \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03b5.
\n2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2\u00b7 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03cc\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b3\u1fc6, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9.
\n19a In the sweat of your face you will eat bread until you return to the earth out of which you were taken,
\n19b For dust you are and unto dust you will return
\n1b And the body answered from the earth and said: \u201cHere am I, Lord.\u201d
\n2 And the Lord said to him,
\n\u201cI told you dust you are and unto dust you will return.<\/p>\n
However, God adds that this death is not final since there will be a universal eschatological resurrection (highlighted in gray in the following texts). The resurrection addition is similar to the interpretation discussed in the \u201cApocalyptic Literature\u201d chapter in the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic Literature, in relation to 2 Enoch J32 and Sib. Or. 8.96\u201399. This resurrection interpretation is also evident in the Hel. Syn. Pr. 3:25\u201326 and 12:49\u201350 as discussed in the section \u201cPrayers, Psalms, and Odes.\u201d<\/p>\n
Gr. 41:1\u20133
\nAr. [48](41):1\u20133
\nGe. [48](41):1\u20133
\nSl. 49\u201350.1\u20133
\n1And God called and said, \u201cAdam, Adam.\u201d And the body answered from the earth and said: \u201cHere am I, Lord.\u201d
\n1God called to Adam\u2019s body through the dust and said, \u201cAdam, Adam.\u201d Adam\u2019s body said to the dust, \u201cAnswer and say, \u2018Here (I am), Lord.\u2019 \u201d
\n1Then God turned and called Adam. Adam\u2019s body answered him from the soil and said, \u201cHere I am, [[Lord]].\u201d
\n1And the Lord called Adam to himself and said, \u201cAdam, Adam, where are you?\u201d
\n2And his body answered, \u201cI am here, O Lord,\u201d
\n2And God said to him: \u201cI told you (that) earth you are and to earth shall you return.
\n2The Lord said to him, \u201cBehold, just as I said to you, \u2018Adam, you are dust and you return to dust\u2019;
\n2And the Lord told him, \u201cBehold, as I told you, you are soil and you have returned to the soil,
\n3aThe Lord said, \u201cSo I told you, \u2018You are earth and to the same earth you will return again.\u2019
\n3Again I promise to you the Resurrection: I will raise you up in the Resurrection with every man, who is of your seed.\u201d
\n3but I will raise you in the resurrection which [I] promised you.\u201d
\n3but I will raise you up in the resurrection which I have promised you, at the time of resurrection.
\n3bAnd at the resurrection, you will rise with all of mankind.\u201d<\/p>\n
It should be noted that this apocalypse does not mention the eschatological judgment of Targ. Ps.-J. Gen. 3:19 in which everyone will be held responsible for their actions; instead, it only emphasizes the universal nature of the eschatological resurrection.<\/p>\n
g. Apocalypse of Moses 43:2\u20133 || Vita 51:2<\/p>\n
The seventh and last resurrection passage in the books of the Life of Adam and Eve appears in a narrative section which concerns Eve\u2019s funeral (Pericope 35). In this part of the narrative, Michael instructs Seth how to prepare Eve for burial before the angels came for her body to bury her with Adam and Abel. Michael then instructs Seth that this should be the burial practice until the day of the resurrection (highlighted in gray in the following texts). Both the Apocalypse and the Slavonic traditions mention the souls of the righteous as a separate entity from the body, an aspect also appearing in the Vita, which mentions that following the resurrection, the soul and the body of the holy will be joined together for all eternity, never to be separated again by death (see the boxed sections in the following parallel texts).<\/p>\n
Gr. 43:2\u20133
\nVita 51:2
\nAr. [51](43):2\u20133
\nGe. [51](43):2\u20133
\nSl. 49\u201350.3\u20134
\n2And afterwards Michael spoke to Seth saying: \u201cLay out in this manner every man that dies until the day of the Resurrection.\u201d
\n2After this, Michael spoke with Seth and said, \u201cThus shall you dress every human being who dies, until the day of the end, through the resurrection.\u201d
\n2And after that, the angel Michael told him, \u201cThus dress every dead person who dies, until the death of all human beings.\u201d
\n3And the archangel said to Seth, \u201cSo shall you bury every person who dies until the resurrection.\u201d
\n3And after giving him this rule he said: \u201cMourn not beyond six days, but on the seventh day, rest and rejoice on it, because on that very day, God and we the angels rejoice with the righteous soul, who has passed away from the earth.\u201d
\n2 \u201cMan of God, mourn no longer than six days, for the seventh day is the sign of the resurrection, the repose of the coming age, and on the seventh day the Lord rested from all his works. [III+ all his work. Indeed the eighth day is (the sign) of the future and eternal blessedness, in which all the holy will reign throughout endless ages with the Creator and Savior himself, in both soul and body, never again to die Amen.]III
\n3When the angels had said this to Seth, he ascended to heaven, praising the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, now and forever.
\n3When he had taught Seth all that, he ascended to the uppermost heaven, far from Seth, and told him, \u201cDo not mourn for the dead more than five days and on the seventh day rejoice for on that day God rested from all his (works) which the Lord had made.\u201d
\n4Again he said to him, \u201cArrange a memorial ceremony on the third day and on the ninth and on the twentieth and on the fortieth, and arrange everything in proper order, so that we angels might take joy in it along with the souls of the righteous.\u201d<\/p>\n
The variations between the burial practices in these five traditions may reflect the local practice in the region represented by each tradition. The Armenian and Georgian traditions emphasize the importance of dressing the dead before burial. The Apocalypse, Vita, and the Georgian traditions mention the maximum length of mourning. In the case of the Apocalypse and the Vita, mourning should be limited to six days, while the Georgian version limits it to five days (see the bolded text). The Slavonic tradition does not mention a mourning time but instead focuses on the need of arranging several memorial ceremonies to celebrate the dead person. The first ceremony takes place on the third day, the second on the ninth day, the third on the twentieth day, and the final ceremony on the fortieth (see the bolded text). The rationale for this mourning practice is also given in this passage (introduced by the underlined words). Both the Vita and the Georgian traditions associate the end of the grieving period with the Sabbath rest (text in italics), with the Vita adding that \u201cthe seventh day is the sign of the resurrection, the repose of the coming age.\u201d In some of the manuscripts of the Vita, the Christian interpolation considers the eighth day as an additional sign to the seventh day, which is the sign of the resurrection. The eighth day is a sign of \u201cthe future and eternal blessedness, in which all the holy will reign throughout endless ages with the Creator and Savior himself.\u201d The Apocalypse also associates the end of mourning with rest, but unlike the Vita and the Georgian traditions, the rest is associated with the joy God and his angels have on that very day for \u201cthe righteous soul, who has passed away from the earth\u201d (Apoc. Mos. 43:3). The Slavonic memorial ceremonies are \u201carranged in proper order, so that the angels might take joy in it along with the souls of the righteous\u201d (Sl. 49\u201350.4).<\/p>\n
g. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
All the resurrection passages appear in the Apocalypse and in a combination of the Armenian, Georgian, and Slavonic textual traditions, while only three of them are recorded in the Vita. From the Apocalypse, the reader learns there will be both a universal eschatological resurrection and judgment. Those who have kept themselves from evil will be given access to the Tree of Life, thus gaining immortality while the unrighteous will be condemned. Upon death, a person will be mourned for no more than six days. On the seventh, \u201cGod will rejoice with the righteous soul, who has passed away from the earth.\u201d However, at the resurrection, the soul will once more join the body. One of the resurrection passages seems to suggest everyone will be made into holy people through the process of removing the evil heart and replacing it with a heart that understands the good and worships God alone. Thus, they will not sin anymore. It is also suggested that, following the resurrection, they will have full access to the Garden and God will be in their midst. Table 6 summarizes the death and resurrection view found in the Apocalypse of Moses. However, the reader should keep in mind that most of the description in this table relates specifically to Adam, Eve, and the Satan; as such, the author of the Apocalypse may not have intended all the details to have a universal application.<\/p>\n
Table 6. Death and resurrection view derived from the Apocalypse of Moses<\/p>\n
Life Ap. Mos. 28:4; 39:1
\nDeath Ap. Mos. 13
\nDay of Resurrection Ap. Mos. 10:2; 13:3\u20135; 28:4
\nJudgment Ap. Mos. 37:5
\nReward\/Punishment Ap. Mos. 39:2\u20133
\n– \u201cIf you keep yourself from all evil, as one wishing to die, when again the Resurrection has come to pass, I will raise you up\u201d (28:4).
\n– If you had kept my commandments (39:1).
\n– Adam\u2019s soul departs with an awesome ascent (13:6).
\n– Adam\u2019s body in the ground until the day of resurrection (41:1\u20133).
\n– Eve\u2019s body buried in the ground (43:1).
\n– Seventh day, the soul of the righteous leaves the earth (43:3)
\n– Adam soul brought to the Third Heaven (37:5).
\n\u2192 not a state of non-existence
\n– All who have sinned will curse me, Eve (10:2).
\n– All the righteous to be given to Paradise, and God shall be in their midst, no more sinners before God, be given ever joy of Paradise, the evil heart shall be given a heart that understands the good and worship God alone (13:3).
\n– Given the three of life \u2192 become immortal forever (13:4).
\n– Their joy shall be turned into sorrow, but your sorrow shall be turned into joy (39:2).
\n– Establish Adam on the Throne of Satan (39:2).
\n\u201cFearful day of my reckoning, which I will make in the world\u201d (37:5).
\nReward for Adam\/the righteous (39:2)
\n– Grief turned into joy.
\n– Adam will regain his rule, and be seated on the throne of his deceiver.
\n– Access to the three of life \u2192 immortality (13:4; 28:4)
\nPunishment of the Satan\/wicked (39:3)
\n– Be cased down.
\n– Be condemned.
\n– Shall greatly mourn and weep when they see Adam sitting on the glorious throne.<\/p>\n
5. Pseudo-Philo<\/p>\n
Pseudo-Philo refers to the unknown author of the Biblical Antiquities, also known as Liber antiquitatum biblicarum in Latin, and covers biblical history from Adam to David (Genesis\u20131 Samuel). This work belongs to the genre of Rewritten Bible and was most likely composed in Hebrew by a Palestinian Jew and later translated into Greek and Latin. Evans notes this work \u201cmay have been written as early as the first or even second century BCE, but most scholars favor a date toward the end of the first century.\u201d Harrington considers this work \u201cas a reflection of how Palestinian Jews in the first century A.D. interpreted the Jewish Scriptures, as a source for popular biblical theology of the period and as a repository for motifs and legends that are paralleled or even unique in ancient Jewish literature.\u201d
\nEschatological material appears throughout the book rather than being gathered into one section. This material focuses on what takes place after death, the events related to God\u2019s eschatological visitation, and what comes after. Following is a list of details regarding the \u201cafterlife\u201d and the eschatological elements found in the book.<\/p>\n
Afterlife and Eschatological Elements
\nTextual Reference (Pseudo-Philo)
\nPresent World\/World to Come
\n3:10; 16:3; 19:7, 13; 32:17; 62:9
\nDeath || Sleep
\n19:2, 6; 28:10; 29:4; 33:6; 35:3
\nJudgment I\u2014the deeds done while living in the present world determine a person\u2019s placement while waiting for the resurrection
\n44:10
\nCannot repent after death
\n33:2\u20135
\nSouls of the just \u2192 experience peace until the eschatological resurrection
\n23:13; 28:10; 51:5
\nSouls of the wicked \u2192 experience punishment for their sins until the eschatological resurrection
\n16:3; 23:6; 31:7; 36:4; 38:4; 44:10; 51:5; 63:4
\nGod will visit the world, which will introduce the age of the world-to-come
\n3:9; 16:3; 19:12\u201313, 15; 23:13; 26:12; 48:1
\nResurrection\/judgment II
\n3:9\u201310; 19:12\u201313; 25:7
\nThe just will dwell in happiness with God
\n19:12\u201313; 23:13
\nThe wicked like Korah and his band will be annihilated
\n16:3<\/p>\n
The most crucial element is the two separate ages, this present world and the world-to-come, which will be introduced by God recreating heaven and the earth. The author of the Biblical Antiquities makes it clear that a person\u2019s prospects in the world-to-come are based on his\/her decisions in the present world. Thus, there will be no opportunity for repentance following death, nor is it possible to intercede on their behalf. Instead, upon death, the soul parts from the body. Based on this judgment, the soul will either join the souls of the righteous to experience peace, or the souls of the wicked to be punished until God\u2019s visitation, the time of the universal resurrection and judgment. Table 7 shows narrative sections, the textual references to the TaNaKh and Pseudo-Philo, and the eschatological resurrection passages in the Biblical Antiquities (as listed in Table 4). The passages alluding to the resurrection are placed in brackets, most of these use sleep as an analogy for death (Ps.-Philo 19:2, 6; 28:10; 29:4; 33:6; 35:3), suggesting death was regarded as a temporary condition like sleep.<\/p>\n
Table 7. Resurrection statement and allusions in Pseudo-Philo<\/p>\n
Subject matter
\nTaNaKh
\nPs.-Philo
\nResurrection passages (allusions) in Pseudo-Philo
\nAdam \u2192 Joseph
\nGenesis
\n1\u20138
\n3:9\u201310
\nMoses
\nExodus
\n9\u201312
\nLeviticus
\n13
\nNumbers
\n14\u201318
\n(16:3)
\nDeuteronomy
\n19
\n19:(2, 6\u20137), 12\u201313
\nJoshua
\nJoshua
\n20\u201324
\n23:(6), 13
\nKenaz
\nJudges
\n25\u201329
\n25:7; (28:10; 29:4)
\nDeborah
\n30\u201333
\n(31:7); 33:2\u20135, (6)
\nAod \u2192 Phinehas
\n34\u201348
\n(35:3; 36:4; 38:4; 44:10; 48:1)
\nSamuel \u2192 David
\n1 Samuel
\n49\u201365
\n(51:5; 62:9; 63:4); 64:6\u20139<\/p>\n
The following five clear resurrection passages, Ps.-Philo 3:10; 19:12\u201313; 25:7; 33:1\u20133; 64:6\u20139, will be considered briefly in the following sections.<\/p>\n
a. Pseudo-Philo 3:10<\/p>\n
The first clear resurrection statement appears in God\u2019s promise to Noah following the flood. God promises that he will never again destroy all living creatures together as he had just done with the worldwide flood, \u201cuntil time is fulfilled\u201d (Ps.-Philo 3:9). However, at the end of the present world, there will be a universal resurrection including both the righteous and the wicked, who will both be judged. God will judge between soul and flesh, a possible allusion to the tradition appearing in the Apocryphon of Ezekiel (see the discussion in the \u201cApocalyptic Literature\u201d chapter in the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha), that for a person to be judged, both his body and soul has to be unified and judged as a whole since it was this united entity that committed both good and evil deeds during the present age. Those who are pardoned in the judgment will not be tainted. God concludes by declaring \u201cthere will be another earth and another heaven, an everlasting dwelling place\u201d for those who were pardoned in the judgment (Ps.-Philo 3:10), using similar language as Isa. 65:17 and 66:22. Thus, this resurrection statement also alludes to a future destruction of the present world, though this passage does not reveal how it will be destroyed. It should also be noted that this passage does not reveal the final destination of those who were deemed wicked in the eschatological judgment, nor does it present a clear view on the immortality of the soul question.
\nThis passage uses sleep as an analogy for death and describes the resurrection of the dead as raising \u201cup the sleeping from the earth,\u201d the same concept used in Dan. 12:2. However, unlike Daniel, Biblical Antiquities describes a universal event. Resurrection is not a reward for the righteous, but rather the precursor for the eschatological judgment in which everyone will be judged and receive their due. In the resurrection process, \u201cthe underworld will pay back its debt, and the place of perdition will return its deposit\u201d (note the commercial terminology). Following the judgment, the author adds: \u201cdeath will be extinguished, and the underworld will close its mouth,\u201d describing death as a devouring beast, which will no longer serve a purpose since the righteous will become immortal.<\/p>\n
b. Pseudo-Philo 19:12\u201313<\/p>\n
The second resurrection passage appears in Moses\u2019 farewell speech, where God promises Moses that his death is not the end\u2014rather, he will be resurrected. Moses resurrection is mentioned in both the New Testament (Moses and Elijah came to Jesus on the Mount of Transfiguration [Mt. 17:3\u20134; Mk 9:4\u20135; Lk. 9:30\u201333] and Michael and the devil disputed over Moses\u2019 dead body [Jude 1:9]) and in Rabbinic Literature (b. Sanh. 90b). More details regarding this eschatological event are provided in the current text. It suggests God himself will visit the world to raise Moses and his fathers from the earth. Like the previous passage, this passage also uses the metaphor of sleep for death, emphasizing the temporary condition of death. Moses will be awoken from his unknown grave and join his fathers to \u201cdwell in the immortal dwelling place that is not subject to time.\u201d<\/p>\n
c. Pseudo-Philo 25:7<\/p>\n
The third clear resurrection statement is a part of Kenaz\u2019s speech to the people in which he encourages sinners to confess, referring to the story of how Achan confessed his sins when confronted by Joshua when he had been singled out by God (Josh. 7). However, unlike the story of Achan, which ended with him and his entire family being stoned to death by the people of Israel and their remains being burnt (Josh. 7:25\u201326), Kenaz suggests that their confession may have an impact on their prospects in the eschatological judgment. He encourages their confession because \u201cAnd who knows that if you tell the truth to us, even if you die now, nevertheless God will have mercy on you when he will resurrect the dead?\u201d (Ps.-Philo 25:7). Since the death of Achan and his family turned God\u2019s wrath away from the people of Israel, Pseudo-Philo may have speculated that Achan\u2019s confession, although not saving him from an untimely death in the present world, may have functioned as an atonement, like in Achan\u2019s case. Otherwise what purpose did his confession serve? The possible mercy mentioned by Kenaz may most likely refer to the judgment taking place after the universal resurrection, suggesting that God would accept their confessions and forgive their sins, thereby counting them among the righteous who will receive their reward in the world-to-come.<\/p>\n
d. Pseudo-Philo 33:1\u20135<\/p>\n
The fourth clear resurrection passage appears in Deborah\u2019s farewell speech to the people of Israel, mirroring Joshua\u2019s exhortation to the people before he died (Josh. 23\u201324). She states everyone will die, using the words of Joshua (Josh. 23:14), and emphasizes the importance of directing their hearts to the Lord in the present world since there will be no chance of repentance following death (Ps.-Philo 33:2). To underscore the latter point, she notes that in the underworld, even if they wanted to commit sins, which is far easier than doing righteous deeds, her listeners would not be able to since \u201cthe desire for sinning will cease and the evil impulse will lose its power\u201d (Ps.-Philo 33:3). In other words, when God demands the souls back from the underworld at the time of the eschatological resurrection, they will be in the same state as when he deposited them. A righteous person deposited in the underworld upon death will still be righteous when resurrected to stand in the eschatological judgment. The same would be true for the wicked. This being the case, Deborah implores the people to obey her voice and amend their ways and put their relationship with God in order while they are still living and there is time.
\nUpon hearing Deborah\u2019s exhortation, according to Pseudo-Philo, the people implored her to pray for them and requested that her soul should be mindful of them forever after she had passed away (Ps.-Philo 33:4). However, Deborah once more reminds them that when a person dies and enters the underworld, they cease to have an impact on others\u2019 destinies as they will no longer be able to pray or be mindful of anyone. She concludes by reiterating that the only way the righteous dead can profit, is by making them examples to follow. Her dying words to the people end with the promise that if they live righteous lives, they \u201cwill be like the stars of the heaven\u201d (Ps.-Philo 33:5), a possible allusion to Dan. 12:3. Howard Jacobson notes in the Sifre (Deut. 10) \u201cthat in the future world the faces of the righteous will shine like seven things, and included are the sun, the heaven, and the stars.\u201d This view may be based on Exod. 34:29\u201335, which describes Moses\u2019 face radiating light when returning from God\u2019s presence.<\/p>\n
e. Pseudo-Philo 64:6\u20139<\/p>\n
The last clear resurrection passage appears at the end of the Biblical Antiquities, in Pseudo-Philo\u2019s retelling of the narrative concerning Saul\u2019s visit to the Witch of Endor, recorded in 1 Sam. 28:7\u201320. Following are the two parallel accounts. The highlighted texts will be discussed in the following section.<\/p>\n
Ps.-Philo 64:5\u20138
\n1 Samuel 28:12\u201319
\n5 And when the woman saw Samuel rising up and she saw Saul with him, she shouted out and said, \u201cBehold you are Saul, and why have you deceived me?\u201d
\n12 When the woman saw Samuel, she screamed, and then she asked Saul, \u201cWhy did you deceive me? You are Saul!\u201d
\nAnd he said to her, \u201cDo not be afraid, but tell what you have seen.\u201d She said, \u201cBehold forty years have passed since I began raising up the dead for the Philistines, but such a sight as this has never been seen before nor will it be seen afterward.\u201d
\n13 But the king said to her, \u201cDon\u2019t be afraid. What do you see?\u201d \u201cI see a spirit form coming up out of the earth,\u201d the woman answered.
\n6And Saul said to her, \u201cWhat is his appearance?\u201d
\n14 Then Saul asked her, \u201cWhat does he look like?\u201d \u201cAn old man is coming up,\u201d she replied.
\nShe said, \u201cYou are asking me about divine beings. For behold his appearance is not the appearance of a man. For he is clothed in a white robe with a mantle placed over it, and two angels are leading him.\u201d
\n\u201cHe\u2019s wearing a robe.\u201d
\nAnd Saul remembered the mantle that Samuel tore when he was alive, and he struck his hand on the ground and pounded it. 7And Samuel said to him, \u201cWhy have you disturbed me by raising me up? I thought that the time for being rendered the rewards of my deeds had arrived. And so do not boast, King, nor you, woman; for you have not brought me forth, but that order that God spoke to me while I was still alive, that I should come and tell you that you have sinned now a second time in neglecting God. Therefore after rendering up my soul my bones have been disturbed so that I who am dead should tell you what I heard while I was alive.
\nThen Saul knew that it was Samuel, and he bowed his face to the ground and paid homage.
\n15 \u201cWhy have you disturbed me by bringing me up?\u201d Samuel asked Saul.
\n\u201cI\u2019m in serious trouble,\u201d replied Saul. \u201cThe Philistines are fighting against me and God has turned away from me. He doesn\u2019t answer me anymore, either through the prophets or in dreams. So I\u2019ve called on you to tell me what I should do.\u201d
\n16Samuel answered, \u201cSince the LORD has turned away from you and has become your enemy, why are you asking me? 17The LORD has done exactly what He said through me: The LORD has torn the kingship out of your hand and given it to your neighbor David. 18You did not obey the LORD and did not carry out His burning anger against Amalek; therefore the LORD has done this to you today.
\n8Now therefore tomorrow you and your sons will be with me when the people have been delivered into the hands of the Philistines; and because your insides were eaten up with jealousy, what is yours will be taken from you.\u201d
\n19The LORD will also hand Israel over to the Philistines along with you. Tomorrow you and your sons will be with me, and the LORD will hand Israel\u2019s army over to the Philistines.\u201d<\/p>\n
When viewing these two accounts side by side it is easy to see the additions and the narrative sections left out by Pseudo-Philo. Both of these accounts concern the temporary resurrection of the prophet Samuel. Both accounts also state the message Samuel gave to King Saul. However, the concern of Pseudo-Philo is how Samuel could have known what to say to Saul since he was dead and supposedly did not communicate with God while dead. To solve this problem, Pseudo-Philo suggests that God had already revealed to Samuel what to tell Saul while he was still alive. Therefore, when resurrected, he could give Saul that very message (see the bolded text).
\nSamuel is also presented as looking different from the dead Philistines that the witch had resurrected during her 40-year-long career, stating that she had never seen such as sight nor will she see it again. She describes Samuel as a divine being clothed in a white robe with a mantle placed over it, escorted by two angels. The witch of Endor\u2019s description suggests that the righteous dead, when brought back to life, look different from those who are wicked.
\nThe most significant difference between the two accounts are the words spoken by Samuel following the question: \u201cWhy have you disturbed me by raising me up?\u201d (Ps.-Philo 64:7 || 1 Sam. 28:15). While in the biblical account this question opens a dialogue between Samuel and Saul, in the Biblical Antiquities it functions more as a rhetorical question, introducing a long monologue by Samuel. In this monologue, Samuel says it was not due to the powers of Saul nor the witch who had called him back from death; rather, it was solely on God\u2019s order that he had come back to life. Additionally, Samuel states that when he died he had rendered up his soul. As such he seems a little surprised at being resurrected. His expectation was that he was being brought to life in the eschatological resurrection to receive his reward in the eschatological judgment, but instead, his bones had just been disturbed (Ps.-Philo 64:7, see the text highlighted in gray).
\nAt the conclusion of the parallel temporary resurrection passage, Samuel reveals to King Saul that he will die together with his sons the following day. Saul\u2019s reaction in these two accounts is quite different. In the biblical account, Saul becomes terrified by the prospect of his imminent death and was not able to eat nor drink. In the Biblical Antiquities, Saul is also described as growing faint upon hearing Samuel\u2019s words, yet eventually, he embraces his fate stating: \u201cperhaps my destruction will be an atonement for my wickedness,\u201d a possible hint that Saul hoped for a favorable outcome in the eschatological judgment.<\/p>\n
e. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
The clear resurrection passage in the Biblical Antiquities presents a universal eschatological resurrection and judgment. Upon death, the soul leaves the body and enters the first judgment, whereupon a decision is taken regarding with the soul will be placed with the righteous or the wicked souls. The righteous souls will experience peace, while the wicked souls will be punished as they wait for God\u2019s eschatological visitation. At that time, God will resurrect all the dead in order to bring them to the judgment. Those who are deemed righteous will gain eternal life in the world-to-come, while those deemed wicked will be annihilated. Figure 3 illustrates the resurrection concept in Pseudo-Philo.<\/p>\n
Figure 3. Death and Resurrection in Pseudo-Philo<\/p>\n
6. Lives of the Prophets<\/p>\n
The Lives of the Prophets is a Jewish composition most likely written in Greek during the first half of the first century CE, perhaps even predating Jesus\u2019 public ministry. Based on the content, the author probably lived in Jerusalem or in the surrounding area due to the great familiarity shown of its geography. This literary work provides insight into the popular religion of the first century. As such, the sparse theological views presented could be considered a part of mainstream Judaism. The purpose of the Lives of the Prophets is clearly expressed in the opening statement: \u201cThe names of the prophets, and where they are from, and where they died and how, and where they lie.\u201d The book mentions twenty-three prophets from the TaNaKh\u2014all the literary prophets and seven of the nonliterary prophets. George Nickelsburg notes that in addition to the geographical framework, which in some cases also provides the prophet\u2019s tribal affiliation, \u201cthe bulk of the composition is given over to narratives of a decidedly legendary character. Some of these tales are purely extra-biblical and otherwise unattested.\u201d Several statements in the Lives of the Prophets reveal a belief in some form of life after death (Liv. Proph. 1:8; 2:4, 19) and allude to a future judgment (13:2; 15:5; 21:3); however, there are only two clear eschatological resurrection passages in this work (2:11\u201319; 3:10\u201312).<\/p>\n
a. Lives of the Prophets 2:15<\/p>\n
The first resurrection statement is a part of the Jewish tradition that Jeremiah hid the ark of the covenant before the Babylonian army captured the city of Jerusalem and its Temple. In this passage (Liv. Proph. 2:11\u201319; cf. 2 Macc. 2:4\u20138) it is suggested that the work was swallowed up in a rock. The parallel tradition in 4 Baruch reveals the ark and the vessels were delivered to the earth by Jeremiah with the aid of his scribe, Baruch (4 Bar. 3:8\u201320). An earlier version of this tradition has Jeremiah hiding the ark, the tabernacle, and the altar of incense in a cave at Mount Nebo where God had previously shown Moses the Promised Land before he passed away (2 Macc. 2:1\u20138). According to the Lives of the Prophets, the ark will be hidden until the eschatological resurrection: \u201cAnd in the resurrection the ark will be the first to be resurrected and will come out of the rock and be placed on Mount Sinai, and all the saints will be gathered to it there as they await the Lord and flee from the enemy who wishes to destroy them\u201d (Liv. Proph. 2:15). Apart from a belief in an eschatological resurrection and that all the Saints will gather around it on Mount Sinai waiting for the Lord fleeing from their persecutors, this text does not reveal much regarding the nature of this resurrection and what will come after.<\/p>\n
b. Lives of the Prophets 3:12<\/p>\n
The second resurrection statement appears in a terrifying warning Ezekiel gave the enemy leaders who wished to destroy the people of Israel. His warning is based on the vision of the Valley of the Bones (Ezek. 37:1\u201314): \u201c \u2018Are we lost? Has our hope perished?\u2019 And in the wonder of the dead bones he persuaded them that there is hope for Israel both here and in the coming (age)\u201d (Liv. Proph. 3:12). This passage shows a dual understanding of Ezekiel\u2019s vision, giving it both a personal and a corporate interpretation. Thus, it seems Ezekiel would argue that both the nation of Israel and the individual person will have a future. The enemy may think they will be able to defeat or destroy the nation of Israel, yet this will only be a temporary defeat since the nation will have a future in the present age and will be restored. The same is true on a personal level. Individuals are killed, yet through their resurrection they will have a future in the age to come.<\/p>\n
c. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
Not much is revealed regarding the eschatological resurrection in the Life of the Prophets, but the scant details show that the resurrection hope was a part of mainstream Judaism during the early part of the first century CE, especially due to the non-polemic nature of the resurrection statement which simply takes the resurrection belief for granted. It also becomes evident that during this period, Ezek. 37:1\u201314 was understood both as a reference to a personal eschatological resurrection and to the restoration of the nation of Israel following the Babylonian captivity.<\/p>\n
7. Ladder of Jacob<\/p>\n
The Ladder of Jacob has a complex compositional history. Although it is possible that the original was written in Hebrew, Greek seems to be more likely. However, it has only survived into the present in Old Church Slavonic as a part of the Tolkovaja paleja, which contains stories from the TaNaKh with commentaries. H. Lunt notes that \u201cthe date and provenance of the Ladder are unknown,\u201d and \u201cthe time, place, and shape of the original compilation are controversial.\u201d It was probably authored by a first-century CE Jew who wanted to emphasize God\u2019s sovereignty, although ch. 7 contains Christian interpolations \u201cconcerning the birth of Jesus and also the crucifixion.\u201d
\nChristfried B\u00f6ttrich suggests the author of this literary work gave Jacob\u2019s dream, recorded in Gen. 28:11\u201322, an apocalyptic interpretation, adding \u201cthat is why it seems plausible to attribute the Ladder of Jacob first of all to the genre of apocalypse.\u201d The ladder of Jacob\u2019s dream is considered a representation of the history of the world stretching from the time of Jacob to the end of time, when his descendants will finally possess the promised land and see God\u2019s promises spoken to Abraham in Gen. 12:1\u20133 fulfilled (Lad. Jac. 1:9\u201311).
\nLadder of Jacob 7:21 is the only reference to the resurrection in this composition, in a section with extensive Christian interpolation\u2014or, as noted by Lunt, a chapter which should probably \u201cbe regarded as an independent work, juxtaposed to the Ladder of Jacob by a Slavic editor of the Palaia.\u201d This resurrection passage concerns the resurrection of Eve: \u201cAnd he [Christ] will revive Eve, who died by the fruit of the tree\u201d (Lad. Jac. 7:21). However, this passage does not clearly state when this event will take place, nor the extent of this resurrection, if the resurrection will happen at Christ\u2019s first coming, or in a future eschatological event. Also, it does not clearly state whether Eve will be resurrected in a unique event, whether she will be a part of a universal resurrection, or whether this resurrection comes within the context of a judgment. Despite its brevity, the Ladder of Jacob still bears witness to a resurrection belief.<\/p>\n
8. 4 Baruch<\/p>\n
4 Baruch, according to its Greek title, \u03a4\u0391 \u03a0\u0391\u03a1\u0391\u039b\u0395\u0399\u03a0\u039f\u039c\u0395\u039d\u0391 \u0399\u0395\u03a1\u0395\u039c\u0399\u039f\u03a5 \u03a4\u039f\u03a5 \u03a0\u03a1\u039f\u03a6\u0397\u03a4\u039f\u03a5, contains \u201cthings omitted from the Prophet Jeremiah,\u201d or, as the Ethiopic title states, \u201cthe rest of the words of Baruch.\u201d Unlike 2 Baruch and 3 Baruch, which are also attributed to Jeremiah\u2019s scribe, this book, although dependent on 2 Baruch, falls into the \u201crewritten Bible\u201d genre instead of Apocalyptic Literature since it does not contain a heavenly ascension element.
\nStephen Robinson notes there seem to be three redaction levels in this literary work, two of which are Jewish, and a third by a Christian redactor, who interpolated the concluding section of the book, 4 Bar. 8:12\u20139:32, and possibly 4 Bar. 6:7, 13, 25, into this work following the failed Bar Kokhba revolt (132\u2013136 CE), when \u201cJudaism repudiated much of its apocalyptic tradition and the literature it produced, including 4 Baruch,\u201d and left it to the various Christian communities to preserve it. Thus, although 4 Baruch was probably composed in Hebrew, it only survived into the present time in several non-Semitic versions: Greek, Ethiopic, Armenian, Old Church Slavonic, and Romanian.
\n4 Baruch was probably authored by a Jew living in the Jerusalem region, given the writer\u2019s familiarity with the geographical places mentioned. The reference to the vineyard or farm of Herod Agrippa I (4 Bar. 3:14, 21; 5:22) would rule out any compositional date prior to 41 CE, when Agrippa took possession of Judea and Samaria. Hence, the topic of the Chaldean destruction of Jerusalem in 4 Baruch 1\u20134 is best understood as a comment on the cataclysmic events relating to Titus\u2019 destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. 4 Baruch, as noted by Jens Herzer, \u201cpicks up on certain feelings that were important among the Jewish people in the period 117\u2013132 C.E.\u201d and the author seems \u201caware of the seething messianic atmosphere\u201d which inevitably led to the second Jewish revolt. The Christian redaction probably took place soon after the failure of the revolt, and 4 Baruch may have reached its current form by the middle of second century CE, serving as a \u201cvehicle for validating Christian claims.\u201d
\nHerzer considers the theology of 4 Baruch, with its de-emphasis on the role of an earthly temple, as being in line with the Pharisaic wing of Judaism, which succeeded following the destruction of the Temple, and the spiritual-religious reorientation that took place under the leadership of Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai and his successors in Yavneh, which secured the survival of Judaism. 4 Baruch emphasizes the importance of God\u2019s law as the path to salvation, the eschatological resurrection hope associated with said salvation, and the focus on the Heavenly Jerusalem as the future home of the saved (5:34), thus stressing this salvation can only come on God\u2019s initiative (6:20\u201321; 8:1\u20132). This eschatological perspective also fits well with the perspective presented by the early Christian Church. The three resurrection passages in this composition are, 6:6\u201310, 7:18, and 9:12\u201314. The third passage is in the Christian addition of the book.<\/p>\n
a. 4 Baruch 6:6\u201310<\/p>\n
The first resurrection passage appears at the conclusion of the story regarding Abimelech the Ethiopian, who pulled Jeremiah out of the muddy cistern (4 Bar. 3:12 || Jer. 38:4\u201313). Upon learning of the impending destruction of Jerusalem (4 Bar. 1\u20133), Jeremiah asks God to show Abimelech mercy and protect him from seeing the destruction of the city and its desolation (4 Bar. 3:13). God promises Jeremiah that he will shelter Abimelech until God returns the people from exile, provided Jeremiah sends him to the vineyard of Agrippa the following morning (3:14). He follows God\u2019s request and sends Abimelech to the farm to \u201cget a few figs to give to the sick among the people\u201d (3:21). While picking figs on the farm, Abimelech decided to have a rest and fell into a sixty-six-year long sleep (5:1\u20132). When he woke up, he thought he had only slept for a short time and his figs were still dripping milk, but he could not recognize the city of Jerusalem nor find any of his neighbors (5:4, 7). When Abimelech finally found Baruch and showed him his basket of still \u201cnewly picked\u201d 66-year-old figs, Baruch considered the miraculous preservation of the figs and Abimelech\u2019s awakening as proof of resurrection, representing the \u201cJewish belief in both personal and corporate resurrection.\u201d Baruch states that God rewards those who love him, and he will raise them in their tabernacles. According to Baruch, they shall believe that they once more will live again (4 Bar. 6:6). He adds:<\/p>\n
8Look at this basket of figs; for behold, they are sixty-six years old and they have not withered nor do they stink, but they are dripping with milk. 9Thus will it be for you, my flesh, if you do the things commanded you by the angel of righteousness. 10He who preserved the basket of figs, the same one again will preserve you by his power. (4 Bar. 6:8\u201310)<\/p>\n
Robinson comments that the fig is an appropriate symbol for life since it \u201cdrips of\u201d milk and is filled with seeds. Interestingly, according to some Jewish traditions, like the Apoc. Mos. 20:4\u20135, the fig was the forbidden fruit of the Garden of Eden.<\/p>\n
b. 4 Baruch 7:18<\/p>\n
The second resurrection passage appears in the context of a funeral, officiated by Jeremiah, outside the city with the permission of King Nebuchadnezzar. The party was interrupted by an eagle, which carried a letter from Baruch and Abimelech. Jeremiah gathered together all the people and returned to the eagle to hear the message. At that moment the eagle resurrects the person who was about to be buried as a sign that the nation would be resurrected and they would return from their exile and once more live in Jerusalem. Thus, the second resurrection passage also links a personal and corporate resurrection, although the resurrection taking place in this passage was of a temporary nature, functioning as a type of the eschatological resurrection.<\/p>\n
c. 4 Baruch 9:12\u201314<\/p>\n
The third resurrection passage appears in the last chapter, the Christianized ending of the book (4 Bar. 8:12\u20139:32), \u201cwhere Jeremiah\u2019s ecstatic faint is described in terms reminiscent of the resurrection of Christ.\u201d Jeremiah\u2019s faint is described by the author as making him become \u201cas one of those who have given up their soul\u201d (9:7). Both Baruch and Abimelech thought he was dead and started weeping and crying: \u201cwoe to us, because our father Jeremiah has left us; the priest of God has departed\u201d (9:8). However, God told them not to bury him since he was still alive and that his soul would return to his body again (9:12). Three days later, Jeremiah\u2019s soul returned to his body and his ecstatic faint ended. Before he started to describe to Baruch and Abimelech what he had seen, Jeremiah praised God saying: \u201cGlorify God with one voice! All (of you) glorify God, and the Son of God who awakens us, Jesus Christ the light of all the aeons, the inextinguishable lamp, the life of faith!\u201d (9:14).
\nJeremiah\u2019s ecstatic faint foreshadows the death and the eschatological resurrection experience. In the same way as Jeremiah\u2019s soul left his tabernacle or body at the beginning of his ecstatic faint, so does the soul of a person leave the body upon death. The Christian redactor mentions that it is Michael, \u201cthe archangel of righteousness who opens the gates for the righteous\u201d (4 Bar. 9:5), although it is not clear if this is with regard to the soul of the righteous dead, or the resurrected righteous in the eschatological time. Be that as it may, in the eschatological resurrection, which will be orchestrated by the Son of God (9:14), the soul will return and will dwell once more in its tabernacle, in a way similar to how Jeremiah\u2019s soul returned to his body after the three-day long ecstatic faint, and the person will return to life.<\/p>\n
d. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
4 Baruch presents a clear resurrection hope, both on a personal (bodily) and corporate level (the nation of Israel), based on the following three piece of evidence, none of which are based on a biblical argument: the first is Abimelech\u2019s 66-year-long sleep and the preservation of the harvested figs (4 Bar. 3\u20136); the second, the resurrection, which took place at the funeral service led by Jeremiah (4 Bar. 7); and the final piece of evidence of Jeremiah\u2019s ecstatic faint (4 Bar. 9). However, 4 Baruch does not show any concern for the period between death and resurrection, nor for what will happen to the wicked. Instead, 4 Baruch reveals that the soul parts from its tabernacle (body) following death, to be reunified at the time of the eschatological resurrection. The resurrection is presented as the reward for those who love God, who will be brought to the Heavenly Jerusalem (4 Bar. 5:34).<\/p>\n
9. History of the Rechabites<\/p>\n
James Charlesworth proposes that it would be \u201cunwise to state the probable original language, date, or provenance of this document until critical editions of the Greek, Syriac, and Ethiopic texts are available,\u201d for the History of the Rechabites. However, he notes the title found in MS D (fols. 209r\u2013201v) supports the hypothesis of a Hebrew\/Aramaic original, which was later translated into Greek since it states:<\/p>\n
The History of the Blessed Ones, the Sons of the Rechabites, Whose Record Is Recorded by Jeremiah the Prophet When He Said That They Are the Sons of Jonadab, the Son of Rechab, Who Are Inhabitants of the City Jerusalem. It Was Translated from Hebrew into Greek and from Greek into Syriac by the Hands of the Reverend Mar Jacob of Edessa.<\/p>\n
If the original language was indeed Hebrew, the earliest strata of this document was probably authored by a Jew residing in Palestine, while the Christian sections were interpolated into this Jewish document at a later date. Charlesworth suggests that, based on the Greek document, the main body of the book (chs. 3\u201315) seems to have a Jewish provenance probably dated to the first or second century CE, while the introduction (chs. 1\u20132), ch. 16, and the conclusion (chs. 19\u201323) are of a clearly Christian origin and may have been added in the third to fourth century. However, Chris Knights argues for a Christian provenance for the whole document, even the self-contained document Abode of the Blessed (chs. 11\u201316) containing the \u201cresurrection\u201d expectation, which concludes that this work \u201cshould no longer be classified among the Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament.\u201d
\nThe History of the Rechabites records the journey of Zosimus to the island of the Blessed Ones (Hist. Rech. 1:1\u20133), where he meets the Rechabites who left Jerusalem in the time of Jeremiah (Hist. Rech. 8:1a\u2013.10:8 || Jer. 35), who live in an Eden-like condition (Hist. Rech. 14:1). Through his conversation with the Rechabites, he gains significant insight regarding death and the afterlife, and the ascent of the soul (Hist. Rech. 14:1a\u201316:8g).<\/p>\n
a. History of the Rechabites 14:1a\u201316:8g<\/p>\n
In this resurrection passage, it is revealed to Zosimus by the Blessed Ones that \u201c(the soul) discerns and knows the day of its departure through a revelation from holy angels\u201d (Hist. Rech. 15:4), when the angels of God come for the Rechabite\u2019s pure soul (14:2\u20135). Upon death, the soul parts the body (14:2), in full view of the other members of the community (15:10) and ascends in joy (15:9a), guided by the angels to the highest heaven and brought before God to worship him (16:1, 4). The soul, when leaving the body, is described as appearing in \u201cthe likeness of a glorious light, and formed and imprinted in the likeness and type of the body\u201d (15:10). When God raises the soul from its worship he \u201csends that soul to a stately mansion (to await) the day of resurrection for (the rest of our) community\u201d (16:7). Meanwhile, the body the soul left behind, when it ascended to Heaven, is buried by the angels in a sepulcher (15:7, 8).<\/p>\n
b. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
This resurrection passage only concerns itself with the final destiny of the Rechabites and not the righteous in general, although it could be expected they would have a similar fate\u2014the soul awaiting resurrection in a stately mansion. Thus, no interest is shown toward the final destiny of the wicked or what will happen to the wicked souls when it parts from the body. The nature of the resurrection is not revealed either, whether it will be limited to the Rechabites, or if it would be universal, including all the righteous and the wicked. This passage does not address what will take place following the resurrection, whether the soul will once more unify with the body, where the righteous and the wicked souls will go, and finally, whether there will be an eschatological judgment. No scriptural references or allusions are used in support of the resurrection belief in the History of the Rechabites; rather, this belief seems to be taken for granted.<\/p>\n
Chapter 4<\/p>\n
WISDOM AND PHILOSOPHICAL LITERATURE<\/p>\n
There is a strong wisdom tradition in Judaism which originated in the TaNaKh with Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Job, Song of Songs, and some Psalms. Unlike the biblical wisdom books, which are primarily associated with Solomon (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs), the wisdom literature of the Pseudepigrapha, with the exception of the Testament of Solomon, are not. The books belonging to this category endeavor to present the best way of life and the ideal to follow, often using Greek philosophical terms and concepts. They also attempt to demonstrate the superiority of the Jewish religion, showing that the teaching of the Greek philosophers is biblical. James Charlesworth notes the generic character and the lack of God\u2019s presence in the pseudepigraphal work as a complicating factor when demarcating unique Jewish aspects in the literature belonging to this category of Second Temple literature. However, two of the books in this category, 4 Maccabees and Pseudo-Phocylides, contain references to God and a strong belief in a life after death. Table 8 lists all the \u201cresurrection\u201d and \u201clife-after-death\u201d passages in these two books. These will be addressed in the following pages. 4 Maccabees emphasizes the immortality of the soul with little interest in a bodily resurrection, while Pseudo-Phocylides presents a tripartite view of human anthropology, body\u2013spirit\u2013soul, with a clear bodily resurrection expectation.<\/p>\n
Table 8. Resurrection texts in wisdom and philosophical literature<\/p>\n
Passage
\nNotes
\nResurrection
\nClassification<\/p>\n
Imp.
\nStat.
\nRef.
\nAllude
\nPhil.
\nAssum.
\n4 Maccabees
\n7:18\u201319
\nConquer the passion of the flesh \u2192 resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n?
\n\u00d7
\n9:8\u20139, 22
\nThe reward for virtue
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n10:2\u20134
\n\u201cCannot touch my soul\u201d
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n13:9\u201318
\n\u201cOur forefathers will receive us\u201d
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n14:4\u20136
\nRighteous\u2019 death \u2192 immortality
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n15:3\u20134, 27
\nRighteous\u2019 death \u2192 immortality
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n16:12\u201313, 25
\nRighteous\u2019 death \u2192 immortality
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n17:4\u20135
\nHope of endurance
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n17:11\u201312, 17\u201321
\nPrizes for victory
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n18:3
\nMartyrs \u2192 worthy of the divine portion
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n18:10\u201323
\nThe Father\u2019s teaching
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\n91\u2013115
\nDeath and afterlife; Immortality of the soul
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7<\/p>\n
1. 4 Maccabees<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees is a theological-philosophical treaty which appears in the appendix to the Greek Bible. It is not, however, counted among the Apocryphal writings. It was originally composed in Greek by a devout Hellenized Jew, most likely from Asia Minor, between 18 and 72 CE. David deSilva suggests it is difficult to be more specific than this since the composition \u201cis attached to no known author, connected with no known location, tied to no particular occasion, and devoid of references to contemporary events.\u201d Although in early Church history both Eusebius (Hist. eccl. 3.10.6) and Jerome (De vir. ill. 13; Dial. ad. Pelag. 2.6) attributed this treaty to Flavius Josephus, deSilva states most scholars have rejected this provenance due to \u201chistorical inaccuracies, different styles and radically different stances towards accommodation to Gentile culture\u201d than what is found in the writings of Josephus.
\nScholars have noted that the name 4 Maccabees is a misleading title since this composition neither dates to the Maccabean period nor gives an account of the events which took place during this crucial period in Jewish history, with the exception of the historical setting (4 Macc. 3:19\u20134:26), martyrdom of Eleazar (2 Macc. 6 || 4 Macc. 5:1\u20136:30), and the seven sons (2 Macc. 7:1\u201340 || 4 Macc. 8:1\u201312:19), which concludes with the death of the mother of these sons (2 Macc. 7:41 || 4 Macc. 14:11\u201317:1). Both Eusebius (Hist. eccl. 3.10.6) and Jerome (De vir. ill. 13) gave this work the more fitting title, \u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6, \u201cOn the Absolute Power of Reason,\u201d which is more in line with the purpose and context stated in the exordium of the book: \u201c(1) Since I am about to demonstrate a most philosophical statement\u2014that pious reason (\u1f41 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u1f74\u03c2 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2) is absolute master of the passion (\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u1ff6[\u03bd])\u2014I would rightly counsel you that you should pay close attention to this philosophical inquiry.\u201d
\nThe final example used in this theological-philosophical treaty to how the superior nature of Judaism and the teaching provided by the Torah in achieving a virtuous life, to become fully in control of one\u2019s passion, \u201ca goal almost universally admired by Greek and Roman ethicist,\u201d is the martyrdom of the seven brothers and their mother (4 Macc. 8\u201318). Their loyalty to God and their Torah-trained reason have given these heroes full control of their passion\u2014so much so that they would rather die than comply with Antiochus\u2019 (representative of the Hellenistic culture) demands to eat defiling food, which would have been a transgression of the ancestral commands (4 Macc. 9:1\u20132). Apart from the \u201cresurrection\u201d hope stated in the author\u2019s reflection following the martyrdom of Eleazar the priest (4 Macc. 7:16\u201323), all the \u201cresurrection\u201d passages in 4 Maccabees appear in this section (4 Macc. 8\u201318), see Table 11.<\/p>\n
a. 4 Maccabees 7:18\u201319 || 4 Maccabees 13:17<\/p>\n
The first \u201cresurrection\u201d statement in 4 Maccabees appears in the author\u2019s concluding remarks regarding the account of Eleazar\u2019s torture and death (4 Macc. 7:18\u201319). A similar statement appears in the author\u2019s reflection following the martyrdom of the seven brothers (4 Macc. 13:17; 16:25). The parallel words in these three passages have been indicated and the relevant dying-living aspect has been underlined.<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees 7:18\u201319
\n4 Maccabees 13:17
\n4 Maccabees 16:25
\n18 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u02bc \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03be \u1f45\u03bb\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03bf?\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd.
\n19 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03bd\u1fc4\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u0391\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b1\u03bc \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0399\u03c3\u03b1\u03b1\u03ba \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0399\u03b1\u03ba\u03c9\u03b2, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7.
\n17 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u0391\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b1\u03bc \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0399\u03c3\u03b1\u03b1\u03ba \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0399\u03b1\u03ba\u03c9\u03b2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03ad\u03be\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd.
\n25 \u1f14\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03bd\u1fc4\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u0391\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b1\u03bc \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0399\u03c3\u03b1\u03b1\u03ba \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0399\u03b1\u03ba\u03c9\u03b2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9
\n18 But as many as have a care for piety from the whole heart\u2014these alone are able to restrain the passions of the flesh,
\n19 trusting that they do not die to God, just as neither our patriarchs Abraham and Isaac and Jacob did, but live to God.
\n17 For Abraham and Isaac and Jacob will welcome us, and all the father praise us, for dying in this way.
\n25 but also, moreover, with them knowing these things\u2014that those dying on account of God continue to live to God, just as Abraham and Isaac and Jacob and all the patriarchs.<\/p>\n
In these three texts the author suggests that the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, are not dead but alive, extrapolating that Eleazar and the seven brothers (and the mother [4 Macc. 17:5]) did not die to God (\u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03bd\u1fc4\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd) but instead live to God (\u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7). Thus, these heroes will be welcomed (\u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03ad\u03be\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9) by the patriarchs and all the fathers will praise them (\u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd). The author\u2019s reference to the patriarchs in support of a future after death is not unique. The same argument was used by Jesus when making the case for a bodily resurrection in his discussion with the Sadducees (Mt. 22:31\u201332; Mk 12:26\u201327; Lk. 20:37\u201338), basing it on a grammatical observation in Exod. 3:6. The parallels between 4 Macc. 7:18\u201319; Mt. 22:31\u201332, and Exod. 3:6 have been highlighted to better see the link between these passages. The words highlighted in gray appear in all three passages, while the words in italics only appear in Matthew and Exodus. Jesus\u2019 and the author of 4 Maccabees \u201cresurrection\u201d application of Exod. 3:6 is underlined.<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees 7:18\u201319
\nMatthew 22:31\u201332 (BGT)
\nExodus 3:6 (WTT\/BGT)
\n18 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u02bc \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03be \u1f45\u03bb\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd.
\n31 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1fe5\u03b7\u03b8\u1f72\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2
\n\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b9\u05bc\u05d0\u05de\u05b6\u05e8 \u05d0\u05b8\u05e0\u05b9\u05db\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b8\u05d1\u05b4\u05d9\u05da\u05b8
\n\u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b7\u05d1\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05d4\u05b8\u05dd \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d9\u05b4\u05e6\u05b0\u05d7\u05b8\u05e7 \u05d5\u05b5\u05d0\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d9\u05b7\u05e2\u05b2\u05e7\u05b9\u05d1 \u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b7\u05bc\u05e1\u05b0\u05ea\u05b5\u05bc\u05e8 \u05de\u05b9\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05d4 \u05e4\u05b8\u05bc\u05e0\u05b8\u05d9\u05d5 \u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9 \u05d9\u05b8\u05e8\u05b5\u05d0 \u05de\u05b5\u05d4\u05b7\u05d1\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05d8 \u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd\u05c3
\n19 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03bd\u1fc4\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u0391\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b1\u03bc \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0399\u03c3\u03b1\u03b1\u03ba \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0399\u03b1\u03ba\u03c9\u03b2, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7.
\n32 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03b9 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f08\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u1f70\u03bc \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f38\u03c3\u03b1\u1f70\u03ba \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f38\u03b1\u03ba\u03ce\u03b2; \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd [\u1f41] \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b6\u03ce\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03b9 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u0391\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b1\u03bc \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u0399\u03c3\u03b1\u03b1\u03ba \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u0399\u03b1\u03ba\u03c9\u03b2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03c8\u03b5\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u039c\u03c9\u03c5\u03c3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03bf \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6
\n18 But as many as have a care for piety from the whole heart\u2014these alone are able to restrain the passions of the flesh,
\n31 Now concerning the resurrection of the dead, haven\u2019t you read what was spoken to you by God:
\nAnd he said, I am the God of thy father, the God of Abraam, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob; and Moses turned away his face, for he was afraid to gaze at God.
\n19 trusting that they do not die to God, just as neither our patriarchs Abraham and Isaac and Jacob did, but live to God.
\n32 I am the God of Abraham and the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob? He is not the God of the dead, but of the living.\u201d<\/p>\n
The \u201cresurrection\u201d application hinges on the word tense used in Exod. 3:6 (boxed phrases). The \u201cI am\u201d statement is in a present form in the Septuagint (\u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03b9\u2014first person singular, present active indicative) and is a nominal clause in Hebrew (\u05d0\u05b8\u05e0\u05b9\u05db\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b8\u05d1\u05b4\u05d9\u05da\u05b8, I am the God of your fathers), thus suggesting the patriarchs must still be alive, since God is still their God, nor was nor will become their God sometime in the future.
\nThe last phrase \u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7, live to God (4 Macc. 7:19) and its parallel, \u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7, [God] of the living (Mt. 22:32), is a key term used by Paul when describing the new reality experienced by those who have died to their self and have instead embraced a life in Christ (Rom. 6:10\u201311; 14:8; Gal. 2:19), who has conquered death (Rom. 6:9; 14:9). This is an interesting similarity to the core message of 4 Maccabees, in the same way as Paul emphasizes the importance of dying to self in order to be living to God in Christ (Rom. 6:11). The author of 4 Maccabees argues that a person who has gained control over his passion, through God\u2019s Torah, can rely on God to ensure they will not die.
\nComparing the application of Exod. 3:6 by 4 Macc. 7:18\u201319 and Mt. 22:31\u201332, it becomes clear that although the author of 4 Maccabees and Jesus alludes to and uses this passage in support of their \u201cresurrection\u201d hope, the resurrection hope itself is different. While Jesus argues for a bodily resurrection, the author of 4 Maccabees presents a very different view, in which a person is judged and receives his\/her eternal destiny at the point of death, leaving no need for an eschatological resurrection and judgment. The remaining \u201cresurrection\u201d passages appear in 4 Maccabees 8\u201318 (see Table 8).<\/p>\n
b. 4 Maccabees 8\u201318<\/p>\n
The dialogues and the author\u2019s comments and exhortations in the martyr account of the seven sons and their mother have been greatly expanded from the much older account in 2 Maccabees 7, from one chapter in 2 Maccabees to eleven chapters in 4 Maccabees. Table 9 shows the nature and the extent of this expansion. It should be noted that the mother\u2019s two speeches between the death of her sixth and seventh son in 2 Maccabees (2 Macc. 7:20\u201323, 27\u201329) are missing in 4 Maccabees. However, the mother plays an important part in the five-chapter-long philosophical dialogue (4 Macc. 14:11\u201315:32 and 18:6\u20139) towards the end of 4 Maccabees (4 Macc. 13:1\u201318:19). This additional theological-philosophical element in 4 Maccabees provides not only the \u201cmoral\u201d of the martyrdom story but it also serves as the climax and the ultimate example in support of the thesis put forth in the introduction of the book.
\nTo get a better impression of the differences between these two accounts of the martyrdom of the seven sons and their mother, the following parallel texts show these two accounts. The core issue of eating defiled food has been underlined in the text, while the references to the ancestral laws are in italics. The dialogues given by the brothers and the mother are bolded, while references to the future hope are highlighted in gray. Relevant references are placed within square brackets.<\/p>\n
Table 9. Outline of 2 Maccabees 7 and 4 Maccabees 8\u201318<\/p>\n
2 Maccabees 7
\n4 Maccabees 8\u201318
\nIntroduction
\n7:1\u20132
\n8:1\u20139:10
\nFirst Brother
\n7:3\u20136
\n9:11\u201325
\nSecond Brother
\n7:7\u20139
\n9:26\u201332
\nThird Brother
\n7:10\u201312
\n10:1\u201311
\nFourth Brother
\n7:13\u201314
\n10:12\u201321
\nFifth Brother
\n7:15\u201317
\n11:1\u201312
\nSixth Brother
\n7:18\u201319
\n11:13\u201327
\nMother\u2019s Speech I
\n7:20\u201323
\n\u2013
\nSeventh Brother
\n7:24\u201326
\n12:1\u201319
\nMother\u2019s Speech II
\n7:27\u201329
\nSeventh Brother
\n7:30\u201340
\n\u2013
\nTheological-philosophical Remark
\n13:1\u201314:10
\nExample of Mother
\n14:11\u201315:32
\nPhilosophical Remark
\n\u2013
\n16:1\u201318:5
\nMother\u2019s words to her sons
\n18:6\u20139
\nTheir Father\u2019s teaching
\n18:10\u201319
\nConclusion
\n7:41\u201342
\n18:20\u201324<\/p>\n
2 Maccabees 7 (NRS)
\n4 Maccabees 8\u201318 (NRS)
\n1It happened also that seven brothers and their mother were arrested and were being compelled by the king, under torture with whips and thongs, to partake of unlawful swine\u2019s flesh. 2One of them, acting as their spokesman, said, \u201cWhat do you intend to ask and learn from us? For we are ready to die rather than transgress the laws of our ancestors.\u201d
\n8:1For this is why even the very young, by following a philosophy in accordance with devout reason, have prevailed over the most painful instruments of torture. 2For when the tyrant was conspicuously defeated in his first attempt, being unable to compel an aged man to eat defiling foods [2 Macc. 6:20\u201321], then in violent rage he commanded that others of the Hebrew captives be brought, and that any who ate defiling food would be freed after eating, but if any were to refuse, they would be tortured even more cruelly. 3When the tyrant had given these orders, seven brothers\u2014handsome, modest, noble, and accomplished in every way\u2014were brought before him along with their aged mother. 4When the tyrant saw them, grouped about their mother as though a chorus, he was pleased with them. And struck by their appearance and nobility, he smiled at them, and summoned them nearer and said, 5\u201cYoung men, with favorable feelings I admire each and every one of you, and greatly respect the beauty and the number of such brothers. Not only do I advise you not to display the same madness as that of the old man who has just been tortured, but I also exhort you to yield to me and enjoy my friendship. 6Just as I am able to punish those who disobey my orders, so I can be a benefactor to those who obey me. 7Trust me, then, and you will have positions of authority in my government if you will renounce the ancestral tradition of your national life. 8Enjoy your youth by adopting the Greek way of life and by changing your manner of living. 9But if by disobedience you rouse my anger, you will compel me to destroy each and every one of you with dreadful punishments through tortures. 10Therefore take pity on yourselves. Even I, your enemy, have compassion for your youth and handsome appearance. 11Will you not consider this, that if you disobey, nothing remains for you but to die on the rack?\u201d 12When he had said these things, he ordered the instruments of torture to be brought forward so as to persuade them out of fear to eat the defiling food. 13When the guards had placed before them wheels and joint-dislocators, rack and hooks and catapults and caldrons, braziers and thumbscrews and iron claws and wedges and bellows, the tyrant resumed speaking: 14\u201cBe afraid, young fellows; whatever justice you revere will be merciful to you when you transgress under compulsion.\u201d 15But when they had heard the inducements and saw the dreadful devices, not only were they not afraid, but they also opposed the tyrant with their own philosophy, and by their right reasoning nullified his tyranny. 16Let us consider, on the other hand, what arguments might have been used if some of them had been cowardly and unmanly. Would they not have been the following? 17\u201cO wretches that we are and so senseless! Since the king has summoned and exhorted us to accept kind treatment if we obey him, 18why do we take pleasure in vain resolves and venture upon a disobedience that brings death? 19O men and brothers, should we not fear the instruments of torture and consider the threats of torments, and give up this vain opinion and this arrogance that threatens to destroy us? 20Let us take pity on our youth and have compassion on our mother\u2019s age; 21and let us seriously consider that if we disobey we are dead! 22Also, divine justice will excuse us for fearing the king when we are under compulsion 23Why do we banish ourselves from this most pleasant life and deprive ourselves of this delightful world? 24Let us not struggle against compulsion or take hollow pride in being put to the rack. 25Not even the law itself would arbitrarily put us to death for fearing the instruments of torture. 26Why does such contentiousness excite us and such a fatal stubbornness please us, when we can live in peace if we obey the king?\u201d 27But the youths, though about to be tortured, neither said any of these things nor even seriously considered them. 28For they were contemptuous of the emotions and sovereign over agonies, 29so that as soon as the tyrant had ceased counseling them to eat defiling food, all with one voice together, as from one mind, said:
\n9:1\u201cWhy do you delay, O tyrant? For we are ready to die rather than transgress our ancestral commandments; 2we are obviously putting our forebears to shame unless we should practice ready obedience to the law and to Moses our counselor. 3Tyrant and counselor of lawlessness, in your hatred for us do not pity us more than we pity ourselves. 4For we consider this pity of yours, which ensures our safety through transgression of the law, to be more grievous than death itself. 5You are trying to terrify us by threatening us with death by torture, as though a short time ago you learned nothing from Eleazar. 6And if the aged men of the Hebrews because of their religion lived piously while enduring torture, it would be even more fitting that we young men should die despising your coercive tortures, which our aged instructor also overcame. 7Therefore, tyrant, put us to the test; and if you take our lives because of our religion, do not suppose that you can injure us by torturing us. 8For we, through this severe suffering and endurance, shall have the prize of virtue and shall be with God, on whose account we suffer; 9but you, because of your bloodthirtstiness toward us will deservedly undergo from the divine justice eternal torment by fire.\u201d 10When they had said these things, the tyrant was not only indignant, as at those who are disobedient, but also infuriated, as at those who are ungrateful.
\n3The king fell into a rage, and gave orders to have pans and caldrons heated. 4These were heated immediately, and he commanded that the tongue of their spokesman be cut out and that they scalp him and cut off his hands and feet, while the rest of the brothers and the mother looked on.
\n11Then at his command the guards brought forward the eldest, and having torn off his tunic, they bound his hands and arms with thongs on each side. 12When they had worn themselves out beating him with scourges, without accomplishing anything, they placed him upon the wheel. 13When the noble youth was stretched out around this, his limbs were dislocated, 14and with every member disjointed he denounced the tyrant, saying,
\n5When he was utterly helpless, the king ordered them to take him to the fire, still breathing, and to fry him in a pan. The smoke from the pan spread widely, but the brothers and their mother encouraged one another to die nobly, saying, 6\u201cThe Lord God is watching over us and in truth has compassion on us, as Moses declared in his song that bore witness against the people to their faces, when he said, \u2018And he will have compassion on his servants\u2019 [Deut. 32:36].\u201d
\n15\u201cMost abominable tyrant, enemy of heavenly justice, savage of mind, you are mangling me in this manner, not because I am a murderer, or as one who acts impiously, but because I protect the divine law.\u201d 16And when the guards said, \u201cAgree to eat so that you may be released from the tortures,\u201d 17he replied, \u201cYou abominable lackeys, your wheel is not so powerful as to strangle my reason. Cut my limbs, burn my flesh, and twist my joints; 18through all these tortures I will convince you that children of the Hebrews alone are invincible where virtue is concerned.\u201d 19While he was saying these things, they spread fire under him, and while fanning the flames they tightened the wheel further. 20The wheel was completely smeared with blood, and the heap of coals was being quenched by the drippings of gore, and pieces of flesh were falling off the axles of the machine. 21Although the ligaments joining his bones were already severed, the courageous youth, worthy of Abraham, did not groan, 22but as though transformed by fire [Mal. 3:2\u20133] into immortality, he nobly endured the rackings. 23\u201cImitate me, brothers,\u201d he said. \u201cDo not leave your post in my struggle or renounce our courageous family ties. 24Fight the sacred and noble battle for religion. Thereby the just Providence of our ancestors may become merciful to our nation and take vengeance on the accursed tyrant.\u201d 25When he had said this, the saintly youth broke the thread of life.
\n7After the first brother had died in this way, they brought forward the second for their sport. They tore off the skin of his head with the hair, and asked him, \u201cWill you eat rather than have your body punished limb by limb?\u201d
\n26While all were marveling at his courageous spirit, the guards brought in the next eldest, and after fitting themselves with iron gauntlets having sharp hooks, they bound him to the torture machine and catapult. 27Before torturing him, they inquired if he were willing to eat, and they heard his noble decision.
\n8He replied in the language of his ancestors and said to them, \u201cNo.\u201d Therefore he in turn underwent tortures as the first brother had done. 9And when he was at his last breath, he said, \u201cYou accursed wretch, you dismiss us from this present life, but the King of the universe will raise us up to an everlasting renewal of life, because we have died for his laws.\u201d
\n28These leopard-like beasts tore out his sinews with the iron hands, flayed all his flesh up to his chin, and tore away his scalp. But he steadfastly endured this agony and said, 29 \u201cHow sweet is any kind of death for the religion of our ancestors!\u201d 30To the tyrant he said, \u201cDo you not think, you most savage tyrant, that you are being tortured more than I, as you see the arrogant design of your tyranny being defeated by our endurance for the sake of religion? 31I lighten my pain by the joys that come from virtue, 32but you suffer torture by the threats that come from impiety. You will not escape, you most abominable tyrant, the judgments of the divine wrath.\u201d
\n10After him, the third was the victim of their sport. When it was demanded, he quickly put out his tongue and courageously stretched forth his hands, 11and said nobly, \u201cI got these from Heaven, and because of his laws I disdain them, and from him I hope to get them back again.\u201d 12As a result the king himself and those with him were astonished at the young man\u2019s spirit, for he regarded his sufferings as nothing.
\n10:1When he too had endured a glorious death, the third was led in, and many repeatedly urged him to save himself by tasting the meat. 2But he shouted, \u201cDo you not know that the same father begot me as well as those who died, and the same mother bore me, and that I was brought up on the same teachings? 3I do not renounce the noble kinship that binds me to my brothers.\u201d 4 5Enraged by the man\u2019s boldness, they disjointed his hands and feet with their instruments, dismembering him by prying his limbs from their sockets, 6and breaking his fingers and arms and legs and elbows. 7Since they were not able in any way to break his spirit, they abandoned the instruments and scalped him with their fingernails in a Scythian fashion. 8They immediately brought him to the wheel, and while his vertebrae were being dislocated by this, he saw his own flesh torn all around and drops of blood flowing from his entrails. 9When he was about to die, he said, 10\u201cWe, most abominable tyrant, are suffering because of our godly training and virtue, 11but you, because of your impiety and bloodthirstiness, will undergo unceasing torments.\u201d
\n13After he too had died, they maltreated and tortured the fourth in the same way. 14When he was near death, he said, \u201cOne cannot but choose to die at the hands of mortals and to cherish the hope God gives of being raised again by him. But for you there will be no resurrection to life!\u201d
\n12When he too had died in a manner worthy of his brothers, they dragged in the fourth, saying, 13\u201cAs for you, do not give way to the same insanity as your brothers, but obey the king and save yourself.\u201d 14But he said to them, \u201cYou do not have a fire hot enough to make me play the coward. 15No\u2014by the blessed death of my brothers, by the eternal destruction of the tyrant, and by the everlasting life of the pious, I will not renounce our noble family ties. 16Contrive tortures, tyrant, so that you may learn from them that I am a brother to those who have just now been tortured.\u201d 17When he heard this, the bloodthirsty, murderous, and utterly abominable Antiochus gave orders to cut out his tongue. 18But he said, \u201cEven if you remove my organ of speech, God hears also those who are mute. 19See, here is my tongue; cut it off, for in spite of this you will not make our reason speechless. 20Gladly, for the sake of God, we let our bodily members be mutilated. 21God will visit you swiftly, for you are cutting out a tongue that has been melodious with divine hymns.\u201d
\n15Next they brought forward the fifth and maltreated him. 16But he looked at the king, and said, \u201cBecause you have authority among mortals, though you also are mortal, you do what you please. But do not think that God has forsaken our people. 17Keep on, and see how his mighty power will torture you and your descendants!\u201d
\n11:1When he too died, after being cruelly tortured, the fifth leaped up, saying, 2\u201cI will not refuse, tyrant, to be tortured for the sake of virtue. 3I have come of my own accord, so that by murdering me you will incur punishment from the heavenly justice for even more crimes. 4Hater of virtue, hater of humankind, for what act of ours are you destroying us in this way? 5Is it because we revere the Creator of all things and live according to his virtuous law? 6But these deeds deserve honors, not tortures.\u201d
\n7 8 9While he was saying these things, the guards bound him and dragged him to the catapult; 10they tied him to it on his knees, and fitting iron clamps on them, they twisted his back around the wedge on the wheel, so that he was completely curled back like a scorpion, and all his members were disjointed. 11In this condition, gasping for breath and in anguish of body, 12he said, \u201cTyrant, they are splendid favors that you grant us against your will, because through these noble sufferings you give us an opportunity to show our endurance for the law.\u201d
\n18After him they brought forward the sixth. And when he was about to die, he said, \u201cDo not deceive yourself in vain. For we are suffering these things on our own account, because of our sins against our own God. Therefore astounding things have happened. 19But do not think that you will go unpunished for having tried to fight against God!\u201d
\n13When he too had died, the sixth, a mere boy, was led in. When the tyrant inquired whether he was willing to eat and be released, he said, 14\u201cI am younger in age than my brothers, but I am their equal in mind. 15Since to this end we were born and bred, we ought likewise to die for the same principles. 16So if you intend to torture me for not eating defiling foods, go on torturing!\u201d 17When he had said this, they led him to the wheel. 18He was carefully stretched tight upon it, his back was broken, and he was roasted from underneath. 19To his back they applied sharp spits that had been heated in the fire, and pierced his ribs so that his entrails were burned through. 20While being tortured he said, \u201cO contest befitting holiness, in which so many of us brothers have been summoned to an arena of sufferings for religion, and in which we have not been defeated! 22I also, equipped with nobility, will die with my brothers, 23and I myself will bring a great avenger upon you, you inventor of tortures and enemy of those who are truly devout. 24We six boys have paralyzed your tyranny. 25Since you have not been able to persuade us to change our mind or to force us to eat defiling foods, is not this your downfall? 26Your fire is cold to us, and the catapults painless, and your violence powerless. 27For it is not the guards of the tyrant but those of the divine law that are set over us; therefore, unconquered, we hold fast to reason.\u201d
\n20The mother was especially admirable and worthy of honorable memory. Although she saw her seven sons perish within a single day, she bore it with good courage because of her hope in the Lord. 21She encouraged each of them in the language of their ancestors. Filled with a noble spirit, she reinforced her woman\u2019s reasoning with a man\u2019s courage, and said to them, 22\u201cI do not know how you came into being in my womb. It was not I who gave you life and breath, nor I who set in order the elements within each of you. 23Therefore the Creator of the world, who shaped the beginning of humankind and devised the origin of all things, will in his mercy give life and breath back to you again, since you now forget yourselves for the sake of his laws.\u201d
\n24Antiochus felt that he was being treated with contempt, and he was suspicious of her reproachful tone. The youngest brother being still alive, Antiochus not only appealed to him in words, but promised with oaths that he would make him rich and enviable if he would turn from the ways of his ancestors, and that he would take him for his Friend and entrust him with public affairs.
\n12:1When he too, thrown into the caldron, had died a blessed death, the seventh and youngest of all came forward. 2Even though the tyrant had been vehemently reproached by the brothers, he felt strong compassion for this child when he saw that he was already in fetters. He summoned him to come nearer and tried to persuade him, saying, 3\u201cYou see the result of your brothers\u2019 stupidity, for they died in torments because of their disobedience.
\n25Since the young man would not listen to him at all, the king called the mother to him and urged her to advise the youth to save himself. 26After much urging on his part, she undertook to persuade her son.
\n27But, leaning close to him, she spoke in their native language as follows, deriding the cruel tyrant: \u201cMy son, have pity on me. I carried you nine months in my womb, and nursed you for three years, and have reared you and brought you up to this point in your life, and have taken care of you. 28I beg you, my child, to look at the heaven and the earth and see everything that is in them, and recognize that God did not make them out of things that existed. And in the same way the human race came into being. 29Do not fear this butcher, but prove worthy of your brothers. Accept death, so that in God\u2019s mercy I may get you back again along with your brothers.\u201d
\n30While she was still speaking, the young man said, \u201cWhat are you waiting for? I will not obey the king\u2019s command, but I obey the command of the law that was given to our ancestors through Moses. 31But you, who have contrived all sorts of evil against the Hebrews, will certainly not escape the hands of God. 32For we are suffering because of our own sins 33And if our living Lord is angry for a little while, to rebuke and discipline us, he will again be reconciled with his own servants.
\n4You too, if you do not obey, will be miserably tortured and die before your time, 5but if you yield to persuasion you will be my friend and a leader in the government of the kingdom.\u201d 6When he had thus appealed to him, he sent for the boy\u2019s mother to show compassion on her who had been bereaved of so many sons and to influence her to persuade the surviving son to obey and save himself. 7But when his mother had exhorted him in the Hebrew language, as we shall tell a little later, 8he said, \u201cLet me loose, let me speak to the king and to all his friends that are with him.\u201d 9Extremely pleased by the boy\u2019s declaration, they freed him at once. 10Running to the nearest of the braziers, 11he said, \u201cYou profane tyrant, most impious of all the wicked, since you have received good things and also your kingdom from God, were you not ashamed to murder his servants and torture on the wheel those who practice religion? 12Because of this, justice has laid up for you intense and eternal fire and tortures, and these throughout all time will never let you go. 13As a man, were you not ashamed, you most savage beast, to cut out the tongues of men who have feelings like yours and are made of the same elements as you, and to maltreat and torture them in this way? 14Surely they by dying nobly fulfilled their service to God, but you will wail bitterly for having killed without cause the contestants for virtue.\u201d 15Then because he too was about to die, he said, 16\u201cI do not desert the excellent example of my brothers, 17and I call on the God of our ancestors to be merciful to our nation; 18but on you he will take vengeance both in his present life and when you are dead.\u201d 19After he had uttered these imprecations, he flung himself into the braziers and so ended his life.
\n34But you, unholy wretch, you most defiled of all mortals, do not be elated in vain and puffed up by uncertain hopes, when you raise your hand against the children of heaven. 35You have not yet escaped the judgment of the almighty, all-seeing God. 36For our brothers after enduring a brief suffering have drunk of ever-flowing life, under God\u2019s covenant; but you, by the judgment of God, will receive just punishment for your arrogance. 37I, like my brothers, give up body and life for the laws of our ancestors, appealing to God to show mercy soon to our nation and by trials and plagues to make you confess that he alone is God, 38and through me and my brothers to bring to an end the wrath of the Almighty that has justly fallen on our whole nation.\u201d 39The king fell into a rage, and handled him worse than the others, being exasperated at his scorn. 40So he died in his integrity, putting his whole trust in the Lord.
\n13:1Since, then, the seven brothers despised sufferings even unto death, everyone must concede that devout reason is sovereign over the emotions. 2For if they had been slaves to their emotions and had eaten defiling food, we would say that they had been conquered by these emotions. 3But in fact it was not so. Instead, by reason, which is praised before God, they prevailed over their emotions. 4The supremacy of the mind over these cannot be overlooked, for the brothers mastered both emotions and pains. 5How then can one fail to confess the sovereignty of right reason over emotion in those who were not turned back by fiery agonies? 6For just as towers jutting out over harbors hold back the threatening waves and make it calm for those who sail into the inner basin, 7so the seven-towered right reason of the youths, by fortifying the harbor of religion, conquered the tempest of the emotions. 8For they constituted a holy chorus of religion and encouraged one another, saying, 9\u201cBrothers, let us die like brothers for the sake of the law; let us imitate the three youths in Assyria who despised the same ordeal of the furnace. 10Let us not be cowardly in the demonstration of our piety.\u201d 11While one said, \u201cCourage, brother,\u201d another said, \u201cBear up nobly,\u201d 12and another reminded them, \u201cRemember whence you came, and the father by whose hand Isaac would have submitted to being slain for the sake of religion.\u201d
\n13Each of them and all of them together looking at one another, cheerful and undaunted, said, \u201cLet us with all our hearts consecrate ourselves to God, who gave us our lives, and let us use our bodies as a bulwark for the law. 14Let us not fear him who thinks he is killing us, 15for great is the struggle of the soul and the danger of eternal torment lying before those who transgress the commandment of God. 16Therefore let us put on the full armor of self-control, which is divine reason. 17For if we so die, Abraham and Isaac and Jacob will welcome us, and all the fathers will praise us.\u201d 18Those who were left behind said to each of the brothers who were being dragged away, \u201cDo not put us to shame, brother, or betray the brothers who have died before us.\u201d 19You are not ignorant of the affection of family ties, which the divine and all-wise Providence has bequeathed through the fathers to their descendants and which was implanted in the mother\u2019s womb.
\n20There each of the brothers spent the same length of time and was shaped during the same period of time; and growing from the same blood and through the same life, they were brought to the light of day. 21When they were born after an equal time of gestation, they drank milk from the same fountains. From such embraces brotherly-loving souls are nourished; 22and they grow stronger from this common nurture and daily companionship, and from both general education and our discipline in the law of God. 23Therefore, when sympathy and brotherly affection had been so established, the brothers were the more sympathetic to one another. 24Since they had been educated by the same law and trained in the same virtues and brought up in right living, they loved one another all the more.
\n25A common zeal for nobility strengthened their goodwill toward one another, and their concord, 26because they could make their brotherly love more fervent with the aid of their religion. 27But although nature and companionship and virtuous habits had augmented the affection of family ties, those who were left endured for the sake of religion, while watching their brothers being maltreated and tortured to death.
\n14:1Furthermore, they encouraged them to face the torture, so that they not only despised their agonies, but also mastered the emotions of brotherly love. 2O reason, more royal than kings and freer than the free! 3O sacred and harmonious concord of the seven brothers on behalf of religion! 4None of the seven youths proved coward or shrank from death, 5but all of them, as though running the course toward immortality, hastened to death by torture.
\n6Just as the hands and feet are moved in harmony with the guidance of the mind, so those holy youths, as though moved by an immortal spirit of devotion, agreed to go to death for its sake. 7O most holy seven, brothers in harmony! For just as the seven days of creation move in choral dance around religion, 8so these youths, forming a chorus, encircled the sevenfold fear of tortures and dissolved it. 9Even now, we ourselves shudder as we hear of the suffering of these young men; they not only saw what was happening, not only heard the direct word of threat, but also bore the sufferings patiently, and in agonies of fire at that. 10What could be more excruciatingly painful than this? For the power of fire is intense and swift, and it consumed their bodies quickly.
\n11Do not consider it amazing that reason had full command over these men in their tortures, since the mind of woman despised even more diverse agonies, 12for the mother of the seven young men bore up under the rackings of each one of her children. 13Observe how complex is a mother\u2019s love for her children, which draws everything toward an emotion felt in her inmost parts. 14Even unreasoning animals, as well as human beings, have a sympathy and parental love for their offspring. 15For example, among birds, the ones that are tame protect their young by building on the housetops, 16and the others, by building in precipitous chasms and in holes and tops of trees, hatch the nestlings and ward off the intruder. 17If they are not able to keep the intruder away, they do what they can to help their young by flying in circles around them in the anguish of love, warning them with their own calls.
\n18And why is it necessary to demonstrate sympathy for children by the example of unreasoning animals, 19since even bees at the time for making honeycombs defend themselves against intruders and, as though with an iron dart, sting those who approach their hive and defend it even to the death? 20But sympathy for her children did not sway the mother of the young men; she was of the same mind as Abraham.
\n15:1O reason of the children, tyrant over the emotions! O religion, more desirable to the mother than her children! 2Two courses were open to this mother, that of religion and that of preserving her seven sons for a time, as the tyrant had promised. 3She loved religion more, the religion that preserves them for eternal life according to God\u2019s promise. 4In what manner might I express the emotions of parents who love their children? We impress upon the character of a small child a wondrous likeness both of mind and of form. Especially is this true of mothers, who because of their birth pangs have a deeper sympathy toward their offspring than do the fathers. 5Considering that mothers are the weaker sex and give birth to many, they are more devoted to their children. 6The mother of the seven boys, more than any other mother, loved her children. In seven pregnancies she had implanted in herself tender love toward them, 7and because of the many pains she suffered with each of them she had sympathy for them; 8yet because of the fear of God she disdained the temporary safety of her children. 9Not only so, but also because of the nobility of her sons and their ready obedience to the law, she felt a greater tenderness toward them. 10For they were righteous and self-controlled and brave and magnanimous, and loved their brothers and their mother, so that they obeyed her even to death in keeping the ordinances.
\n11Nevertheless, though so many factors influenced the mother to suffer with them out of love for her children, in the case of none of them were the various tortures strong enough to pervert her reason. 12But each child separately and all of them together the mother urged on to death for religion\u2019s sake. 13O sacred nature and affection of parental love, yearning of parents toward offspring, nurture and indomitable suffering by mothers! 14This mother, who saw them tortured and burned one by one, because of religion did not change her attitude. 15She watched the flesh of her children being consumed by fire, their toes and fingers scattered on the ground, and the flesh of the head to the chin exposed like masks.
\n16O mother, tried now by more bitter pains than even the birth pangs you suffered for them! 17O woman, who alone gave birth to such complete devotion! 18When the firstborn breathed his last, it did not turn you aside, nor when the second in torments looked at you piteously nor when the third expired; 19nor did you weep when you looked at the eyes of each one in his tortures gazing boldly at the same agonies, and saw in their nostrils the signs of the approach of death. 20When you saw the flesh of children burned upon the flesh of other children, severed hands upon hands, scalped heads upon heads, and corpses fallen on other corpses, and when you saw the place filled with many spectators of the torturings, you did not shed tears. 21Neither the melodies of sirens nor the songs of swans attract the attention of their hearers as did the voices of the children in torture calling to their mother. 22How great and how many torments the mother then suffered as her sons were tortured on the wheel and with the hot irons! 23But devout reason, giving her heart a man\u2019s courage in the very midst of her emotions, strengthened her to disregard, for the time, her parental love.
\n24Although she witnessed the destruction of seven children and the ingenious and various rackings, this noble mother disregarded all these because of faith in God. 25For as in the council chamber of her own soul she saw mighty advocates\u2014nature, family, parental love, and the rackings of her children\u201426this mother held two ballots, one bearing death and the other deliverance for her children. 27She did not approve the deliverance that would preserve the seven sons for a short time, 28but as the daughter of God-fearing Abraham she remembered his fortitude. 29O mother of the nation, vindicator of the law and champion of religion, who carried away the prize of the contest in your heart! 30O more noble than males in steadfastness, and more courageous than men in endurance! 31Just as Noah\u2019s ark, carrying the world in the universal flood, stoutly endured the waves, 32so you, O guardian of the law, overwhelmed from every side by the flood of your emotions and the violent winds, the torture of your sons, endured nobly and withstood the wintry storms that assail religion.
\n16:1If, then, a woman, advanced in years and mother of seven sons, endured seeing her children tortured to death, it must be admitted that devout reason is sovereign over the emotions. 2Thus I have demonstrated not only that men have ruled over the emotions, but also that a woman has despised the fiercest tortures. 3The lions surrounding Daniel were not so savage, nor was the raging fiery furnace of Mishael so intensely hot, as was her innate parental love, inflamed as she saw her seven sons tortured in such varied ways.
\n4But the mother quenched so many and such great emotions by devout reason. 5Consider this also: If this woman, though a mother, had been fainthearted, she would have mourned over them and perhaps spoken as follows: 6\u201cO how wretched am I and many times unhappy! After bearing seven children, I am now the mother of none! 7O seven childbirths all in vain, seven profitless pregnancies, fruitless nurturings and wretched nursings! 8In vain, my sons, I endured many birth pangs for you, and the more grievous anxieties of your upbringing. 9Alas for my children, some unmarried, others married and without offspring. I shall not see your children or have the happiness of being called grandmother.
\n10Alas, I who had so many and beautiful children am a widow and alone, with many sorrows. 11And when I die, I shall have none of my sons to bury me.\u201d 12Yet that holy and God-fearing mother did not wail with such a lament for any of them, nor did she dissuade any of them from dying, nor did she grieve as they were dying. 13On the contrary, as though having a mind like adamant and giving rebirth for immortality to the whole number of her sons, she implored them and urged them on to death for the sake of religion. 14O mother, soldier of God in the cause of religion, elder and woman! By steadfastness you have conquered even a tyrant, and in word and deed you have proved more powerful than a man. 15For when you and your sons were arrested together, you stood and watched Eleazar being tortured, and said to your sons in the Hebrew language,
\n16\u201cMy sons, noble is the contest to which you are called to bear witness for the nation. Fight zealously for our ancestral law. 17For it would be shameful if, while an aged man endures such agonies for the sake of religion, you young men were to be terrified by tortures. 18Remember that it is through God that you have had a share in the world and have enjoyed life, 19and therefore you ought to endure any suffering for the sake of God. 20For his sake also our father Abraham was zealous to sacrifice his son Isaac [Gen. 22:10], the ancestor of our nation; and when Isaac saw his father\u2019s hand wielding a knife and descending upon him, he did not cower. 21Daniel the righteous was thrown to the lions [Dan. 6], and Hananiah, Azariah, and Mishael were hurled into the fiery furnace and endured it for the sake of God [Dan. 3].
\n22You too must have the same faith in God and not be grieved. 23It is unreasonable for people who have religious knowledge not to withstand pain.\u201d 24By these words the mother of the seven encouraged and persuaded each of her sons to die rather than violate God\u2019s commandment. 25They knew also that those who die for the sake of God live to God, as do Abraham and Isaac and Jacob and all the patriarchs [Exod. 3:6].
\n17:1Some of the guards said that when she also was about to be seized and put to death she threw herself into the flames so that no one might touch her body. 2O mother, who with your seven sons nullified the violence of the tyrant, frustrated his evil designs, and showed the courage of your faith! 3Nobly set like a roof on the pillars of your sons, you held firm and unswerving against the earthquake of the tortures. 4Take courage, therefore, O holy-minded mother, maintaining firm an enduring hope in God. 5The moon in heaven, with the stars, does not stand so august as you, who, after lighting the way of your star-like seven sons to piety, stand in honor before God and are firmly set in heaven with them [Dan. 12:3?]. 6For your children were true descendants of father Abraham. 7If it were possible for us to paint the history of your religion as an artist might, would not those who first beheld it have shuddered as they saw the mother of the seven children enduring their varied tortures to death for the sake of religion? 8Indeed it would be proper to inscribe on their tomb these words as a reminder to the people of our nation:
\n9\u201cHere lie buried an aged priest and an aged woman and seven sons, because of the violence of the tyrant who wished to destroy the way of life of the Hebrews. 10They vindicated their nation, looking to God and enduring torture even to death.\u201d 11Truly the contest in which they were engaged was divine, 12for on that day virtue gave the awards and tested them for their endurance. The prize was immortality in endless life. 13Eleazar was the first contestant, the mother of the seven sons entered the competition, and the brothers contended. 14The tyrant was the antagonist, and the world and the human race were the spectators. 15Reverence for God was victor and gave the crown to its own athletes. 16Who did not admire the athletes of the divine legislation? Who were not amazed? 17The tyrant himself and all his council marveled at their endurance, 18because of which they now stand before the divine throne and live the life of eternal blessedness. 19For Moses says, \u201cAll who are consecrated are under your hands.\u201d [Deut. 33:3]
\n20These, then, who have been consecrated for the sake of God, are honored, not only with this honor, but also by the fact that because of them our enemies did not rule over our nation, 21the tyrant was punished, and the homeland purified\u2014they having become, as it were, a ransom for the sin of our nation. 22And through the blood of those devout ones and their death as an atoning sacrifice, divine Providence preserved Israel that previously had been mistreated. 23For the tyrant Antiochus, when he saw the courage of their virtue and their endurance under the tortures, proclaimed them to his soldiers as an example for their own endurance, 24and this made them brave and courageous for infantry battle and siege, and he ravaged and conquered all his enemies.
\n18:1O Israelite children, offspring of the seed of Abraham, obey this law and exercise piety in every way, 2knowing that devout reason is master of all emotions, not only of sufferings from within, but also of those from without. 3Therefore those who gave over their bodies in suffering for the sake of religion were not only admired by mortals, but also were deemed worthy to share in a divine inheritance. 4Because of them the nation gained peace, and by reviving observance of the law in the homeland they ravaged the enemy. 5The tyrant Antiochus was both punished on earth and is being chastised after his death. Since in no way whatever was he able to compel the Israelites to become pagans and to abandon their ancestral customs, he left Jerusalem and marched against the Persians.
\n6The mother of seven sons expressed also these principles to her children 7\u201cI was a pure virgin and did not go outside my father\u2019s house; but I guarded the rib from which woman was made [Gen. 2:22].
\n8No seducer corrupted me on a desert plain, nor did the destroyer, the deceitful serpent [Gen. 3:1\u20137], defile the purity of my virginity. 9In the time of my maturity I remained with my husband, and when these sons had grown up their father died. A happy man was he, who lived out his life with good children, and did not have the grief of bereavement. 10While he was still with you, he taught you the law and the prophets. 11He read to you about Abel slain by Cain [Gen. 4:8], and Isaac who was offered as a burnt offering [Gen. 22], and about Joseph in prison [Gen. 39:7\u201323]. 12He told you of the zeal of Phinehas [Num. 25:7\u201313], and he taught you about Hananiah, Azariah, and Mishael in the fire [Dan. 3]. 13He praised Daniel in the den of the lions [Dan. 6] and blessed him. 14He reminded you of the scripture of Isaiah, which says, \u2018Even though you go through the fire, the flame shall not consume you\u2019 [Isa. 43:2]. 15He sang to you songs of the psalmist David, who said, \u2018Many are the afflictions of the righteous\u2019 [Ps. 34:19 (LXX, 33:20)]. 16He recounted to you Solomon\u2019s proverb, \u2018There is a tree of life for those who do his will\u2019 [Prov. 3:18]. 17He confirmed the query of Ezekiel, \u2018Shall these dry bones live?\u2019 [Ezek. 37:2\u20133] 18For he did not forget to teach you the song that Moses taught, which says, 19\u2018I kill and I make alive: this is your life and the length of your days.\u2019 [Deut. 32:39, 47; 30:20]\u201d
\n20O bitter was that day\u2014and yet not bitter\u2014when that bitter tyrant of the Greeks quenched fire with fire in his cruel caldrons, and in his burning rage brought those seven sons of the daughter of Abraham to the catapult and back again to more tortures, 21pierced the pupils of their eyes and cut out their tongues, and put them to death with various tortures.
\n41Last of all, the mother died, after her sons. 42Let this be enough, then, about the eating of sacrifices and the extreme tortures.
\n22For these crimes divine justice pursued and will pursue the accursed tyrant. 23 But the sons of Abraham with their victorious mother are gathered together into the chorus of the fathers, and have received pure and immortal souls from God, 24to whom be glory forever and ever. Amen.<\/p>\n
Reading these two accounts of the seven brothers and their mother, it becomes apparent that the author of 4 Maccabees has taken some liberties when using this account to serve his theological-philosophical goal rather than attempting to giving a \u201chistorically-accurate\u201d account of the events and dialogues that took place. This being the case, it also brings into question the historical accuracy of the dialogues in 2 Maccabees 7. Could the author of 2 Maccabees also have been driven by a larger theological agenda which would have shaped his account of the events? Is it even possible for a theological-philosophical text to be completely historically accurate? Would the theological-philosophical argument be weakened if the author treats the account of the events too freely? Does it even matter if the events and the dialogues described by the author even took place?
\nThe most significant difference between these two versions of the story is the view of the afterlife. Table 10 outlines the view presented in 2 Maccabees 7 and 4 Maccabees 8\u201318. It is organized according to the dialogues, bolded text states the reward of the martyr\/righteous while the italicized text states the destiny of the tyrant\/wicked.<\/p>\n
Table 10. The final destiny of the righteous and the wicked in 2 Maccabees 7 and 4 Maccabees 8\u201318<\/p>\n
2 Maccabees 7
\n4 Maccabees 8\u201318
\nMartyrs\/Righteous vs. Tyrant\/Wicked
\nMartyrs\/Righteous vs. Tyrant\/Wicked
\nIntroduction
\n\u2022 Because of our religion, do not suppose that you can injure us by torturing us (9:7)
\n\u2022 They will gain the prize of virtue and be with God (9:8)
\n\u2022 Eternal torment by fire (9:9)
\nFirst Brother
\n\u2022 Compassion on his servants (v. 6)
\n\u2022 Martyrdom \u2192 immortality (9:22)
\nSecond Brother
\n\u2022 Will be raised up to an everlasting renewal of life (v. 9)
\n\u2022 Will be judged and receive the divine wrath (9:32)
\nThird Brother
\n\u2022 I hope to get my limps back again (v. 11)
\n\u2022 Their body can be tortured but the soul cannot be touched (10:4)
\n\u2022 Will undergo unceasing torments (10:11)
\nFourth Brother
\n\u2022 Will be raised by God again (v. 14a)
\n\u2022 No resurrection to life for the wicked (v. 14b)
\n\u2022 Everlasting life of the pious (10:15b)
\n\u2022 Eternal destruction (10:15a)
\nFifth Brother
\n\u2022 God\u2019s mighty power will torture you and your descendants (v. 17)
\n\u2022 Will incur punishment form the heavenly justice for the crimes (11:3)
\nSixth Brother
\n\u2022 Don\u2019t think God will not punish those who have tried to fight him (v. 19)
\n\u2022 The brother himself will bring a great avenger upon him if killed (11:23)
\nMother\u2019s Speech I
\n\u2022 God in his mercy will give life and breath back to her sons (v. 23)
\n\u2022 In God\u2019s mercy, she may get him and her other sons back again (v. 29)
\n\u2022 The brothers have drunk of ever-flowing life (v. 36)
\nMother\u2019s speech II Seventh Brother
\n\u2022 Will certainly not escape the hands of God (v. 31)
\n\u2022 Not escape the judgment of the almighty all-seeing God (v. 35)
\n\u2022 By the judgment of God, he will receive just punishment for his arrogance (v. 36)
\n\u2022 Justice has laid up for him an intense and eternal fire and tortures, and these throughout all times will never let him go (12:12)
\n\u2022 God will take vengeance both in this present life and when dead (12:18)
\nPhilosophical Remarks
\n\u2022 If they so die, Abraham and Isaac and Jacob will welcome them, and all the fathers will praise them (13:17)
\n\u2022 Running the course toward immortality (14:5)
\n\u2022 Religion that preserves them for eternal life according to God\u2019s promise (15:3)
\n\u2022 She disregarded all these deaths because of faith in God (15:24)
\n\u2022 Giving rebirth for immortality imploring them onto death (16:13)
\n\u2022 Those who die for the sake of God live to God, as do Abraham and Isaac and Jacob and all the patriarchs (16:25)
\n\u2022 Star-like seven sons to piety stand in honor before God and are firmly set in heaven with them (17:5)
\n\u2022 Prize was immortality in endless life (17:12)
\n\u2022 Reverence for God was victory and gave the crown to its own athletes (17:15)
\n\u2022 Deemed worthy to share in a divine inheritance (18:3)
\n\u2022 Great struggle of the soul and the danger of eternal torment lying before those who transgress the commandment of God (13:15)
\n\u2022 Punished on earth and is being chastised after his death (18:5)
\nConclusion
\n\u2022 Gathered together into the chorus of the fathers, and have received pure and immortal souls from God (18:23)
\n\u2022 Divine justice pursued and will pursue the accursed tyrant (18:22)<\/p>\n
Comparing these two accounts of the final destiny of the righteous and the wicked, it becomes clear that the main emphasis of the author of 4 Maccabees seems to be the reward in store for the righteous (see the Introduction and Philosophical Remark section). Similarly, it should also be noted that the mother\u2019s two speeches in 2 Maccabees 7 also focuses on the reward in store for the righteous.
\nThe most significant change relevant for this study is the systematic modification made to the dialogues, turning the martyrdom account in 2 Maccabees from a bodily resurrection text into an account which has no need for a resurrection since the soul of the righteous and the wicked receives its deserved destiny upon death. Hugh Anderson observes: \u201cHis [the author\u2019s] espousal of the Greek doctrine of the immortality of the soul is clear-cut and striking; he consistently omits the passages in his primary source, 2 Maccabees, that testify unreservedly to the Jewish belief in the resurrection of the body (7:9, 11, 14, 22f.).\u201d
\nIn the introduction section of this martyr account (4 Macc. 8:1\u20139:10), the author makes plain the two destinies in store for everyone when he states:<\/p>\n
If you can take our lives for the sake of our religion, do not think you can harm us with your torments. By our suffering and endurance we shall obtain the prize of virtue and shall be with God, on whose account we suffer. But you, because of our foul murder, will suffer at the hand of divine justice the everlasting torment by fire you deserve. (4 Macc. 9:7\u20139)<\/p>\n
The author is clear that this life is not all there is, death is not final, and those who are righteous will receive their reward and be with God while those who are wicked will be tormented by an everlasting fire. This is the main framework of God\u2019s theodicy. The other \u201cresurrection\u201d passages expand and add a few more details.
\nCommenting on the torture sequence of the first brother, the author may have had the refiner\u2019s fire on the day of judgment (Mal. 3:2\u20133) in mind when stating that this brother was stoic throughout the torture \u201cas though he were being transformed into incorruption by the fire\u201d (4 Macc. 9:22). This suggests that the transition from this life to life after death will be instantaneous, which is further supported by the author\u2019s report that instead of being filled with grief by the death of her sons, the mother \u201cimplored them and urged them on to death for the sake of religion\u201d as if she was \u201cgiving rebirth for immortality to the whole number of her sons\u201d (4 Macc. 16:13). She saw only two roads before her sons (15:2, 26)\u2014one would give them instant deliverance, but would be short-lived, since it would ultimately lead to eternal death (15:3, 27), while the other would uphold piety but would lead to instant death. However, this road would preserve them \u201cto eternal life according to God\u2019s word\u201d (15:3).
\nSeveral passages liken the trials experienced by the martyrs to a race in which a great reward is in store for them if they persevere (4 Macc. 9:8; 14:5, 6; 17:12; 18:3, 23), one of these states: \u201cbut all, as though running on the highway to immortality, hurried on to death by torture \u2026 as if impelled by the deathless soul of piety\u201d (14:5, 6). The author also notes that \u201cthe world and the life of men were the spectators\u201d (17:14). Other passages emphasize the invulnerable nature of the soul of the righteous. The tyrant may think he can harm them (9:7; 13:14), but they cannot touch their soul (10:4) since they will be receiving the reward of immortality (9:8; 13:17).
\nThe author\u2019s celebration of the mother notes that her \u201chope of endurance is secure with God (4 Macc. 17:4), likening her to the moon in heaven among her star-like sons (17:5), an image alluded to Dan. 12:3 (see highlighted words in gray).<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees 17:5
\nDaniel 12:3
\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u02bc \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u1f04\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f7a \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f30\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f11\u03c0\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b1\u1fd6\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03ad\u03b2\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u1f14\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03ba\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1ff7
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b9\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c7\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f61\u03c3\u03b5\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2
\nNot so much has the moon in heaven among the stars been made to stand as revered as you, who lit the path toward piety for the seven star-like children, have been made to stand honored in God\u2019s presence and firmly fixed with them in the heavens.
\nAnd the wise shall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and some of the many righteous as the stars of heaven for ever and ever.<\/p>\n
This statement fully acknowledges the role the mother played in helping her sons by \u201clighting the way of piety\u201d for them. Thus, she will also be honored by God by being \u201cfirmly set in heaven\u201d (4 Macc. 17:5).
\nThe author of 4 Maccabees notes that the endurance, demonstrated by the brothers during their torment, even impressed the tyrant. Their perseverance and loyalty to God\u2019s Torah gave them victory \u201con account of which they now stand before the divine throne and live throughout the blessed eternity\u201d (4 Macc. 17:18). This assurance of a life after death is supported by quoting Deut. 33:3 (highlighted in gray):<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees 17:17\u201321
\nDeuteronomy 33:3
\n17\u0391\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u03b3\u03ad \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f41 \u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03b8\u03b1\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae\u03bd 18\u03b4\u03b9\u02bc \u1f23\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1ff3 \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b2\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1 19\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f41 \u039c\u03c9\u03c5\u03c3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f21\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03ac\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5. 20\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u1f01\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b4\u03b9\u02bc \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b5\u03bc\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 21\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03c9\u03c1\u03b7\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c6\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03b1\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f21\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03ac\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c3\u03ad \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03b4\u03ad\u03be\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6
\n17Even the tyrant himself and the whole council admired their moral excellence and endurance, 18on account of which they now stand before the divine throne and live throughout the blessed eternity. 19For indeed Moses says, \u201cAnd all the sanctified are under your hand.\u201d 20And they themselves, then, having been sanctified {on account of God} have been honored not only with this honor, but also in that, on account of them, the enemies did not conquer our nation, 21and the tyrant was punished, and the homeland purified, they having become, as it were, a life-in-exchange for the sin of the nation
\nAnd he spared his people, and all his sanctified ones are under thy hands; and they are under thee; and he received of his words<\/p>\n
The author notes that all God\u2019s sanctified are in His hands, supporting the claim that the brothers are now with God. Importantly, their death is also viewed as having a redemptive function for the people of Israel. Their righteous death prevented their nation from being conquered, the tyrant was punished, and their homeland was purified. Their deaths functioned as an atonement for the sins of the nations. Thus, he states: \u201cthey have become, as it were, a life-in-exchange for the sin of the nation\u201d (4 Macc. 17:21).<\/p>\n
(1) Mother\u2019s Speech to Her Sons. In the mother\u2019s speech to her sons (4 Macc. 18:6\u201319), she expresses key life principles and provides a summary of the crucial teaching her deceased husband had taught them from the Law and the Prophets while growing up, which would be of special comfort to them now when they were facing martyrdom. The first part of her husband\u2019s teaching (4 Macc. 18:10\u201313) contains a list of six examples from the Law and the book of Daniel, which have great relevance for the situation they were facing. Table 11 lists the six examples with a suggested explanation for how this specific narrative could be helpful to observe.<\/p>\n
Table 11. Helpful examples to remember (4 Macc. 18:11\u201313)<\/p>\n
v. 11
\nAbel slain by Cain
\nGen. 4:1\u20136, 8
\nAbel represents the pious whose gift is accepted by God. This story also represents the hostility experienced by those who please God, which may even lead to death.
\nIsaac offered as a burnt offering
\nGen. 22:1\u201319
\nIsaac was willing to be sacrificed as a burnt offering, in order to be loyal to God. God saved his life and gained the promises.
\nJoseph in prison
\nGen. 39:7\u201323; 40:3
\nJoseph refused to commit adultery, which ultimately led to his imprisonment. However, he was later greatly rewarded by God.
\nv. 12
\nZeal of Phineas
\nNum. 25:6\u201313
\nPhineas actively addressed the problem of idolatry and assimilation among the people of Israel thereby ending God\u2019s wrath. God blessed him by giving him and his descendants the priesthood.
\nHananiah, Azariah, and Mishael in the fire
\nDan. 3:1\u201330
\nDaniel\u2019s friends would rather die than worship an idol (Dan. 3:18). They were loyal to God in the face of certain death. God saved them miraculously and they received great rewards from the king.
\nv. 13
\nDaniel in the lion\u2019s den
\nDan. 6:1\u201328
\nDaniel continued to bring his requests to God despite the prohibition that only the king could receive such requests. He was willing to die in order to stay loyal to God. God saved him and he was richly rewarded by the king.<\/p>\n
The second part of her husband\u2019s teaching gives a list of five quotes from the Septuagint. deSilva observes that this list of quotations is not random. He writes, \u201cThe order of the quotations appears to be not haphazard but highly significant, as the author builds up a \u2018case\u2019 on the strength of written authorities that would support a person facing, and choosing, endurance of hardship for the sake of covenant loyalty.\u201d A reader will note that these texts support the view of an afterlife. deSilva also provides a detailed discussion of these five quotations\u2014the following brief comments summarize his main observations. To help the reader better understand the immediate context of these five quotes, the quoted section of the verse is highlighted in gray, while words missing from the quoted verse are bolded in the text. The first link in the chain is Isa. 43:2.<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees 18:14
\nIsaiah 43:2
\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bc\u03af\u03bc\u03bd\u1fc3\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f51\u03bc \u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u0397\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u039a\u1f02\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ad\u03bb\u03b8\u1fc3\u03c2, \u03c6\u03bb\u1f78\u03be \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c3\u03b5.
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u1fc3\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u02bc \u1f55\u03b4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03ba\u03bb\u03cd\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03bd \u03c3\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ad\u03bb\u03b8\u1fc3\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c5\u03b8\u1fc7\u03c2 \u03c6\u03bb\u1f78\u03be \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c3\u03b5.
\nAnd he would call to mind also the writings of Isaiah that says, \u201cEven if you pass through fire, a flame will not consume you.\u201d
\nAnd if thou pass through water, I am with thee; and the rivers shall not overflow thee: and if thou go through fire, thou shalt not be burned; the flame shall not burn thee.<\/p>\n
It should be noted that the author of 4 Maccabees has made some subtle changes to the quoted text. The most obvious change is the words that are left out, which are bolded in the text. A second difference is the word order, the words \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2, \u201cthrough fire,\u201d in the phrase \u03b4\u03b9\u03ad\u03bb\u03b8\u1fc3\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 in Isaiah has been changed to \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ad\u03bb\u03b8\u1fc3\u03c2 in 4 Maccabees, possibly for the sake of emphasis. This verse recalls the fifth example in the first part of the husband\u2019s teaching (4 Macc. 18:12), regarding Hananiah, Azariah, and Mishael who were faced with certain death by an all-consuming fire, yet, by God\u2019s direct intervention, they walked through the fire without being burned and survived. Afterward they received great rewards from the pagan king. Thus, the mother of the seven sons, by recollecting their father\u2019s teaching, ensures them that if they stay loyal to God, they will also be saved \u201cfrom the fire and be preserved for eternal life in God\u2019s presence.\u201d deSilva concludes with this comment on the first link: \u201cThe catena, then, begins with a verse that acknowledges the reality of the fiery trials that come even upon the faithful, but also gives assurance that, in some sense, those fiery trials do not threaten the ultimate integrity of the faithful person\u2019s being, which is kept by God.\u201d
\nThe second link in the chain is Ps. 34:20, which also makes an association with the first part of the father\u2019s teaching. Isaac, Joseph, Hananiah, Azariah, Mishael, and Daniel were all faced with trials, which confronted them with a life or death situation. However, they were all delivered by God from their dire situations.<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees 18:15
\nPsalm 34:20
\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u1ff4\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u0394\u03b1\u03c5\u03b9\u03b4 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03a0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f31 \u03b8\u03bb\u03af\u03c8\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd.
\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f31 \u03b8\u03bb\u03af\u03c8\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1fe5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2
\nHe would sing to you David the psalmist who said, \u201cMany are the trials of the just.\u201d
\nMany are the afflictions of the righteous: but out of them all Lord will deliver them.<\/p>\n
Although the author of 4 Maccabees does not cite the entire verse, most devout Jews of that period would probably have been able to finish this stanza of the psalm in their minds: \u201cbut out of them all Lord will deliver them.\u201d Psalm 34 presents a God of justice, who will deliver the righteous and will punish and destroy the wicked by erasing all memory of them upon the earth (Ps. 34:16), a very comforting message indeed to a person who is facing an imminent death by the hands of the wicked. deSilva makes the following important observation: \u201cThis logic leads the listener to firmly anticipate God\u2019s rescue of the righteous in one form (temporal safety) or another (reward beyond death), explicating God as the source of the guarantee made by Isaiah (the rescue from fire) and thereby focusing attention on maintaining one\u2019s relationship with God inviolable as the path to deliverance.\u201d
\nThe third link in the chain is Prov. 3:18, which describes Wisdom as a tree of life (\u03be\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2) for those who possess her.<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees 18:16
\nProverbs 3:18
\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a3\u03b1\u03bb\u03c9\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03b6\u03b5\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u039e\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1.
\n\u03be\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u02bc \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c3\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae\u03c2
\nHe made proverbial [the saying of] Solomon, who said \u201cThere [or, He] is a tree of life for the ones who keep doing His will.\u201d
\nShe is a tree of life to all that lay hold upon her; and she is a secure help to all that stay themselves on her, as on the Lord.<\/p>\n
The phrase \u201ca tree of life,\u201d \u03be\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2, appears only in one additional passage apart from these two cases. It is in Rev. 22:2, which describes the New Jerusalem in the world to come. It should be noted that the definite form of this phrase, \u201cthe tree of life,\u201d \u03c4\u1f78 \u03be\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2 (Gen. 2:9; Rev. 22:14) and \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03be\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2 (Gen. 3:22, 24; Isa. 65:22; Rev. 2:7; 22:19), also appear in either the Eden Narrative (Gen. 2\u20133) or when describing the New Jerusalem and the New Earth. Apart from Gen. 2:9, the focus of the Eden Narrative is that humans should not have access to it due to their rebellion, however, one of the rewards for the righteous is to regain access to it. Therefore, there is a strong association between the wisdom in Prov. 3:18 and the tree of life in the Garden of Eden and in the New Jerusalem. In the larger context of Proverbs 3 and the introduction of the book, a strong association is made between following God\u2019s instruction and fearing God and gaining wisdom: \u201cThe fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom\u201d (Prov. 1:7, LXE). The association between wisdom and adhering to God\u2019s Torah is already seen in the Wisdom of Sirach: \u201cThe fear of the Lord is all wisdom; and in all wisdom is the performance of the law, and the knowledge of his omnipotency\u201d (Sir. 19:20, KJA; cf. Sir. 1:26; 24:23). An association between the tree of life and God\u2019s instructions is attested in the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on Gen. 3:24 and in Pirkei Avot 6:7. In 4 Macc. 18:6, the author states that there is a tree of life, i.e. a future place in the world to come, for those who keep on doing God\u2019s will, i.e. who follow God\u2019s Torah. Thus, the mother of the seven sons encourages them to stay true to God\u2019s Torah, even if they will suffer death, since there is a tree of life in store for them on the other side.
\nThe fourth link in the chain is Ezek. 37:2\u20133, which describes Ezekiel\u2019s vision of the valley of the bones, a text most often associated with a bodily resurrection. deSilva states: \u201cthe author comes close to making room for the resurrection of the dead in his discourse, which is even muted here in deference to the author\u2019s predilection for speaking instead of the immortality of the soul.\u201d<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees 18:17
\nEzekiel 37:2\u20133
\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0399\u03b5\u03b6\u03b5\u03ba\u03b9\u03b7\u03bb \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u0395\u1f30 \u03b6\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f40\u03c3\u03c4\u1fb6 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03be\u03b7\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1;
\n2\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03ae\u03b3\u03b1\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5 \u1f10\u03c0\u02bc \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03c5\u03ba\u03bb\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03cd\u03ba\u03bb\u1ff3, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f30\u03b4\u03bf\u1f7a \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c6\u03cc\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b5\u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03be\u03b7\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c6\u03cc\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1
\n3\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5 \u03a5\u1f31\u1f72 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5, \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b6\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f40\u03c3\u03c4\u1fb6 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1; \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b1 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03b5 \u03c3\u1f7a \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc3 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1
\nHe used to confirm Ezekiel, who said: \u201cwill these dry bones live?\u201d
\n2And he led me round about them every way: and, behold, there were very many on the face of the plain, very dry.
\n3And he said to me, Son of man, will these bones live? and I said, O Lord God, thou knowest this.<\/p>\n
The principal part of the quote comes from the question asked in Ezek. 37:3 (highlighted in gray) with a minor addition from the preceding verse (underlined text). Again, these words are meant as encouragement for her seven sons. Even when they only see death around them and see no hope, like the dry bones, there is still hope. God has not forgotten them, and death is not the end, as God will give them eternal life. The conclusion of Ezekiel\u2019s vision declares:<\/p>\n
Look how they say, \u201cOur bones are dried up, and our hope has perished; we are cut off.\u201d 12Therefore, prophesy and say to them: This is what the Lord GOD says: I am going to open your graves and bring you up from them, My people, and lead you into the land of Israel. 13You will know that I am the LORD, My people, when I open your graves and bring you up from them. 14I will put My Spirit in you, and you will live, and I will settle you in your own land. Then you will know that I am the LORD. I have spoken, and I will do it. (Ezek. 37:11\u201314, CSB)<\/p>\n
The fifth and final link in the chain is the Song of Moses (Deut. 32:1\u201343), which functions as the climax to their father\u2019s teaching and provides their ultimate encouragement by giving a deeper meaning and purpose to their martyrdom. Much like Isaac\u2019s willingness to be obedient until death, Joseph staying true to his father\u2019s teaching as a result experiencing suffering, or the show of loyalty of the three friends, this demonstration of their commitment to God and his Torah brought great blessing to the people of Israel.<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees 18:18\u201319
\nDeuteronomy 32:39, 47; 30:20 (LXT\/LXE)
\n18 \u1fa0\u03b4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1, \u1f23\u03bd \u1f10\u03b4\u03af\u03b4\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd \u039c\u03c9\u03c5\u03c3\u1fc6\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd
\n19 \u0388\u03b3\u1f7c \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u1ff6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9, \u03b1\u1f55\u03c4\u03b7 \u1f21 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd.
\n\u1f34\u03b4\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f34\u03b4\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u1ff6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03be\u03c9 \u03ba\u1f00\u03b3\u1f7c \u1f30\u03ac\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f43\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5
\n\u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7\u1f76 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f55\u03c4\u03b7 \u1f21 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f15\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f23\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0399\u03bf\u03c1\u03b4\u03ac\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03ae\u03bd
\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u1f21 \u03b6\u03c9\u03ae \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c3\u03b5 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f27\u03c2 \u1f64\u03bc\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u0391\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b1\u03bc \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0399\u03c3\u03b1\u03b1\u03ba \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0399\u03b1\u03ba\u03c9\u03b2 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2
\n18 For he did not neglect teaching you the song which Moses taught, that says,
\n19 \u201cI will kill and I will cause to live. This is your life and the length of days.\u201d
\nBehold, behold that I am he, and there is no god beside me: I kill, and I will make to live: I will smite, and I will heal; and there is none who shall deliver out of my hands.
\nFor this is no vain word to you; for it is your life, and because of this word ye shall live long upon the land, into which ye go over Jordan to inherit it.
\nto love the Lord thy God, to hearken to his voice, and cleave to him; for this is thy life, and the length of thy days, that thou shouldest dwell upon the land, which the Lord sware to thy fathers, Abraam, and Isaac, and Jacob, to give to them.<\/p>\n
The Song of Moses reveals the history of Israel, with its ups and downs, but it concludes with a message of hope for the people of Israel. The first part of the quote is taken from Deut. 32:29 (highlighted in gray), the middle section is quoting from Deut. 32:47 and Deut. 30:20 (bolded text), while the final section is taken from Deut. 30:20 (underlined text). deSilva indicates that the word order of the first part of the quote is highly significant, suggesting that the author understood them as \u201ca temporal sequence rather than merely as a balanced expression of God\u2019s power to give life and take away life: \u2018I kill and [then] I make alive\u2019 becomes support for the belief in the resurrection of the martyred faithful.\u201d This is the final reason the mother of the seven sons gives for why they have nothing to fear. Even if they do die in the fire, as long as they stay true to God\u2019s Torah, he will deliver them. Thus, there will be a tree of life for them, a future eternity. The reference to Deut. 32:47 and 30:20 emphasizes the message that their loyalty to God and His Torah will bring them life and length of days, once more suggesting that there will be life after death. It should be noted that the author understood the last two quotes to go beyond the literal land of Israel. Rather, he considers the promised land as a reference to the World to Come, as noted by deSilva: \u201c \u2018life and length of days\u2019 is no longer limited to \u2018living in the land\u2019 located across the Jordan, but transferred to immortal life in the presence of God.\u201d<\/p>\n
c. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
Although the author of 4 Maccabees has gone to great lengths to amend the account of the martyrdom of the seven sons and their mother in 2 Maccabees 7, to remove the bodily resurrection hope by replacing it with an instant reward for the soul upon death, the speech of encouragement given to her sons at the conclusion of the book still hints at a bodily resurrection. Interestingly, it could be argued that the father\u2019s teachings to his sons, as summarized by the mother, could also be used to support a universal eschatological resurrection. The following figure (Fig. 4) gives an overview of the death and afterlife view presented in 4 Maccabees. The eternal destiny of a person is based on the present life, if he\/she has conquered his\/her passion by making piety their primary concern (4 Macc. 7:18). Following the point of death, the soul parts from the body to receive either eternal reward (9:8; 10:15b) or eternal punishment (9:9; 10:15a), which would imply a personal judgment. Thus, the author of 4 Maccabees does not need an eschatological universal judgment or bodily resurrection to solve the question of theodicy.<\/p>\n
Figure 4. Death and Resurrection in 4 Maccabees<\/p>\n
2. Pseudo-Phocylides<\/p>\n
Pseudo-Phocylides was written in Greek by an unknown Hellenistic Jewish poet who may have lived in Alexandria, sometime between 50 BCE and 50 CE. This book contains a 230-line long didactic Wisdom poem, a gnomology. The poem contains a \u201cmixture of biblical and nonbiblical ethical rules,\u201d with the purpose \u201cto make clear that biblical and Greek ethics are not incompatible\u201d since \u201ceven the famous Phocylides propagated biblical ethics.\u201d Walter T. Wilson suggests that these maxims are not randomly presented but are grouped into the following topical paragraphs:<\/p>\n
1\u20132 Prologue
\n3\u20138 Summary of the Decalogue
\n9\u201321 Exhortations to Justice
\n22\u201341 Admonitions to Mercy
\n42\u201347 Love of Money and its Consequences
\n48\u201358 Honesty, Modesty, and Self-Control
\n59\u201369 Moderation in All Things
\n70\u201396 The Danger of Envy and Other Vices
\n97\u2013115 Death and After-life
\n116\u2013121 The Instability of Life
\n122\u2013131 Speech and Wisdom, Man\u2019s Distinction
\n132\u2013152 Avoidance of Wickedness and Virtuous Life
\n153\u2013174 The Usefulness of Labour
\n175\u2013227 Marriage, Chastity and Family Life
\nEpilogue<\/p>\n
a. Death and Afterlife (Ps.-Phoc. 97\u2013115)<\/p>\n
Van der Horst has observed that most scholars find the death and afterlife section of this poem (Ps.-Phoc. 97\u2013115) difficult to interpret since there seems to be more than one view presented on the afterlife. The text seems to present a bodily resurrection view (103\u2013104) while, at the same time, it states that the soul is immortal (115). Scholars also debate the relationship between body (\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1), soul (\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76), and spirit (\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1), whether the poet held a tripartite (body\u2013soul\u2013spirit) or a bipartite (body\u2013soul\/spirit) anthropological view.
\nThis section of the poem begins with a set of instructions regarding proper mourning and burial practices (Ps.-Phoc. 97\u2013102), noting that one should mourn in moderation (97\u201398) and show proper respect for the dead, by emphasizing the importance of proper burial and noting that divine anger would be stirred up against whoever would disturb the deceased by digging up their grave and unearthing the dead (99\u2013101). The poet states that \u201cit is not good to dissolve the human frame\u201d (102), perhaps referring to the practice of exhuming and dissecting cadavers in Alexandria for the purpose of anatomical research. However, the poet may be warning against corpse desecration in general, or perhaps he was alluding to the Palestinian practice of secondary burial during late Second Temple period Judaism, in which the dead were initially placed in a burial cave while the flesh decomposed in order for the bones of the deceased to be collected and placed in an ossuary at a later time. The next two lines of the poem (Ps.-Phoc. 103\u2013104) provide the underlying rationale for why corpses should be respected and for the instruction that dead loved ones should not be mourned excessively.<\/p>\n
Verses 103\u2013104<\/p>\n
103 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1 \u03b4\u02bc \u1f10\u03ba \u03b3\u03b1\u03af\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03c2 \u03c6\u03ac\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd 104 \u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03c8\u03b1\u03bd\u02bc \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f40\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03b8\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9.
\n103\u2013104a For in fact we hope that the remains of the departed will perhaps come to the light again out of the earth. 104bAnd afterwards they become gods.<\/p>\n
These two lines (Ps.-Phoc. 103\u2013104a) present a bodily resurrection hope (highlighted in gray) in which the very remains of the dead will once more come to light, \u201cout of the earth.\u201d In other words, the corpses need to be treated with respect because, due to a belief in a bodily resurrection, the body will be needed in the future. The Greek adverb \u03c4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1, based on the larger context, could either be translated as \u201cperhaps, possibly, probably\u201d (cf. Wis. 13:6; 14:19; Rom. 5:7; Phil. 1:15) or \u201csoon\u201d (as used in Classical Greek writing from Herodotus down). Collins argues for the former (\u03c4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1 = \u201cperhaps\u201d), emphasizing the hope aspect of the statement, suggesting the poet may not have considered this future resurrection to be universal in nature, while Horst argues for the latter view (\u03c4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1 = \u201csoon\u201d), stressing the urgency and the strong conviction held by the poet in his resurrection hope.
\nFollowing the bodily resurrection, the poet states that they will become gods (Ps.-Phoc. 104b, bolded text). This seems to support a non-universal eschatological resurrection view since, if universal, both the righteous and the wicked would become gods, a view which was unprecedented in Second Temple period Jewish literature, since it would not solve the problem of theodicy. Instead, the poet must be describing the elevation of the righteous which will take place after the eschatological resurrection of the righteous, who will be elevated in a special way. This elevation, becoming gods, may be a variant of Dan. 12:3 and 1 En. 104:2\u20136 (where the righteous are elevated to heaven to become like stars, shining for all eternity), or become like or actually be companions of the angels. Perhaps it alludes to the Adam tradition, which suggests that God will grant Adam his wish to become god following his resurrection (T. Adam 3:3\u20135).
\nOne of the main questions of interpretation in the next four lines of the poem (Ps.-Phoc. 105\u2013108) is, does the poet present a tripartite (body\u2013soul\u2013spirit) or a bipartite (body\u2013soul\/spirit) anthropological view? Does the poet perceive \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76 (soul) and \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 (spirit) as synonyms, or as two different parts of a human being? The answer to this question will affect the overall understanding of \u201cthe death and afterlife\u201d section of this poem.<\/p>\n
Verses 105\u2013108<\/p>\n
105 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03bc\u03af\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03ba\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c6\u03b8\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd.
\n106 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c7\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b8\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd\u00b7
\n107 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03ba \u03b3\u03b1\u03af\u03b7\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u1f04\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f56 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd 108 \u03bb\u03c5\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f00\u1f74\u03c1 \u03b4\u02bc \u1f00\u03bd\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9.
\n105 For the souls remain unharmed among the dead.
\n106 For the spirit is a loan from God to mortals, and his image.
\n107 For we have a body out of earth, and when afterwards we are resolved 108 again into earth we are but dust; but the air has received our spirit.<\/p>\n
It is important to note that soul, spirit, and body are introduced in the same way by the author (noun\u2014conjunction), suggesting he viewed them as three separate entities: \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 (Ps.-Phoc. 105), \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 (106), and \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 (107). Upon death, the poem reveals the destiny of each entity.
\nRegarding the soul (\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76), this poem is unambiguous in its immortality of the soul view (Ps.-Phoc. 105, 115). However, the important question is what happens to the soul when the person dies. The author states that death will not affect the soul itself, noting it will remain unharmed (\u03bc\u03af\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03ba\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9), but it is not quite clear what he has in mind when he states that the soul remains unharmed \u1f10\u03bd \u03c6\u03b8\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd? Van der Horst seems to suggest that the soul will remain alive in the dead body. However, he acknowledges that his reading creates an inconsistency in the poem (he argues that the poet does not present a consistent view) when attempting to harmonize this statement with the latter statement, \u1f00\u1f74\u03c1 \u03b4\u02bc \u1f00\u03bd\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u201cbut the air has received our spirit\u201d (Ps.-Phoc. 108b), suggesting a different location for the soul\/spirit, assuming the author has used these two words as synonyms. According to Collins, a better translation of the phrase \u1f10\u03bd \u03c6\u03b8\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, is \u201camong the dead,\u201d suggesting the soul parts for Hades when a person dies, which seems to harmonize with the poet\u2019s description of Hades (Ps.-Phoc. 111\u2013113).
\nRegarding the Spirit (\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1), the poet reveals two important details. First, the Spirit is only on loan (\u03c7\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2) from God, as such, it will be returned to the lender upon death (Ps.-Phoc. 106). Second, the Spirit (\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1) is associated with God\u2019s image (\u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd). The idea that the Spirit is on loan from God is not a foreign concept in Judaism, it may derive from an interpretation of Gen. 2:7 and Gen. 6:3 and Eccl. 12:7 (see the highlighted keywords in the following texts).<\/p>\n
Ecclesiastes 12:7
\n(LXT\/WTT\/LXE)
\nGenesis 2:7
\n(LXT\/WTT\/LXE)
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c8\u1fc3 \u1f41 \u03c7\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f26\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c8\u1fc3 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd \u1f43\u03c2 \u1f14\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03c0\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03c7\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u1f74\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u1f41 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f74\u03bd \u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd
\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05d9\u05b8\u05e9\u05b9\u05c1\u05d1 \u05d4\u05b6\u05e2\u05b8\u05e4\u05b8\u05e8 \u05e2\u05b7\u05dc\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05e8\u05b6\u05e5 \u05db\u05b0\u05bc\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05d4\u05b8\u05d9\u05b8\u05d4
\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05d4\u05b8\u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7 \u05ea\u05b8\u05bc\u05e9\u05c1\u05d5\u05bc\u05d1 \u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05e8 \u05e0\u05b0\u05ea\u05b8\u05e0\u05b8\u05d4\u05bc\u05c3
\n\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05e6\u05b6\u05e8 \u05d9\u05b0\u05d4\u05d5\u05b8\u05d4 \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd \u05e2\u05b8\u05e4\u05b8\u05e8 \u05de\u05b4\u05df\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b2\u05d3\u05b8\u05de\u05b8\u05d4
\n\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05bc\u05e4\u05b7\u05bc\u05d7 \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05d0\u05b7\u05e4\u05b8\u05bc\u05d9\u05d5 \u05e0\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05b7\u05ea \u05d7\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dd
\n\u05d5\u05b7\u05bd\u05d9\u05b0\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd \u05dc\u05b0\u05e0\u05b6\u05e4\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d7\u05b7\u05d9\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4\u05c3
\nand the dust also return to the earth as it was, and the spirit return to God who gave it.
\nAnd God formed the man of dust of the earth, and breathed upon his face the breath of life, and the man became a living soul.<\/p>\n
In the Eden Narrative, the first human was created from the dust of the earth and the breath of life (\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u1f74\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2\/\u05e0\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05b7\u05ea \u05d7\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dd) from God, in order to become a living soul (\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f74\u03bd \u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\/\u05dc\u05b0\u05e0\u05b6\u05e4\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d7\u05b7\u05d9\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4). In Ecclesiastes, the \u201cbreath of life\u201d has been turned into the Spirit (\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1\/\u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7) when it describes death, the reversal of the creation process. In fact, Ecclesiastes states that the Spirit returns to God who gave it (Eccl. 12:7). A similar thought appears in Gen. 6:3 when God declares that his Spirit (\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03ac \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\/\u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7) will not dwell in the humans forever (\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\/\u05d1\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd \u05dc\u05b0\u05e2\u05b9\u05dc\u05b8\u05dd), suggesting that God will, at one point, repossess his belonging, his Spirit. The concept that life is on loan from God, as described by Pseudo-Phocylides, also appears in Wis. 15:8 and Lk. 12:20 (see highlighted phrases).<\/p>\n
Luke 12:20
\nWisdom 15:8
\n(LXT\/KJA)
\nGenesis 6:3
\n\u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f04\u03c6\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd, \u03c4\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03bd\u03c5\u03ba\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u00b7 \u1f03 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f21\u03c4\u03bf\u03af\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2, \u03c4\u03af\u03bd\u03b9 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9;
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c7\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03bd \u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b7\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f43\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03ba \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u1f76\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u02bc \u1f40\u03bb\u03af\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03be \u1f27\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03c6\u03b8\u03b7 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u1f76\u03c2 \u03c7\u03c1\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03ac \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c2, \u1f14\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f31 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f11\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b5\u1f34\u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9 \u1f14\u03c4\u03b7
\n\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b9\u05bc\u05d0\u05de\u05b6\u05e8 \u05d9\u05b0\u05d4\u05d5\u05b8\u05d4
\n\u05dc\u05b9\u05d0\u05be\u05d9\u05b8\u05d3\u05d5\u05b9\u05df \u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d7\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d1\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd \u05dc\u05b0\u05e2\u05b9\u05dc\u05b8\u05dd
\n\u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05e9\u05b7\u05c1\u05d2\u05b7\u05bc\u05dd \u05d4\u05d5\u05bc\u05d0 \u05d1\u05b8\u05e9\u05b8\u05c2\u05e8
\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05d4\u05b8\u05d9\u05d5\u05bc \u05d9\u05b8\u05de\u05b8\u05d9\u05d5 \u05de\u05b5\u05d0\u05b8\u05d4 \u05d5\u05b0\u05e2\u05b6\u05e9\u05b0\u05c2\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05e9\u05b8\u05c1\u05e0\u05b8\u05d4\u05c3
\n\u201cBut God said to him, \u2018You fool! This very night your life is demanded of you. And the things you have prepared\u2014whose will they be?\u2019
\nAnd employing his labours lewdly, he maketh a vain god of the same clay, even he which a little before was made of earth himself, and within a little while after returneth to the same, out when his life which was lent him shall be demanded.
\nAnd the Lord God said, My Spirit shall certainly not remain among these men for ever, because they are flesh, but their days shall be an hundred and twenty years.<\/p>\n
In both these accounts, death is described as God reclaiming his loan, demanding the return of the person\u2019s life (bolded text). The technical word, \u201cdebt\/loan,\u201d used in this context, \u03c7\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 (Ps.-Phoc. 106) parallels \u03c7\u03c1\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2 in Wis. 15:8 (both words are underlined). The word \u03c7\u03c1\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2 also appears in the TaNaKh in the context of forgiving debt (Deut. 15:2\u20133\u2014debt forgiveness every Sabbatical year) or a loan\/life given to God (1 Sam. 2:20).
\nThe second detail regarding the spirit (\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1), is its association with the image (\u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd) of God, a clear allusion to the Creation of the first human couple (Gen. 1:26\u201327). See the highlighting in the following text.<\/p>\n
26a \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd
\n\u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u02bc \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u02bc \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u2026 27 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2
\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u02bc \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd
\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u1f04\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u1fc6\u03bb\u03c5 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2
\n\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b9\u05bc\u05d0\u05de\u05b6\u05e8 \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd26a
\n\u05e0\u05b7\u05e2\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c2\u05d4 \u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05e6\u05b7\u05dc\u05b0\u05de\u05b5\u05e0\u05d5 \u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05d3\u05b0\u05de\u05d5\u05bc\u05ea\u05b5\u05e0\u05d5\u05bc
\n27\u05d5\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05bc\u05d1\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05e6\u05b7\u05dc\u05b0\u05de\u05d5\u05b9
\n\u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05e6\u05b6\u05dc\u05b6\u05dd \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05b9\u05ea\u05d5\u05b9
\n\u05d6\u05b8\u05db\u05b8\u05e8 \u05d5\u05bc\u05e0\u05b0\u05e7\u05b5\u05d1\u05b8\u05d4 \u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05b9\u05ea\u05b8\u05dd\u05c3
\n26a And God said, Let us make man according to our image and likeness \u2026 27 And God made man, according to the image of God he made him, male and female he made them.
\n26a Then God said, \u201cLet Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness \u2026\u201d 27 So God created man in His own image; He created him in the image of God; He created them male and female.<\/p>\n
By reading the two creation accounts of the origin of the first humans (Gen. 1:26\u201327; 2:7), in light of each other, it could be possible to see an association between God\u2019s image in the first account with that of God\u2019s breath of life (\u05e0\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05b7\u05ea \u05d7\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dd or \u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d4\u05b7, according to Gen. 6:3 and Eccl. 12:7) in the second. If a human being is a compound of dust of the ground and the breath of life, and if humans were also created in the image of God, it stands to reason that it is God\u2019s breath of life (and not the dust of the ground), the only element, according to Genesis 2, which was uniquely given to the humans, that makes them into God\u2019s image. According to Collins, Philo makes this very point regarding the image of God and the breath of life when he writes: \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u1f26\u03bd \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f24 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd, \u201che means nothing else than the divine spirit\u201d (Philo, Opi. 1:135 [PHI\/PHE]). Philo also notes that it is the possession of this Spirit that makes us into a being who is in God\u2019s image and likeness, in contrast to the animals who do not possess God\u2019s Spirit (Philo, Opi. 1:137, 139), showing a distinction between Spirit (\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1) and Soul (\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae).
\nIn light of the distinction shown between Spirit (\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1) and Soul (\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae) in both Pseudo-Phocylides and Philo, the tripartite anthropological view is evident in Second Temple period Jewish literature. This view is also evident in the writings of the early Church fathers such as Justine Martyr, Tation, Origen, and Iren\u00e6us. This being the case, a tripartite view should not too readily be ruled out in New Testament texts such as:<\/p>\n
1 Thessalonians 5:23
\n(BNT\/CSB)
\nHebrews 4:12
\n(BNT\/CSB)
\n\u0391\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03b9\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41\u03bb\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41\u03bb\u03cc\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f00\u03bc\u03ad\u03bc\u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b7
\n\u0396\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u1f74\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03ce\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ca\u03ba\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f01\u03c1\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03c5\u03b5\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\u00b7
\nNow may the God of peace Himself sanctify you completely. And may your spirit, soul, and body be kept sound and blameless for the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.
\nFor the word of God is living and effective and sharper than any doubleedged sword, penetrating as far as the separation of soul and spirit, joints and marrow. It is able to judge the ideas and thoughts of the heart.<\/p>\n
Regarding the body (\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1), the author states that it will return to the substance it was originally taken (Ps.-Phoc. 107\u2013108a), dust of the earth, alluding to the Eden Narrative (Gen. 2:7; 3:19b) and Ecclesiastes (Eccl. 3:20; 12:7). In the same way, the author reasons, the Spirit (\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1\/\u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05d4\u05b7) will return to the substance from which it was taken (\u1f00\u1f74\u03c1, \u201cair\u201d). Thus, the earth receives the body, the air receives the Spirit, while Hades receives the Soul\u2014the only part which survives death since it is immortal (Ps.-Phoc. 115). Based on this perspective, the author makes the following exhortation to the rich:<\/p>\n
Verses 109\u2013110<\/p>\n
109 \u03a0\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c6\u03b5\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u00b7 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u02bc \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b8\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2\u00b7110 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03bd\u03b9 \u03b4\u02bc \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f08\u03b9\u03b4\u03b7\u03bd \u1f44\u03bb\u03b2\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u02bc \u1f04\u03b3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9.
\n109 When you are rich do not be sparing; remember that you are mortal. 110 It is impossible to take riches and money with you into Hades.<\/p>\n
The rich should not hoard their wealth but should instead share it generously, remembering they are but mortal, since their riches will not be of any use for them when they die. The rich cannot bring their wealth with them to Hades. The author continues with:<\/p>\n
Verses 111\u2013113<\/p>\n
111 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f34\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u03bd\u03ad\u03ba\u03c5\u03b5\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9.
\n112 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u1f70 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f06\u03b8\u03bb\u03b1, \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7 \u03b4\u02bc \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03b1\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 \u1f08\u03b9\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2, 113 \u03be\u03c5\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c7\u1ff6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f05\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9, \u03c0\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03af \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd.
\n111 All alike are corpses, but God rules over the souls.
\n112 Their shared, eternal home and fatherland is Hades, 113 a common place for all, both poor and kings.<\/p>\n
All are on an equal footing, since all are corpses, and everyone will die. However, the soul (\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1ff6\u03bd) survives and dwells in Hades, the common \u201ceternal home and fatherland\u201d for all. Whatever station a person possessed while living, it will have no meaning in Hades. In fact, there seems to be no distinction made between the righteous or the wicked souls either, indicating that immortality is not considered a reward for a righteous life. The author declares that God rules over all the souls, both the righteous and the wicked. Therefore, God is also the God of the dead, he is in sole control of all spheres of human existence, even when a person is dead. This, as pointed out by Collins, leaves the possibility open for a future resurrection which would include whomever God wishes since their souls have been kept intact and are, as such, readily available to God who rules over all the souls. The author concludes his statement on \u201cDeath and Afterlife\u201d with a last observation:<\/p>\n
Verses 114\u2013115<\/p>\n
114 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u1f7a\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b6\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u02bc \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u00b7
\n115 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f74 \u03b4\u02bc \u1f00\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b3\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b6\u1fc7 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2.
\n114 We humans live not a long time but for a season.
\n115 But our soul is immortal
\nand lives ageless forever.<\/p>\n
While humans may only live for a short while, their souls are immortal and will, therefore, live ageless forever. Whether a person lives an ethical life or not, upon death, all bodies will turn back to dust, all spirits will turn back to the air, and all souls will dwell in Hades under God\u2019s rulership. However, the author leaves the possibility open for some of these souls to be reunified with their former bodies and spirits, and become gods, who will dwell in Heaven for all eternity. Figure 5 gives an overview of the death and resurrection view presented by the author of Pseudo-Phocylides.<\/p>\n
Figure 5. Death and Resurrection in Pseudo-Phocylides<\/p>\n
Chapter 5<\/p>\n
PRAYERS, PSALMS, AND ODES<\/p>\n
The book of Psalms in the TaNaKh was not the only important collection of psalms, hymns, and prayers for the Jews during the Second Temple period and the first two centuries of the common era. David Flusser observes the majority of these extra-biblical prayers were \u201cput into the mouths of biblical persons who figure in these apocryphal works and it is clear that at least in their present form the primary purpose was not liturgical. Rather, such prayers and hymns were composed by the author as parts of their literary output.\u201d This section will consider three collections which contain the resurrection hope. The following table (Table 12) provides a list of the resurrection passages contained in three of the collections belonging in this category, Psalms of Solomon, Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers, and Odes of Solomon.<\/p>\n
Table 12. Resurrection texts in Prayers, Psalms, and Odes<\/p>\n
Passage
\nNotes
\nResurrection
\nClassification<\/p>\n
Imp.
\nStat.
\nRef.
\nAllude
\nPhil.
\nAssum.
\nPsalms of Solomon
\n2:31\u201335
\nJudgment\/Resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n3:11\u201312
\nRighteous \u2192 Eternal life
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n14:9\u201310
\nRighteous \u2192 Eternal life
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n15:10\u201313
\nJudgment\/Resurrection
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nHellenistic Synagogue Prayers
\n3:24\u201327
\n\u201cLoosed the boundary of death\u201d
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n7:11
\nGod\u2019s act of redemption
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n12:46\u201350
\nThe two ways theology
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n16:7\u20139
\nFuneral prayer for the dead Rest || Death
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nOdes of Solomon
\n17:12\u201315
\nJesus\u2019 work \u2192 Gift to the righteous
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n22:8\u201312
\nChrist speaks
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n42:11\u201320
\nResurrection of Jesus and the many
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7<\/p>\n
1. Psalms of Solomon<\/p>\n
Psalms of Solomon dates to the mid-first century BCE and is a collection of 18 pseudonymous psalms. These psalms were most likely composed by several authors who belonged to the same Jewish community, perhaps residing in Jerusalem. Although scholars have traditionally argued for a Pharisaic or more recently an Essenes background, it is probably safer to consider the psalms as a product of an unknown Jewish community. These psalms were originally written in Hebrew, but have only survived in their Greek and Syriac translations.
\nIn Psalms of Solomon, God is presented as the righteous judge (Pss. Sol. 2:18; 4:24\u201325; 9:5; 17:10) who will destroy the wicked (2:31, 34\u201335; 3:11\u201312a; 9:5; 13:6a, 11b; 14:9\u201310; 15:8\u20139, 12; 16:5c). He will also give glory and eternal life (3:12; 13:11; 14:3) to the righteous in his eschatological judgment (2:32\u201335; 14:9\u201310; 15:12\u201313). The following four passages refer or allude to the resurrection hope, 2:31; 3:11\u201312; 14:9\u201310; 15:10\u201313 (see Table 12).<\/p>\n
a. Psalms of Solomon 2:31<\/p>\n
The first allusion to the eschatological judgment and resurrection of the righteous appears toward the end of Psalms of Solomon 2, a psalm most likely pertaining to the military invasion of Jerusalem by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE and to his assassination in Egypt in 48 BCE. This psalm presents the two destinies in store for the righteous and the wicked. The righteous will be raised up to glory (Pss. Sol. 2:31), shown mercy (2:33b, 34a, 36a), and be kept from the humiliation which is in store for the sinners (2:35), while the sinners will be put to sleep for eternal destruction in dishonor (2:31b), be repaid according to their actions (2:34b), and for what they did toward the righteous (2:35b), because they did not know God (2:31c).
\nThe allusion to the resurrection hope, voiced by the righteous (Pss. Sol. 2:31a), carries several parallel ideas with the clear resurrection statement in Daniel 12 and has been highlighted in the two passages. The contrast in the psalm is between glory and dishonor, while in Daniel it is between life and shame (see boxes). Both passages contain the \u201csleep\u201d element (bolded), though in the psalm \u201csleep\u201d is also considered a part of the punishment of the sinners (2:31b). Both texts contain the \u201craising\u201d aspect (highlighted in gray); however, it seems only to include the righteous in the psalm while both righteous and wicked will partake in the resurrection in Daniel, though it is still limited in nature. Both passages emphasize the \u201ceternal aspect\u201d (underlined) of the two destinies and the shame in store for the sinners\/wicked (italics).<\/p>\n
Psalms of Solomon 2:31
\nDaniel 12:2 (LXX\/LXE)
\n\u1f41 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03af\u03b6\u03c9\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b7\u03c6\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ce\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03af\u1fb3, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd.
\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u03bf\u1f31 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd.
\nHe is the one who raises me up into glory, and who brings down the arrogant to sleep, to their dishonorable destruction for forever, because they did not know him.
\nAnd many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to reproach and everlasting shame.<\/p>\n
One important difference between these two resurrection passages is the scope of the resurrection. While Daniel 12 presents a limited resurrection for the most righteous and the most wicked, in which most dead will not experience a resurrection, the psalm seems to suggest that only the righteous will participate in the eschatological resurrection, while the sinners will continue in their sleep, to \u201ctheir dishonorable destruction forever.\u201d It is not clear from the psalm if the judgment that will \u201cseparate the righteous and the sinners\u201d (Pss. Sol. 2:34a) and will repay the sinners for their wicked deeds (2:34b, 35b) requires an eschatological resurrection of the sinners, or if God has already measured out their punishment in full by their \u201ceternal destruction in dishonor\u201d (2:31c).<\/p>\n
b. Psalms of Solomon 3:11\u201312<\/p>\n
The only clear resurrection statement in Psalms of Solomon appears at the end of the third psalm, which contrasts the behavior of the righteous (Pss. Sol. 3:3\u20138) with that of the sinners (3:9\u201310) and their respective destiny (3:11\u201312). This passage, like the previous (Pss. Sol. 2:31), also alludes to Dan. 12:2. The word \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u201cwill cause to stand up,\u201d appears in both passages (highlighted in gray), in addition to the phrase \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u201cto everlasting life\u201d (in italics or bolded). Both passages also mention the eternal destruction\/shame of the sinner\/wicked (underlined).<\/p>\n
Psalms of Solomon 3:11\u201312
\nDaniel 12:2
\n11 \u1f21 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ce\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c9\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03ba\u03ad\u03c0\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2.
\n12 \u03b1\u1f55\u03c4\u03b7 \u1f21 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c9\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\u00b7 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c6\u03bf\u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c6\u03c9\u03c4\u1f76 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03c8\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f14\u03c4\u03b9.
\n2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd
\n11 The destruction of the sinner is forever, and [the Lord] will not remember him when he looks after the righteous.
\n12 This is the portion of sinners forever; but those who fear the Lord will rise to eternal life, and their life [will be] in the light of the Lord, and will come to an end no more.
\n2 And many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to reproach and everlasting shame.<\/p>\n
Similar to the previous psalm, this psalm does not mention the resurrection of the sinners, it only speaks about their eternal destruction. The righteous, in contrast, will be resurrected, if dead, receive eternal life, and be in \u201cthe light of the Lord,\u201d a possible allusion to Isa. 2:5; 60:1; and Prov. 20:27, noting that the righteous will be in God\u2019s presence forever.<\/p>\n
c. Psalms of Solomon 14:9\u201310<\/p>\n
An allusion to the eschatological resurrection also appears in Psalms of Solomon 14, which is, according to Kenneth Atkinson, a Midrash on the biblical Psalm 1. Like Psalms of Solomon 3, this psalm also expands on the difference in behavior and attitude between the righteous (Pss. Sol. 14:1\u20135) and the sinners (14:6\u20138), and their eternal destiny (14:9\u201310). The key section of the psalm seems to expand on Ps. 1:5\u20136, which refers to the eschatological resurrection and judgment. The reader learns that the final destiny of the sinners is \u201cHades and darkness and destruction\u201d (Pss. Sol. 14:9a) which probably expands on the statement regarding the destruction of the ungodly in Ps. 1:6b (underlined). This psalm also makes a clear statement that the sinners \u201cwill not be found in the day when the righteous obtain mercy\u201d (Pss. Sol. 14:9b), a possible allusion to Ps. 1:5a which states that the ungodly will not participate in the resurrection to stand in the judgment (bolded). However, the author of Psalms of Solomon notes the righteous will resurrect, receive mercy, and inherit life with joy (highlighted in gray).<\/p>\n
Psalms of Solomon 14:9\u201310
\nPsalm 1:5\u20136
\n9 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u1f21 \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f85\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ce\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u03b5\u1f51\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u1fb3 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd\u00b7
\n10 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f45\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u1fc3.
\n5 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f00\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c9\u03bb\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u1fc7 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd 6 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41\u03b4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41\u03b4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9.
\n9 Therefore their inheritance [is] Hades and darkness and destruction, and they will not be found in the day when the righteous [obtain] mercy. 10 But the pious ones of the Lord will inherit life with joy.
\n5 Therefore the ungodly shall not rise in judgment, nor sinners in the counsel of the just. 6 For the Lord knows the way of the righteous; but the way of the ungodly shall perish.<\/p>\n
d. Psalms of Solomon 15:10\u201313<\/p>\n
The final allusion to the resurrection is found in Psalms of Solomon 15, a psalm revealing the final destiny of the righteous (15:1\u20137, 13) and the sinners (15:8\u201312). The righteous are marked for salvation (15:6a), and as such, they are protected by God from evil and have nothing to fear in the eschatological judgment, since they will be shown mercy (15:13), alluding to an eschatological resurrection for the righteous. However, the sinners have received the mark of destruction on their forehead (15:9b), and thus, will not escape the Lord\u2019s judgment (15:8b). They will inherit \u201cdestruction and darkness, and their lawless actions shall pursue them below into Hades\u201d (15:10). The sinners will \u201cperish forever in the day of the Lord\u2019s judgment\u201d (15:12a, 13c), when \u201cGod oversees the earth at his judgment\u201d (15:12b). In contrast, the righteous will live by the mercy of their God (15:13b), suggesting a future eternal life with God.
\nThis psalm is unclear as to the nature of the eschatological resurrection or who will be a part of it. The mark of salvation placed on the righteous seems to suggest that the righteous dead will be resurrected on the day of the eschatological judgment to receive the mercy of God. The mark of destruction, however, may not include the necessity of a future resurrection of the sinners, since they are already experiencing their punishment in Hades, an everlasting destruction (Pss. Sol. 15:8b\u201311). The judgment of the sinners mentioned in the psalm (15:12a), may only refer to the sinners who are still alive when the eschatological judgment takes place. In other words, when the eschatological judgment has ended, there will be no more sinners, only the righteous will be alive by the mercy of their God.<\/p>\n
e. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
Assuming Psalms of Solomon represents the complete death and afterlife view held by the community which produced them, and that each resurrection passage describes various aspects of said view, the following two observations could be made regarding death and the eschatological resurrection. First, there is no indication in these psalms that humans have an immortal soul, or a soul that can exist independently from the body. Wright concludes: \u201cthe psalmist conceives of man as essentially embodied and the occasional use of the term \u2018soul\u2019 corresponds to its use in the psalter to mean \u2018person.\u2019 He posits no body\/soul dualism and is not in the least \u2018otherworldly\u2019 in his thinking. The cosmos and the nature of humanity are undivided.\u201d Secondly, the dead sinners seem to have no part in the eschatological resurrection. The following figure (Fig. 6) gives an overview of the death and resurrection view presented by the community who produced the Psalms of Solomon. Comparing this figure with the other resurrection views presented in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha, it becomes clear that it has the most in common with the view of 2 Maccabees (see Fig. 2, in the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic Literature).<\/p>\n
Figure 6. Death and Resurrection in the Psalms of Solomon<\/p>\n
2. Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers<\/p>\n
Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers are found among the Apostolic Constitution, a Christian collection of liturgy. These sixteen prayers appear in books seven and eight of the collection. However, there is some scholarly disagreement if all sixteen should be considered of Jewish origin. Van der Horst notes that only the first six prayers should be considered to have been adopted from Jewish prayers \u201cin a Christianized form in order to be used in Church services,\u201d since they seem to be based on the Seven Benedictions for Sabbath morning (Avoth, Gevuroth, Kedushat ha-Shem, Kedushat ha-Yom, Avodah, Hoda\u2019a, Birkat Shalom\u2014the first and last three benedictions from the Amidah and a special Sabbath\/festival benediction in the middle). David Fiensy holds a more liberal view and believes all sixteen \u201cmay be remnant of Jewish Synagogal prayers,\u201d noting the lack of peculiar Christian context, while it contains a distinctly Jewish context. He adds the distinct Christian elements in these prayers are often \u201conly loosely\u2014often awkwardly\u2014connected to the context,\u201d which suggests these elements are Christian interpolations.
\nRegarding dating and provenance of these prayers, they were probably composed either in Alexandria or in Syria where the Apostolic Constitution was compiled, sometime during the second and third century CE. Van der Horst suggests that these prayers were composed in Hebrew and were later translated into Greek and expanded to serve the synagogues in the Jewish Diaspora. He then suggests that Judaizing Christians adopted these prayers in fourth-century Syria and were added into the Apostolic Constitutions by an anonymous compiler \u201cin Antioch in the 380s CE.\u201d
\nA brief consideration will be given to the four clear resurrection passages in these prayers. The first two resurrection passages appear in the Synagogal prayers that are based on the Seven Benedictions for Sabbath morning, while the last two appear among the last ten prayers of the collection. The passages to be treated are: Hel. Syn. Pr. 3:24\u201327; 7:11; 12:46\u201350; 16:7\u20139.<\/p>\n
a. Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers 3:24\u201327<\/p>\n
The first resurrection text appears in the context of the Creation Story, Genesis 1\u20133, in which the author expands on the Gen. 1:26\u2014\u201cLet us make man according to our image and likeness.\u201d From this expansion, we learn that God gave humans a \u201csoul out of non-being\u201d (Hel. Syn. Pr. 3:21), a possible reference to Gen. 2:7, contrasting the earth and the breath of God aspect of the human being. The prayer also notes that God intended the humans to have immortal lives (probably alluding to Gen. 2:17). However, due to their disobedience (alluding to Gen. 3), God took their eternal lives away so they would experience death, though he promised that it would not be forever (Hel. Syn. Pr. 3:24\u201325). The prayer ends with the resurrection promise that they will only have to sleep for a little while before they will be \u201ccalled forth to new birth,\u201d since God has \u201cloosed the boundary of death\u201d and is \u201cthe Maker of life for the dead\u201d (Hel. Syn. Pr. 3:27). This promise may refer to Dan. 12:2 or to the promise mentioned in Life of Adam and Eve tradition discussed earlier; however, the author may have seen the resurrection promise in Gen. 3:19b as attested in the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan expansion and in Sib. Or. 8.96\u201399.<\/p>\n
b. Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers 7:11<\/p>\n
The second resurrection passage appears in a thanksgiving prayer celebrating God\u2019s act of redemption and gift to human beings. In this prayer, the author marvels that God brings forth from the womb a rational and complex creature, just from a little drop, which he has also given an immortal soul (Hel. Syn. Pr. 7:9). This prayer considers God the creator of every human, paralleling the creation account in Gen. 2:7, and he is still actively forming and shaping new life and giving everyone his \u201cbreath of life.\u201d It should be noted that the prayer reveals that an immortal soul has been given to everyone, even before a person is shown to be righteous or wicked.
\nThis thanksgiving prayer is also praising God for his instructions and ordinances which have cleansing powers (Hel. Syn. Pr. 7:10), assuming from the effect of sins which introduced death, despite the immortal spirit. However, God has promised that the dissolution will be temporary, due to the promised resurrection (7:11), referring to the same promise as mentioned in the first resurrection passage (3:26). Although this prayer does not specifically state whether this resurrection will be universal, it could be assumed it will only contain the righteous dead, those who were cleansed by the God-given ordinances.<\/p>\n
c. Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers 12:46\u201350<\/p>\n
The third resurrection passage is similar to the first as both place the promise of a future resurrection in the context of the creation-rebellion narrative (Gen. 1\u20133), the latter prayer expanding even further on the biblical account. In the following two parallel prayers, similar elements are highlighted, and the underlined words are clear Christian interpolations. Relevant references to the Creation Story (Gen. 1\u20133) and the New Testament have been added within square brackets.<\/p>\n
Hel. Syn. Pr. 3:19b\u201327
\n(AC 7.34.6\u20138)
\nHel. Syn. Pr. 12:35\u201352
\n(AC 8.12.16\u201321)
\n35(16)And you not only made the world, but you also made the world citizen in it,
\ndeclaring him (to be) a (micro-)cosm of the cosmos.
\n19b(6)Let us make man according to our image and likeness [Gen. 1:26];
\n20having declared him a (micro-)cosm of cosmos,
\nhaving formed for him the body out of the four elements; 21and having prepared for him the soul out of non-being, [Gen. 2:7]
\n36For you said by your Wisdom, Let us make man according to our image, and according to (our) likeness; and let them rule the fish of the sea, and the winged birds of the heaven [Gen. 1:26].
\n37(17)Therefore also you have made him out of immortal soul, and out of a body that may be scattered; [Gen. 2:7] 38 the one indeed out of that which is not, but the other out of the four elements.<\/p>\n
and having given to him fivefold perception,
\n39And you have indeed given to him, with reference to the soul, rational discrimination, distinguishing of piety and impiety, observation of right and wrong.
\nand having placed over the perceptions a mind, the holder of the reins of the soul.
\n40While with reference to the body, you have given (him) five senses, and the movement involving change of place.
\n22(7)And in addition to all these things, O Master, Lord, who can worthily describe the movement of rain-producing clouds, the flashing forth of lightning, the clashing of thunders; 23 for the supplying of appropriate nourishment, and the blending of complex atmospheres?
\n41(18)For you, O God Almighty, through Christ, planted a paradise in Eden, eastward [Gen. 2:8a], with all manner of edible foods, in (proper) order; 42and into it, as if into a very expensive home, you brought him [Gen. 2:8b\u20139, 15].
\n43And indeed, you have given to him an implanted law to do [Rom. 2:14f.], so that form himself, and by himself, he might have the seeds of divine knowledge.
\n24(8)But when man was disobedient, You took away his deserved life. [Gen. 3:22, 24]
\n44(19)So, having brought (him) into the paradise of luxury, you allowed him the right to partake of all things [Gen. 1:29, 16]. 45But of only one thing did you refuse him the taste [Gen. 2:17]; in hope of greater things, in order that, if he should keep the commandment [Gen. 2:15], he might receive immortality as a reward for this [Gen. 2:9||Gen. 3:22, 24\u2013access to the Tree of Life].
\n25You did not make it disappear absolutely, but for a time,
\n26having put (him) to sleep for a little (while), by an oath you have called (him forth) to new birth [Gen. 3:19b].
\n27You have loosed the boundary of death,
\n46(20)But, having cared nothing for the commandment, and having tasted of the forbidden fruit, by trickery of a serpent, and by the counsel of a woman [Gen. 3:1\u20137], you indeed rightly thrust him out from paradise [Gen. 3:23]. 47Yet in goodness, you did not overlook him who was perishing forever, for he was your work of art. 48 But, having subjected to him the creation [Gen. 1:26, 28], You have given to him, through sweat and hard labors [Gen. 3:17\u201319], to provide by himself the nourishment for his own family, while you are causing all things to grow, and to ripen. 49And in time, having caused him to fall asleep for a while, you called (him) by an oath to new birth; 50having dissolved the boundaries of death, you promised life by resurrection! [Gen. 3:19b]
\nYou who are the Maker of life for the dead, through Jesus Christ, our hope! [1 Tim. 1:1]
\n51(21)And not only this; but also those who poured forth from him, to become an innumerable multitude\u201452 those who continued with you, you glorified, while those who separated from you, you punished.<\/p>\n
The additional elements appearing in the expanded version are qualifiers regarding God-given immortality. Although it is implied in the shorter version (Hel. Syn. Pr. 3:24), the expanded version draws a specific link between obedience and receiving immortality as a reward for keeping the commandment (12:45). Thus, suggesting the immortal soul bestowed upon humans at the point of creation (12:37) was conditional, it, rather, carried the potential for immortality as long as humans adhered to God\u2019s instructions. The obedience\u2014immortality relationship is emphasized once more when stating the resurrection promise that God would not let them perish forever, but he will instead dissolve the boundaries of death and bring the first human couple, and their descendants, back to life\u2014\u201can innumerable multitude\u201d (12:47, 49\u201350). The first resurrection passage (3:24\u201327) does not clearly state who will be included in this promised resurrection, but the expanded version does. It states that those who continue their relationship with God, he will glorify, \u201cwhile those who separated from you [God] you punished\u201d (12:52). Thus, only the righteous are included in the promise of the future resurrection and will be glorified by God and receive immortality.<\/p>\n
d. Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers 16:7\u20139<\/p>\n
The fourth resurrection passage appears in the last prayer of the Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers collection, in a funeral prayer for the dead. In this prayer, the congregation begs God to receive the soul of the dead person and \u201cforgive him every sin\u2014voluntary and involuntary\u201d and place him \u201camong the godly ones,\u201d the patriarchs and those of old who God found pleasing and \u201cwho did his will\u201d (Hel. Syn. Pr. 16:2\u20134, 12\u201313). Then the prayer addresses God as the immortal artisan creator of humans who promised him the resurrection (16:7), who saved both Enoch and Elijah from death (16:8a), and expands on Exod. 3:6\u2014\u201cGod of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, not as of the dead, but as God of the living, are you. Because, with you, all souls are alive [\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c3\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd], and the spirit of the righteous are in your hands [\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03af \u03c3\u03bf\u03cd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd]\u201d (Hel. Syn. Pr. 16:9). The prayer concludes the way it started with a request to forgive the sins of the dead person and place him with \u201cfavorable angels\u201d and \u201cthe patriarchs, and the prophets\u201d (16:12), in a place \u201cwhere there cannot be grief, and pain, and moaning, but a free place of godly ones, and a land of upright ones, set up for you\u201d (16:14).
\nThere are several new elements added in this last prayer regarding the afterlife and resurrection hope. Unlike the previous resurrection passages in this prayer collection, this prayer states specifically that the soul of the dead is truly immortal (Hel. Syn. Pr. 16:9) and exists apart from the body upon death. The prayer states that the soul returns to God (16:3a), and the spirit of the righteous will be under God\u2019s protection (16:9b)\u2014soul and spirit are probably used as synonyms. God assigns a place for the soul as it awaits the day of resurrection when it will once more be unified with the body.
\nIt also seems like the communal prayer given on behalf of the dead is believed to have some effect on the soul\u2019s afterlife, since the prayer is begging God for forgiveness on behalf of the dead (Hel. Syn. Pr. 16:3b, 12a), and is asking for a favorable placement with good angels (16:12b) and with the patriarchs and prophets (16:4b\u2013d, 12c\u201313). Little is revealed regarding the destiny of the souls of the wicked, or whether the wicked will also be a part of the eschatological resurrection. However, the text does infer that the souls of the righteous and the wicked will be treated differently. It mentions the placement of the righteous souls with the godly ones, the patriarchs, prophets, and the faithful (16:4, 12\u201313), in a place where \u201cpain and grief and moaning have fled away\u201d (16:4e, 14a), where anguish will not touch the righteous (16:9b), since they will be under God\u2019s hand (16:10) and be \u201creceived into another sphere\u201d (16:11), in \u201ca land of upright ones\u201d (16:14). The reader could, therefore, assume that the wicked souls would be placed in a very different place, with other sinners, in a place where pain, grief, moaning, and anguish are found since they are not under God\u2019s hand.<\/p>\n
e. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
In this collection of Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers, humans are presented with a soul (Hel. Syn. Pr. 3:21; 12:37; 16:3, 9) which is separate from the body. These resurrection passages also consider the soul or human as intended for immortality (Hel. Syn. Pr. 3:24b; 7:9b; 12:37a, 45c). Though their disobedience led to their \u201ctemporary\u201d death (3:26a; 7:11a; 12:47a, 49; 16:7b), God promised resurrection (3:26b; 7:11b; 12:50b; 16:7b). However, the author gives the impression that it is only the righteous who will participate in the resurrection, those who have been cleansed by God\u2019s law and ordinances (7:10\u201311), showing little interest in the destiny of the wicked. It could be argued that due to the close relationship between obedience and immortality shown in these resurrection passages, the soul of the wicked should be considered mortal, thus having no future hope, destiny, or life after death. Apart from the Prayer for the Dead (Hel. Syn. Pr. 16), no interest is shown regarding the whereabouts of the soul of the righteous between the time of death and the future resurrection.<\/p>\n
3. Odes of Solomon<\/p>\n
The Odes of Solomon is a late first- to early second-century Jewish-Christian Pseudepigraphical work, most likely composed in Syriac or Aramaic. It is not clear where these odes originated, but \u201cEphesus, Antioch, or western Syria\u201d are good candidates. This collection consists of 42 odes and functioned as lyrical-books or a hymnal for the early Christian church.
\nCharlesworth suggests these odes contain neither the Greek immortality belief, in which a soul transmigrates from one body to another, nor the Jewish bodily resurrection view. Instead, the Odist \u201cexults in his salvation and experience of immortality,\u201d stating \u201cemphatically that his immortality is geographically here and chronologically now.\u201d However, Michael Novak makes a convincing case that these odes are also apocalyptic in nature and \u201care set in the wider imaginative world of apocalypticism.\u201d Novak suggests that \u201ctransformation, resurrection, eternal life, otherworldly journeys and guides\u2014dominates the Odes,\u201d all motifs associated with apocalyptic literature. According to Novak\u2019s analysis, the only apocalyptic motif missing in these odes is ex eventu prophecies. Apart from Odes containing judgment events and the destruction of the wicked (Odes 5; 7; 11; 17\u201318; 23\u201325; 29), cosmic transformations (1; 3\u201315; 17\u201323; 25; 27; 29\u201333; 35\u201337; 39; 41\u201342), and other forms of afterlife (3; 5\u201311; 15; 17; 20\u201321; 26; 28\u201329; 31; 33\u201334; 38; 40), Novak considers the four odes to contain a resurrection hope: Odes 17; 22; 28; 42. However, none of these resurrection statements or allusions seem to describe an eschatological universal resurrection. Perhaps, as noted by Charlesworth, the focus of the Odes is the immortality already experienced by the community members; therefore, a future bodily resurrection is less relevant.<\/p>\n
a. Resurrection in the Odes of Solomon<\/p>\n
The Odist seems to speak as Christ in some of these resurrection passages (Odes 17:12\u201315; 22:8\u201312; 42:11\u201320), referring to Christ\u2019s act of salvation which even extended to those who were already dead, a possible interpretation of 1 Pet. 3:18\u201322 and Acts 2:22\u201327. According to these three Odes passages, Christ entered the realm of the dead, gave them knowledge and \u201cresurrection,\u201d and sowed his fruits in their hearts which transformed them, so \u201cthey received my blessing and lived, and they were gathered to me and were saved\u201d (Odes 17:13\u201315). Odes of Solomon 22:4\u201312 expands on Christ\u2019s work of salvation and alludes to Ezek. 37:1\u201310 when referring to his act of resurrection (Odes 22:8\u201310). Both passages have the subject of the dead or very dry bones (underlined), and a reversal is taking place in which the bones are once more covered in flesh (bolded). The same observation is made in both passages, that without God\u2019s energy of life (italicized), or God\u2019s breath (Ezek. 37:8\u201310), the body remains motionless, still dead. It is only when the breath enters the dead body that it becomes a living being (highlighted in gray). This is the reversal of the dying process when the breath went back to God and the body returns to dust (Gen. 3:19b; Eccl. 3:19\u201320; 12:7), paralleling God\u2019s act of creating humans from the dust of the earth and giving them his breath of life (Gen. 2:7).<\/p>\n
Odes 22:8\u201310 (OTP)
\nEzekiel 37:1\u20136 (CSB)
\n8And it chose them from the graves, and separated them from the dead ones.
\n9It took dead bones and covered them with flesh. 10But they were motionless, so it gave (them) energy for life.
\n1 The hand of the LORD was on me, and He brought me out by His Spirit and set me down in the middle of the valley; it was full of bones. 2 He led me all around them. There were a great many of them on the surface of the valley, and they were very dry. 3 Then He said to me, \u201cSon of man, can these bones live?\u201d I replied, \u201cLord GOD, only You know.\u201d 4 He said to me, \u201cProphesy concerning these bones and say to them: Dry bones, hear the word of the LORD! 5 This is what the Lord GOD says to these bones: I will cause breath to enter you, and you will live. 6 I will put tendons on you, make flesh grow on you, and cover you with skin. I will put breath in you so that you come to life. Then you will know that I am the LORD.\u201d<\/p>\n
In Odes 42:11\u201320, the Odist gives more details regarding the response of the dead who heard Christ\u2019s words when he entered Sheol and \u201cmade a congregation of living among his dead\u201d (42:14). They begged Christ for pity, mercy, and resurrection since they recognized that death had no power over him (42:15\u201317). They also recognized Christ as the Savior and asked if they could be saved (42:18), and then he placed his name on their heads and claimed them as his possession (42:18, 20). However, it is not clear from the text when this resurrection would take place: whether it was instantaneous, whether these dead were resurrected together with Christ, or whether they would have to be patient and wait for an eschatological resurrection.<\/p>\n
b. Concluding Remarks<\/p>\n
Although the Odes of Solomon uses resurrection language in several passages, even alludes to and presents a bodily resurrection view, it is not clear from these resurrection passages when this resurrection event will take place. Similarly, we have no indication of its nature.<\/p>\n
Chapter 6<\/p>\n
THE POSTHUMOUS BODY AND THE SOUL<\/p>\n
This chapter will briefly consider the nature of the posthumous body and the soul appearing in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha and highlight aspects of these views with relevant afterlife and resurrection passages from the New Testament. It will draw upon the afterlife and resurrection passages discussed in this monograph and the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic Literature.<\/p>\n
1. Description of the Disembodied Souls<\/p>\n
Richard C. Steiner makes a compelling case suggesting there are several passages in the TaNaKh that present the \u05e0\u05e4\u05e9, \u201csoul,\u201d as something separate from the body, the clearest being Ezek. 13:17\u201321. In this passage, Ezekiel condemns the women sorceresses who trap dream-souls with pillow casings (Ezek. 13:17\u201321), turning them into bird-souls who await the \u201cimminent demise of their owners, unless the latter agree to ransom them.\u201d Steiner notes that although Ezekiel \u201cclearly condemns the behavior of the women\u201d there is no indication that he rejected the underlying belief. Based on this key passage, Steiner argues that several additional passages may also reflect a belief in a disembodied \u05e0\u05e4\u05e9, soul (e.g. Gen. 35:18; 1 Sam. 25:29; Ps. 116:7; Song 5:6). Steiner concludes, \u201cin the light of all this evidence, it is no longer possible to insist that the Hebrew was unable to conceive of a disembodied \u05e0\u05e4\u05e9. If anything, the opposite now appears to be true. The evidence suggests that a belief in the existence of disembodied souls was a part of the common religious heritage of the people of the Ancient Near East.\u201d Saliently, Steiner suggest that the disembodied soul could still possess a bodily form or shape, adding that the Hebrews may have had a hard time conceiving \u201csouls in the shape of anything but a body\u2014a body resembling their own.\u201d
\nThis monograph and the companion volume lend support to Steiner\u2019s observation regarding a soul existing independently from the body, a concept that became the norm in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha. Table 13 provides a list of all the literary works of the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha that mention the pre-resurrected disembodied soul and the resurrected soul (in the cases which do not require a bodily resurrection) and lists the relevant references. It provides a brief description of the details each literary work reveals regarding the righteous and\/or wicked soul. The table also indicates whether the literary work provides a physical description of the disembodied soul. The no description (No Desc.) label indicates the work does not provide details regarding the soul\u2019s physical nature. It does not imply the soul mentioned in this literary work is not physical in nature, that it does not resemble the dead person, or could be identified as the dead person.<\/p>\n
Table 13. Description of the disembodied soul\u2014pre-resurrected and resurrected<\/p>\n
Literary work
\nRef.
\nPre-Resurrection: Disembodied Soul
\nResurrected Soul
\nPhysical\/No Desc.
\nWisdom of Solomon
\n3:1\u20134
\nRighteous
\n\u2022 Will be in the hand of God
\n\u2022 No torment will ever touch them
\n\u2022 They are at peace
\nNo desc.
\n4 Ezra
\n7:75\u2013101
\nRighteous
\n\u2022 Will see with great joy the glory of him who receives them
\n\u2022 They shall have rest in their chambers and be guarded by angels in profound quiet
\n\u2022 They will rejoice, be confident and glad
\nWicked
\n\u2022 Will not enter into habitations
\n\u2022 Will wander about in torments
\n\u2022 Will always be grieving and sad
\n\u2022 Will utterly waste away in confusion and be consumed with shame
\nNo desc.
\nBook of Watchers (1 En. 1\u201336)
\n22:2\u20133, 9\u201313
\nRighteous
\n\u2022 Will be in God\u2019s presence
\nWicked
\n\u2022 Will suffer great torment
\nNo desc.
\nBook of the Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 91\u2013105)
\n102:4\u2013103:4
\n103:5\u20138
\nRighteous
\n\u2022 Will experience grief\/sorrow
\nWicked
\n\u2022 Will experience great anguish
\n\u2022 Will experience evil and great tribulation
\n\u2022 Will dwell in darkness, in a trap, and in a burning flame
\n\u2022 Will have no peace
\nNo desc.
\n1 Enoch\u2014Appendices (1 En. 106\u2013108)
\n108:6\u20137
\nWicked
\n\u2022 Will experience Hellfire
\n\u2022 They will be weeping, crying, lamenting, and be in strong pain
\nNo desc.
\n2 Enoch
\nJ58:6
\n\u2022 A single soul will not perish until the great judgment.
\nNo desc.
\n3 Enoch
\n15:1; 28:7\u201310; 43:2; 44:5\u20136
\n1. The soul becomes disembodied following a three-day purification process, when the soul is resurrected and brought before God to be judged.
\n2. The resurrected soul has a bodily form
\nNo Desc. Physical
\nSibylline Oracles
\n2.199\u2013200, 217\u2013218, 227\u2013237; 8.350\u2013358, 401
\n\u2022 There is an implacable Hades and a heavenly vault
\n\u2022 Will lead all the souls of men from the murky dark to judgment
\n\u2022 Mournful forms (\u03bc\u03bf\u03c1\u03c6\u03ae)
\n\u2022 The souls of the wicked will suffer in the eternal fire
\nNo desc.
\nApocalypse of Zephaniah
\n4:7; 7:1\u20139:5; 10:4\u20139, 12\u201314
\n\u2022 Everyone goes through the \u201cTrial of Hades\u201d upon death when their souls will be judged and both the righteous and wicked will be weighed in a balance
\n\u2022 The souls deemed righteous will cross over the crossing place on a boat
\n\u2022 The wicked souls have a physical form and will remain in Hades to be severely punished.
\nRighteous
\n\u2022 Will be clothed in angelic garments
\n\u2022 Will be recognizable
\nWicked
\n\u2022 Will remain in Hades for eternity unless they repent before the Day of Judgment
\nPhysical
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\n4:6\u201324; 5:20\u201328; 6:3, 17, 21; 7:2\u20133
\n\u2022 Souls are entrusted to humans by God, and at the point of death God demands the soul back.
\nThe soul of the Christian righteous are brought to Heaven upon death, while the souls in the Bowel of Hades\/Gehenna\/Tartarus will be reunified with the body in the eschatological resurrection. At that point, the righteous and uncorrupted will be brought to Heaven suggesting the righteous souls who are already there would also have a physical body.
\nPhysical
\nRighteous
\n\u2022 The soul parts with the body for Heaven where it will receive a crown
\n\u2022 The righteous who are in Hades are identifiable and will be brought out by God
\nWicked
\n\u2022 Will experience physical punishment
\nVision of Ezra
\n1.1\u201359
\n\u2022 Upon death, each person is brought down to the infernal regions to be judged. The wicked will be punished in the Hellfire while the righteous will pass through unscathed on their way to Heaven
\n\u2022 The soul of the righteous and the wicked are physical and appear like a body.
\nPhysical
\nQuestion of Ezra
\nA10, 19\u201321; B2, 5\u20139
\nRighteous
\n\u2022 Are taken to a place of honor
\n\u2022 The soul shines
\n\u2022 The soul sparkles
\n\u2022 They experience light, rest, and eternal life
\nWicked
\n\u2022 Are taken to a place of punishment\/
\n\u2022 Endure unending torture
\n\u2022 The soul is darkened
\nNo desc.
\nApocalypse of Sedrach
\n2:5; 4:1; 9:1; 10:1\u20134; 11:11; 14:5, 9; 15:5; 16:3, 6
\nUpon death, a person\u2019s soul \u201cascends where the Lord calls\u201d it, while the wretched body goes away for judgment\u201d (11:11). The righteous soul, like Sedrach, is brought to Paradise\/Third Heaven (2:5; 9:1; 16:6), God\u2019s Kingdom (15:5), or the \u201cbosom of Abraham\u201d (14:5); to \u201cbe with the just ones in a place of refreshment and rest\u201d (16:3). The soul of the wicked, however, will \u201csee the place of punishment\u201d (4:1; 14:9; 16:3).
\nNo desc.
\n2 Baruch
\n21:23\u201324; 30:1\u20132
\nUpon death, the body is deposited in the earth\/dust (2 Bar. 42:8; 50:2 and the soul is stored in the treasuries (2 Bar. 14:12; 21:23; 24:1; 30:2; 76:2). At the time of the universal resurrection, the souls will join their former body and be judged.
\nNo desc.
\nApocalypse of Elijah
\n(C) 4:25
\n\u2022 The Lord will receive the spirits and the souls of the righteous
\nNo desc.
\nNo desc.
\n(H)
\n\u2022 Upon death, the soul undergoes a painful judgment, each one in accordance with its deeds
\nTestament of the 12 Patriarchs
\nT. Dan 5:11
\nT. Levi 3:1\u20132
\n\u2022 The souls of the righteous are imprisoned by Belial until the messianic age
\n\u2022 \u201cThe spirits of those dispatched to achieve the punishment of mankind\u201d are kept in the lowest heaven
\nNo desc.
\nTestament of Job
\n47:11; 52:6, 10
\nJob\u2019s soul separated from his body upon death and was brought to Heaven.
\nNo desc.
\nTestament of Abraham
\nA11:1\u201313:5; A14:16
\nUpon death, the soul separates from the body and is brought to the place of judgment where it will be led through one of two gates, either for punishment or reward.
\nNo desc.
\nB7:15\u201316
\nThe soul of Abraham is taken to heaven upon his death. The soul will once more unite with the body at the end of the seven thousand ages.
\nNo desc.
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\n4:16; 8:14\u201315; 9:7\u20139
\nThis apocalypse does not mention the soul specifically; however, it does mention the \u201crobes of flesh\u201d and the \u201crobes of above,\u201d indicating that something lives on that is separate from the \u201crobes\u201d or \u201cbody.\u201d It could be assumed that there will be a short moment where the righteous will exist without robe, following death and judgment and before he\/she is brought to Heaven to receive his\/her heavenly robes. The text does not reveal the type of \u201crobes\u201d the wicked will have after death.
\nNo desc.
\nLife of Adam and Eve
\nGr. 13:6; 37:5; 43:2\u20133 Vita 51:2
\n\u2022 The soul of Eve is mentioned in connection with her funeral as passing away from the earth
\n\u2022 Adam\u2019s soul is brought to the 3rd Heaven
\n\u2022 The souls of the wicked are not mentioned
\n\u2022 The
\n\u2022 states that following the resurrection, the soul and body will be joined together for all eternity
\nNo desc.
\nPseudo-Philo
\n16:3; 23:6, 13; 28:10; 31:7; 36:4; 38:4; 44:10; 51:5; 63:4
\nUpon death, the soul parts from the body and the soul is judged based on the person\u2019s decisions in the present world. Based on this judgment, the soul will either join the souls of the righteous or the souls of the wicked in the underworld. The souls of the righteous will experience peace and the souls of the wicked will be punished for their sins until God\u2019s eschatological visitation, the time of the universal resurrection and judgment.
\nNo desc.
\n4 Maccabees
\n9:8\u20139; 10:15
\nFollowing the point of death, the soul parts from the body to receive either eternal reward or eternal punishment; thus, there is no need for an eschatological bodily resurrection or an eschatological universal judgment.
\nNo desc.
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\n97\u2013115
\nAccording to this tripartite view of anthropology, the spirit goes back to God, the soul enter Hades, and the body returns to dust.
\nNo desc.
\nHellenistic Synagogal Prayers
\n3:24\u201327; 7:9\u201311; 12:46\u201350; 16:7\u20139
\nIn this collection, humans are presented with a soul which is separate from the body. These resurrection passages also consider the soul or human as intended for immortality, though their disobedience led to their \u201ctemporary\u201d death, God promises resurrection. Apart from the Prayer for the Dead (Hel. Syn. Pr. 16), no interest is shown regarding the whereabouts of the soul of the righteous between the time of death and the future resurrection.
\nNo desc.
\nOdes of Solomon
\n42:11\u201320
\nThe dead in Sheol begged Christ for pity, mercy, and resurrection, since they recognized that death had no power over him. They also recognized Christ as the Savior and asked if they could be saved, and then he placed his name on their heads and claimed them as his possession.
\nPhysical<\/p>\n
It becomes clear from Table 13 that the majority of the literary works do not show great interest in the physicality of disembodied souls. Only five of these works provide details regarding the soul\u2019s bodily form, describing anatomical features and appearance (3 Enoch, Apocalypse of Zephaniah, Greek Apocalypse of Ezra, Vision of Ezra, Odes of Solomon). Apart from Odes of Solomon, these literary works are found among the apocalyptic texts of the Pseudepigrapha and are discussed in the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic Literature.
\nThe earliest work, the Apocalypse of Zephaniah, does not present a bodily resurrection view as the soul receives its reward and punishment and transitions from Hades to the heavenly city if deemed worthy. The righteous cross over the crossing place on a boat (Apoc. Zeph. 7:9; 8:1) in order to enter the heavenly realm (2:7; 5:1\u20136; 9:4\u20135) and receive a celestial body (8:3). The wicked soul, however, remains in Hades to be severely punished. The author of the Apocalypse of Zephaniah describes the wicked souls sinking into the sea. Some souls have their hands bound to their neck, \u201cwith their hand and feet being fettered,\u201d other souls were \u201ccovered with mats of fire,\u201d some souls were blind and others had hair (10:4\u20139, 12\u201314). This very graphic punishment scene also appears in the Greek Apocalypse of Ezra and the Vision of Ezra, when describing the destiny of the wicked souls, a sight which even made Ezra weep and beg God for his mercy (Gk. Apoc. Ezra 4:6\u201324; 5:23\u201328; Vis. Ezra 1.8\u201355, 61).
\n3 Enoch does not present an eschatological resurrection and judgment view either, as God sits on the throne of judgment every day passing judgment on those who have just died (3 En. 28:10; 32:2; 44:3). Based on this judgment of the souls, they are divided into three categories: the righteous, the wicked, and the in-between. The resurrected souls will receive \u201cspiritual bodies\u201d with human form. The righteous souls will have bodies like eagles (3 En. 44:5a, i.e. like angels; cf. 3 En. 2:1; 24:11; 26:3), the intermediate souls will be gray (or greenish) since they are tainted by sin (3 En. 44:5b), and the wicked will be black as \u201cthe bottom of a pot\u201d due to their wickedness (3 En. 44:6). The belief that the resurrected souls will have bodies which are different than the earthly body, is also supported by 3 En. 15:1, which describes the transformation Enoch experienced before he could be taken to heaven. Table 14, describes the bodily forms of the soul, as presented by 3 Enoch.<\/p>\n
Table 14. The bodily forms of the soul<\/p>\n
15:1
\nRighteous
\nForthwith my flesh was changed into flames, my sinews into flaming fire, my bones into coals of burning juniper, the light of my eye-lids into splendor of lightnings, my eye-balls into fire-brands, the hair of my head into hot flames, all my limbs into wings of burning fire and the whole of my body into glowing fire.
\n43:2
\nAnd he lifted me up to his side, took me by his hand lifted me up near the Throne of Glory by the place of the Shekina; and he revealed the Throne of Glory to me, and he showed me the spirits that have been created and had returned: and they were flying above to Throne of Glory before the Holy One, blessed be He.
\n44:5
\nIntermediate
\nAnd behold the appearance of their faces (and, lo, it was) as the appearance of children of men, and their bodies like eagles. And not only that but (furthermore) the color of the countenance of the intermediate was like pale grey on account of their deeds, for there are stains upon them until they have become cleaned from their iniquity in the fire.
\n44:6
\nWicked
\nAnd the color of the wicked was like the bottom of a pot on account of the wickedness of their doings.<\/p>\n
In the relevant passage in the Odes of Solomon, Christ is described as visiting the dead in Sheol following his crucifixion (42:11\u201320), to make \u201ca congregation of living among his dead\u201d (42:14). Seeing Christ, the dead ran towards him, begging for pity and mercy, asking him to bring them out \u201cfrom the chains of darkness,\u201d and open the door so they can escape, because they recognized that death had no power over him (42:15\u201317). The Odist concludes his account by noting that Christ heard their plea and claimed them has his possessions by placing his name upon their heads (42:20). This seems to be an interpretation of Peter\u2019s statement that Jesus, upon his death, \u201cwent and made a proclamation to the spirits (\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd) in prison,\u201d who had died in their disobedience \u201cin the days of Noah\u201d (1 Pet. 3:19\u201320) and to Peter\u2019s declaration of faith in Acts 2:22\u201327.<\/p>\n
2. Disembodied Souls, Ghosts, and the New Testament<\/p>\n
The New Testament presents two narratives involving what the disciples believed was a ghost\u2014a spirit or soul of a dead human being. The first ghost story is recorded in the parallel accounts of Mt. 14:25\u201327 and Mk 6:48\u201350, following the feeding of the five thousand men, in addition to their wives and children (Mt. 14:13\u201323; Mk 6:31\u201346). In this story, the disciples found themselves battered by waves and strong winds in the middle of the Sea of Galilee (Mt. 14:24; Mk 6:47\u201348), when they saw what they believed was a ghost walking on the water, coming towards them. In their horror, they cried out in fear, but Jesus was quick to reveal his identity and told them not to be afraid.<\/p>\n
Matthew 14:25\u201327 (BYZ\/NAS)
\nMark 6:48\u201350 (BYZ\/NAS)
\n25\u03a4\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03c1\u03c4\u1fc3 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u1fc7 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bd\u03c5\u03ba\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u1fc6\u03bb\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2, \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2. 26\u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f30\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u03bc\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b8\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03c7\u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd, \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03a6\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ac \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c6\u03cc\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f14\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03be\u03b1\u03bd. 27\u0395\u1f50\u03b8\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2, \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd, \u0398\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5\u00b7 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03b9\u00b7 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c6\u03bf\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5.
\n48\u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03b4\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03b9\u03b6\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b1\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f26\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f41 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03c1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bd\u03c5\u03ba\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2, \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f24\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03bb\u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2. 49\u039f\u1f31 \u03b4\u03ad, \u1f30\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2, \u1f14\u03b4\u03bf\u03be\u03b1\u03bd \u03c6\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u00b7 50\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03c7\u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd. \u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b8\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u02bc \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u0398\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5\u00b7 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03b9, \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c6\u03bf\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5.
\n25And in the fourth watch of the night He came to them, walking on the sea. 26And when the disciples saw Him walking on the sea, they were frightened, saying, \u201cIt is a ghost!\u201d And they cried out for fear. 27But immediately Jesus spoke to them, saying, \u201cTake courage, it is I; do not be afraid.\u201d
\n48And seeing them straining at the oars, for the wind was against them, at about the fourth watch of the night, He came to them, walking on the sea; and He intended to pass by them. 49But when they saw Him walking on the sea, they supposed that it was a ghost, and cried out; 50for they all saw Him and were frightened. But immediately He spoke with them and said to them, \u201cTake courage; it is I, do not be afraid.\u201d<\/p>\n
It is of great importance that this narrative event took place during the fourth watch of the night, between 3:00 and 6:00 in the morning, when night turns into dawn. Jason Combs notes that \u201ccontrary to some depictions in modern media, in antiquity it was believed that ghosts did not glow; therefore, a minute amount of light was required for them to be seen.\u201d This pre-dawn time element would also address the question of how Jesus would have been able to see the boat from the shore (Mk 6:48), or how he was able to find them (Mt. 14:24).
\nPerhaps the most surprising element of this ghost story is that the ghost was the walking on the sea. Combs writes that walking on water is the one thing ghosts are not capable of. This is probably why a boat was necessary to transport the soul in the Apocalypse of Zephaniah. Combs states, \u201cthe Jewish and Greco-Roman audience \u2026 would have been particularly dumbfounded by the disciples\u2019 misunderstanding. If, in addition to this, one considers the research of Yarbro Collins, then the disciples\u2019 misunderstanding becomes even more shocking. Yarbo Collins, as noted previously, reviews a wealth of Greco-Roman sources that describe divine men and gods walking on water.\u201d In other words, if the disciples were aware of the Greco-Roman ghost-tradition, they should have known that it could not have been a ghost. Rather, they should have concluded it was a divine person or God who was walking towards them. Be that as it may, this narrative illustrates that the disciples believed in ghosts and that ghosts were something they were afraid of.
\nIn the second ghost-narrative, the main characters are also the disciples and Jesus. This time, following Jesus\u2019 resurrection and manifestation to the two apostles on the way to Emmaus, he was thought to be a ghost when he suddenly appeared among his followers in Jerusalem in Lk. 24:36\u201343.<\/p>\n
Luke 24:36\u201343 (BYZ\/NAS)
\n36\u03a4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03c3\u1ff3 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u0395\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd. 37\u03a0\u03c4\u03bf\u03b7\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03bc\u03c6\u03bf\u03b2\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f10\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03bd \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd. 38\u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03a4\u03af \u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03af \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd; 39\u1f3c\u03b4\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03ac\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03b9\u00b7 \u03c8\u03b7\u03bb\u03b1\u03c6\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad \u03bc\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f34\u03b4\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f40\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u1f72 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1. 40\u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03b5\u1f30\u03c0\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03ad\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03be\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2. 41\u1f1c\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u1f1c\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad \u03c4\u03b9 \u03b2\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03b8\u03ac\u03b4\u03b5; 42\u039f\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03c0\u03ad\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f30\u03c7\u03b8\u03cd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f40\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5. 43\u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f14\u03c6\u03b1\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd.
\n36And while they were telling these things, He Himself stood in their midst. 37But they were startled and frightened and thought that they were seeing a spirit. 38And He said to them, \u201cWhy are you troubled, and why do doubts arise in your hearts? 39\u201cSee My hands and My feet, that it is I Myself; touch Me and see, for a spirit does not have flesh and bones as you see that I have.\u201d 40And when He had said this, He showed them His hands and His feet. 41And while they still could not believe it for joy and were marveling, He said to them, \u201cHave you anything here to eat?\u201d 42And they gave Him a piece of a broiled fish; 43and He took it and ate it before them.<\/p>\n
It was only after Jesus encouraged the disciples to touch him and they saw him eat food that they were convinced he was not a ghost but that he had truly resurrected from the dead. The important element in this story is that ghosts are not physical; they do not have flesh and bones. This suggests there was a conception that ghosts, even though they resembled the deceased, were immaterial, and as such, could not be touched or consume food. This narrative also suggests it was believed that ghosts could communicate with the living.
\nThese two ghost narratives demonstrate a belief in ghosts and disembodied souls was present among the followers of Christ. The parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk. 16:19\u201331) may add further support to this observation. In this parable, both the rich man and Lazarus can communicate and recognize each other following their death. Although it is not specifically stated, it could be assumed that it is the disembodied souls who are communicating and are experiencing their reward and punishment. This is further supported by the rich man\u2019s request that Lazarus should return to the land of the living, to warn his five brothers in the hope that they would repent, thus avoiding the punishment of the wicked\u2014believing that if \u201csomeone goes to them from the dead, they will repent\u201d (Lk. 16:30, NAS).
\nThere is also a reference to disembodied souls in Rev. 6:9\u201311, following the opening of the fifth seal by the Lamb.<\/p>\n
Revelation 6:9\u201311 (BYZ\/NAS)
\n9\u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f24\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03be\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03ad\u03bc\u03c0\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03c3\u03c6\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u1fd6\u03b4\u03b1, \u03b5\u1f36\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c6\u03b1\u03b3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03c1\u03bd\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f23\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd, 10\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03be\u03b1\u03bd \u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\u1fc7 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u1fc3, \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u1f1d\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5, \u1f41 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, \u1f41 \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b1\u1f37\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2; 11 \u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03b4\u03cc\u03b8\u03b7 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f11\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff3 \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1f74 \u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03ba\u03ae, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c1\u03c1\u03ad\u03b8\u03b7 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03b1\u03cd\u03c3\u03c9\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f14\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f15\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03af.
\n9And when He broke the fifth seal, I saw underneath the altar the souls of those who had been slain because of the word of God, and because of the testimony which they had maintained; 10and they cried out with a loud voice, saying, \u201cHow long, O Lord, holy and true, wilt Thou refrain from judging and avenging our blood on those who dwell on the earth?\u201d 11And there was given to each of them a white robe; and they were told that they should rest for a little while longer, until the number of their fellow servants and their brethren who were to be killed even as they had been, should be completed also.<\/p>\n
This passage mentions the laments of the souls of the Martyrs coming from under the altar, demanding justice. It describes God clothing these righteous souls in white robes and notes that they are asked to wait for justice until the number of the martyrs were filled. Although this passage appears in an apocalyptic text with highly symbolic language, the depictions of the righteous disembodied souls are similar to the images appearing in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha.<\/p>\n
3. Description of the Eschatological Resurrected Body<\/p>\n
The remaining part of this chapter briefly considers the description of the eschatological resurrected body appearing in the afterlife and resurrection passages of the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha as discussed in greater detail in other sections of this monograph and the companion volume. Table 15 provides a list of the literary works of the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha that describe an eschatological resurrected body. It provides relevant textual references in these literary works and a brief description of the eschatological resurrected body described in each of these literary works. Finally, the table indicates the final destiny of the resurrected righteous, if their dwelling will be terrestrial (T) or outer-worldly (O). It should be noted that a question mark (?) follows the location indicator to show that this is the most likely location based on the circumstantial evidence appearing in the literary work.
\nPerhaps the most interesting observation is the importance of the final destination of the resurrected righteous. If the eternal dwelling will be terrestrial, the literary work seems to emphasize the link between the pre-death body and the post-resurrected body. However, if the eternal dwelling will be outer-worldly, the literary work seems to emphasize the need for a celestial body. There also seems to be a relationship between an incorruptible body and the need for a renewal or glorification of the pre-death body which is being resurrected. As such, there is a strong link between the pre-death body and the post-resurrected body for terrestrial dwelling, but this new body is not quite the same as the old one. Some of these literary works also emphasize the importance of recognizing the resurrected, as a part of the reward and punishment process.<\/p>\n
Table 15. Description of the eschatological resurrected body<\/p>\n
Literary Work
\nRef.
\nDescription of the Eschatological Resurrected Body
\nLocation T\/O
\n2 Maccabees
\n7:9, 11b, 36;
\n12:44\u201345;
\n14:46
\nPresents a belief in a bodily resurrection in which every limb of the body, even if completely destroyed by fire, will be restored.
\nT
\nWisdom of Solomon
\n2:21\u201322;
\n3:7\u201313, 18;
\n4:16;
\n4:20\u20135:14
\n\u201cIn the time of their visitation they will shine forth, and will run like sparks through the stubble. They will govern nations and rule over peoples, and the Lord will reign over them forever\u201d (3:7\u20138, NRSV).
\nThe unrighteous will recognize those they persecuted, suggesting the resurrected bodies resemble the pre-death bodies.
\nT
\n4 Ezra
\n7:31\u201344;
\n14:35
\n\u201cThe earth shall give up those who are asleep in it, and the dust those who rest there in silence; and the chambers shall give up the souls that have been committed to them\u201d (7:32, NRSV).
\n\u201cIt is shown them [the righteous] how their face is to shine like the sun, and how they are to be made like the light of the stars, being incorruptible from then on\u201d (7:97, NRSV; cf. 7:125).
\nThe author seems to draw a close relationship between the pre-death body and the resurrected body, noting the body of the righteous will be glorified when being made incorruptible.
\nT
\nBook of Watchers
\n(1 En. 1\u201336)
\n1:7, 9;
\n5:7\u201310;
\n22:3\u20134, 13
\n24:2\u201325:6
\n\u201cThen they shall be glad and rejoice in gladness, and they shall enter into the hole (place); its fragrance shall (penetrate) their bones, long life will they live on earth, such as your father lived in their days\u201d (OTP 1:26).
\nThe author reveals little about the resurrected body following the resurrection of the righteous soul and the eschatological judgment when they will be rewarded with \u201clight, joy, and peace, and they shall inherit the earth\u201d (5:7).
\nT
\nBook of Parables
\n(1 En. 37\u201371)
\n51:1\u20135;
\n61:1\u20135;
\n62:13\u201316
\nThe author considers the dead bodies (and souls?) as great treasures which were only placed in the earth or in Sheol (51:1a\u2013b) for safekeeping awaiting the eschatological judgment (\u201cin those days\u201d), or as a great debt which needs to be repaid in full (51:1c) whenever God decides to collect what belongs to him.
\nFollowing the eschatological judgment, the righteous will be rewarded with a bodily existence that will never end.
\n\u201cThe righteous and elect ones shall rise from the earth and shall cease being of downcast face. They shall wear the garments of glory. These garments of yours shall become the garments of life from the Lord of the Spirits. Neither shall your garments wear out, nor your glory come to an end before the Lord of the Spirit.\u201d (62:15\u201316).
\nThe author seems to draw a strong connection between the pre-death body and the resurrected body. However, the eschatological body is described as having a garment of glory.
\nT
\nBook of Dream Visions
\n(1 En. 83\u201390)
\n89:36\u201338, 75;
\n90:20\u201337
\nThe term \u201csleep\u201d is used in the dream vision, suggesting death is temporary and the dead will resurrect. The author also describes the eschatological judgment and the new age. The wicked will be judged and \u201cthrown into that fiery abyss\u201d to be burned (90:26\u201327).
\nThe description of the new age includes a new temple which will be able to house all God\u2019s righteous sheep. The dream vision concludes by noting that the new age will be filled with peace and all the sheep, the wild beasts, and all the birds of heaven were changed and became white cattle (90:34\u201338).
\nThis suggests that the new earth will include both Jews and Gentiles and a bodily transformation into the primordial condition.
\nT
\n1 Enoch\u2014Appendices
\n(1 En. 106\u20138)
\n108
\nThose who have their name written in the book of life will have their spirits resurrected (v. 11), transformed (into shining lights, v. 12a), manifested (shining like stars, v. 12), and exalted (heavenly enthronement, v. 12b) by this vindication.
\nThe author seems to suggest a physical reality of the righteous in heaven, more like a bodily experience. The saved will sit on the throne of their honor (v. 12b) and they will shine like the righteous in Dan. 12:3.
\nThis may suggest that they will receive \u201cnew\u201d bodies which radiate light in contrast to the old ones which were buried in the earth.
\nO
\n2 Enoch
\nJ32:1; 39:5;
\n42:7; J65:6
\nThe author perceives a resurrection hope in Gen. 3:19, noting that although a body will return to earth at the point of death, the person will once more be recreated from this earth at the second coming (J32:1).
\nThe righteous will receive their eternal inheritance in Paradise, located in the third Heaven (8:1\u20139:1; 42:3\u201314; 44), receiving glorious bodies (22:8) and becoming like the angels (22:10; 66:7).
\nO
\nSibylline Oracles
\n2.221\u2013251
\nThe resurrection passage begins by noting the central role God holds in the resurrection process since He will give \u201csouls and breath and voice to the dead\u201d (2.221\u2013222) which, according to Gen. 2:7, are the crucial divine elements required to create life. The opening statement is followed by a detailed description of the resurrection process itself, taken from Ezek. 37:1\u201310, concluding that the universal resurrection will happen in a single day (2.226).
\nIn the Christian addition to this Oracle (2.238\u2013250), Moses will be present at the eschatological judgment, after he has put on flesh (2.245\u2013246), perhaps suggesting that he had a non-bodily existence before the time of judgment, or a non-earthly body.
\nThe use of Ezek. 37:1\u201310, creates a strong link between the pre-death body and the resurrected body as the resurrection is depicted as the reversal of the dying process.
\nT
\n4.179\u201392
\nLike the resurrection passage in 2.221\u2013226, Sib. Or. 4.181 uses the imagery of Ezek. 37:1\u201310 with the same emphasis on God as the initiator, although this is a significantly abbreviated reference: \u201cGod himself will again fashion the bones and ashes of men and he will raise them up mortals again as they were before\u201d (4.181\u2013182).
\nThe righteous will be rewarded with a pleasant life on a fertile earth (4.45\u201346, 187) while the impious will be punished in the fire of Gehenna (4.43\u201344, 184\u2013186).
\nThis passage makes a strong link between the pre-death body and the resurrected body, noting the resurrected will be as they were before.
\nT
\n7.144\u2013145
\nFollowing the bodily resurrection, the wicked will \u201cburn in spirit by their perishing flesh for the years of ages forever\u201d (7.126\u2013128) while the righteous will be provided for by God on a recreated world (7.144\u2013151).
\nT
\n8.82\u201383,
\n226\u2013228,
\n413\u2013416
\nThe author might allude to Isa. 29:18\u201319 and 35:4\u20137 when describing the eschatological resurrection event and the changes that will take place\u2014the blind will see, the death will hear, and those who cannot speak will speak (8.205\u2013212).
\nThis passage suggests the resurrected body will not be identical to the pre-death body as the resurrected body will be renewed.
\nThe second half of the book states Jesus will resurrect the dead by breaking the gates of Hades (8.226\u2013228), suggesting a strong link between the pre-death body and the resurrected body.
\nT
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\n1:23;
\n2:26;
\n4:36\u201343
\nThe righteous will rise up uncorrupted (4:36) and brought to Paradise.
\nThe text does not reveal whether the resurrected body will be different from the pre-death body, although it must resemble it since the righteous are recognized by the prophet when brought to Paradise (5:22).
\nO
\nQuestion of Ezra
\nA5, 10;
\nB3, 12\u201314
\nIn the eschatological resurrection, the souls \u201ccome and are united each with its body which had been returned to dust and which the sound of the trumpet had built and aroused and renewed\u201d (B13).
\nThe author seems to suggest that the resurrected body is the same as the pre-death body, although it has been renewed.
\nO
\nApocalypse of Sedrach
\n1:21
\nThe dominant view is that the soul parts the body upon death to receive its reward or punishment (9:1; 11:11; 16:5\u20136). The righteous souls are brought to Paradise\/Third Heaven\/God\u2019s Kingdom\/\u201cbosom of Abraham\u201d (2:5; 9:1; 14:5; 15:5; 16:6).
\nHowever, there is one resurrection statement in the Christian sermon on love which states that the \u201cson of God\u201d came down, thus, \u201cdeath was trampled down, Hades was made captive, Adam was recalled (from death), and through love one flock was made thereafter of angels and men\u201d (1.21).
\nThe Christian text seems to suggest that the pre-death and resurrected body is the same as it is liberated from captivity in Hades.
\nO
\n2 Baruch
\n30:1\u20135;
\n42:8;
\n49\u201352;
\n57:2
\nThe eschatological resurrection is depicted as universal. The soul of the dead will once more join their former body, the body from the earth and the soul from the treasuries. Both the righteous and the wicked will be resurrected with the same body\/form as when they died, so everyone will be able to be recognized.
\nDuring the eschatological judgment process, both the righteous and the wicked will experience a transformation which will expose their true character. The righteous will be glorified and the shape of their faces will be changed into \u201cthe light of their beauty\u201d (51:3), \u201cinto the splendor of angels\u201d (51:5) and they will be \u201clike the angels and be equal to the stars\u201d (51:10). The wicked, upon seeing the transformation of the righteous, will also be transformed. Their \u201cshapes will be made more evil\u201d (51:2), \u201cinto startling vision and horrible shapes; and they will waste away even more\u201d (51:5). At the conclusion of the judgment, the righteous will enter Paradise, the world to come, while the wicked will be sent to the place of torment.
\nThe righteous seem to experience a second transformation while in Paradise. From being like and equal to the angels, and having the ability to \u201cchange into any shape which they wished\u201d (51:10), they will become greater than the angels (51:12).
\nO?
\nApocalypse of Elijah
\n(C)
\n1:8\u201310; 4:5,
\n15, 27; 5:2\u20136
\nThe apocalypse reveals that the righteous, those who are sealed with God\u2019s name on their forehead and his seal on their right hand (1:9), will receive thrones and crowns in heaven (1:8) and walk with the angels up to the city of God (1:10).
\nWhen the righteous die, their spirit and their soul will return to God while their body will turn into rock to protect it from being eaten by wild animals (4:25\u201326).
\nOn the last day of the great judgment, the righteous will be resurrected and receive their reward. There will be one reward for those who died as martyrs and a different reward for those who fled into the wilderness to escape martyrdom, the first group will be in the kingdom of Christ (4:27\u201329) while the second will be raised up and to receive a place of rest (4:27a).
\nThe resurrected righteous \u201cwill see the sinners and those who persecuted them and those who handed them over to death in their torments,\u201d suggesting the resurrected bodies resemble the pre-death bodies.
\nUpon the final destruction of the Antichrist, the righteous will dwell on a newly created earth with Christ for a thousand years (5:36\u201339).
\nO\/T
\n(H)
\nThe apocalypse depicts the resurrection process as the reversal of death, in which the dust of the dead is reshaped and \u201cmade like (the forms they had) when they were formerly alive.\u201d This resurrection act is supported by quoting Deut. 32:29 and Ezek. 37:8.
\nIn Elijah\u2019s resurrection vision, God\u2019s angels play an active role. They are the ones who open the tombs, inject the dead righteous \u201cwith their \u2018animating breaths\u2019 \u201d so they will revive, and help the newly resurrected with standing with their feet.
\nThe resurrection passages describe the Garden with the great tree, the New Jerusalem, and the houses which have been prepared for the righteous.
\nT
\nT12P
\nSim. 6:7;
\nLevi 18:14;
\nJud. 25;
\nZeb. 10:1\u20133;
\nDan 5:7\u201313;
\nBenj. 10:4\u201311
\nThese testaments contain several allusions to the eschatological resurrection in eight of the \u201cdeath and burial\u201d sections of the book. In these passages the word \u201csleep\u201d is used as a metaphor for death which implies that, at one point in the future, they will be woken up from their sleep and regain life.
\nThe \u201climited resurrection\u201d passages focus on the eschatological resurrection of the patriarch and the saints, while the destiny of the wicked is mostly ignored. Following the resurrection of the patriarchs, they \u201cwill once more be chiefs among the people\u201d (T. Jud. 25:1).
\nThe universal resurrection passage of this collection mentions that everyone will be changed, \u201csome destined for glory, others \u201cfor dishonor\u201d (T. Benj. 10:8) as a result of the eschatological judgment (T. Benj. 10:10)\u2014borrowing phraseology from Dan. 12:2.
\nO?
\nT. Job
\n33:2\u20133;
\n39:4\u201311;
\n40:1\u20136;
\n46:1\u201353:8
\nThe dead bodies of Job\u2019s children were \u201ctaken up into haven by the Creator their King\u201d (39:11), suggesting a bodily resurrection, but in this case, not an eschatological one.
\nJob asks his wife and his friends to \u201clook up with your eyes to the east and see my children crowned with the splendor of the heavenly one (40:1).
\nThis suggests their earthly bodies were taken to heaven, however, in the case of Job\u2019s death, his body was buried while his soul was brought to heaven. At the day of the eschatological resurrection, it could be assumed Job\u2019s soul would once more join his body.
\nO
\nT. Abraham
\nA13:6;
\nB7:15\u201316
\nA bodily resurrection is only specifically mentioned in Recension B of the testament, although it is implied in Recension A. This resurrection will take place at the end of the seven thousand ages, when the soul will once more unite with the body (B7:15\u201316). The resurrection of Recension B would easily be harmonized with Recension A as it would fit between the first and the following two judgments. If this eschatological resurrection is indeed a unique element in Recension B, there seems to be little reason for the soul to be reunified with the body prior to the eschatological and universal second judgment which will be presided over by the twelve tribes of Israel.
\nO
\nT. Adam
\n3:3\u20135
\nAs far as the prophecy is concerned, Adam\u2019s body (and that of his posterity) will be buried in the grave, be consumed by maggots and worms (3:2), and become food for the serpent (3:3). However, God will not let Adam (and his posterity) be left to \u201cwaste away in Sheol\u201d forever (3:3), but in his grace, he will resurrect Adam\u2019s body when he comes into this world (3:3\u20134) and, it could be assumed, the bodies of his posterity at the end of the world (3:5). God will make Adam into a god, placing him at \u201cthe right hand of my divinity\u201d and restore to Adam and his posterity \u201cthat which is the justice of heaven\u201d (3:4).
\nO
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\n4:14\u201318
\nAt the point of death, it could be assumed a judgment of the soul takes place as the righteous soul leaves the \u201crobe of flesh\u201d behind and is brought to the seventh heaven to receive the \u201crobes of above\u201d and be with the saints (4:16; 8:14\u201315; 9:7\u20139).
\nThe hosts of saints who accompany God and his angels at the Second Coming, when descending from the seventh heaven, is the resurrection of the righteous, as they will once more be clothed in the \u201crobes of flesh\u201d and become a part of the earthly messianic kingdom.
\nThe period of the earthly messianic kingdom concludes with the resurrection and the judgment of the wicked. The wicked will be destroyed by the fire while the righteous will return to the seventh heaven, leaving their \u201crobes of flesh\u201d behind and receiving their \u201crobes of above\u201d (4:18\u201319).
\nO
\nLife of Adam and Eve
\nGr. 10:2;
\n13:3\u20135; 28:4;
\n37:5; 39:2\u20133;
\n41:1\u20133;
\n43:2\u20133
\nVita 42:1\u20135;
\n47:3; 51:2
\nIn the bodily resurrection, the soul will once more return to the body. One of the resurrection passages seems to suggest everyone will be made into a holy person through a process of removing their evil heart and replacing it with a heart that understands good and worships God alone. Thus, they will not sin anymore. It is also suggested that, following the resurrection, they will have full access to the Garden and God will be in their midst.
\nThis literary composition presents a strong link between the pre-death body and the resurrected body.
\nT?
\nPseudo-Philo
\n3:9; 16:3;
\n19:12\u201313, 15;
\n23:13; 26:12;
\n48:1
\nAt the time of the eschatological visitation (19:12\u201313), God will resurrect all the dead in order to bring them to judgment. The souls will once more be unified with their bodies and they will be judged as a unit (3:9\u201310; 19:12\u201313; 25:7). Those who are deemed righteous will gain eternal life and dwell in happiness with God in the world-to-come (19:12\u201313; 23:13).
\nSamuel, when brought back to life, looked different than the dead Philistines that the witch of Endor had resurrected during her 40-year-long career. She describes Samuel as a divine being clothed in a white robe with a mantle placed over it, escorted by two angels (64:6). The witch description suggests the righteous dead, when brought back to life, look different than those who are wicked.
\nT
\nLives of the Prophets
\n2:11\u201319;
\n3:10\u201312
\nThe author views the resurrection hope in light of Ezek. 37:1\u201314, giving the passage a dual interpretation\u2014both national and personal (3:12).
\nT
\n4 Baruch
\n6:6\u201310;
\n9:12\u201314
\nThe author states that God will reward those who love him, and he will \u201craise them in their tabernacles\u201d (bodies). Just like he preserved the figs in the basket for sixty-six years, he will also preserve the flesh of those who do the things commanded by the angel of righteousness (6:6\u201310).
\nHe also draws a parallel between Jeremiah\u2019s ecstatic faint and the eschatological resurrection. In the same way Jeremiah\u2019s soul left his tabernacle or body at the beginning of his ecstatic faint, so does the soul of a person leave the body upon death. Jeremiah\u2019s soul returned to his body after the three-day-long ecstatic faint, and so too will a person will return to life in the eschatological resurrection.
\nThe composition makes a strong connection between the pre-death body and the resurrected body.
\nO
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\n103\u2013104a
\nRegardless whether a person lives an ethical life or not, upon death, all bodies will turn back to dust, all spirits will turn back to the air, and all souls will dwell in Hades under God\u2019s rulership. However, the author leaves the possibility open for some of these souls to be reunified with their former bodies and spirits, and become gods, who will dwell in Heaven for all eternity.
\nO
\nPsalms of Solomon
\n2:31, 34\u201335;
\n3:11\u201312;
\n14:9\u201310;
\n15:1\u20137, 10\u201313
\nIn the eschatological resurrection, the righteous will be raised up to glory, and be brought to the judgment. The righteous will be shown mercy and be kept from the humiliation which is in store for the sinner.
\nIt is not clear where the righteous will spend their eternity. However, the most likely place is heaven as the righteous will be \u201craised up to glory\u201d (2:31), and their life will be \u201cin the light of the Lord\u201d (3:12).
\nO?
\nHellenistic Synagogal Prayers
\n3:24\u201327;
\n7:11;
\n12:46\u201350;
\n16:7\u20139
\nThe righteous are promised that they will only have to sleep for a little while before they will be \u201ccalled forth to new birth\u201d (3:27), a possible allusion to Gen. 3:19b.
\nThe righteous will be glorified and receive immortality (12:45, 52).
\nO?
\nOdes of Solomon
\n22:4\u201312;
\n42:11\u201320
\nThe author seems to view the resurrection in light of Ezek. 37:1\u201310, as the dead are described as heaving very dry bones, and a reversal is taking place in which the bones are once more covered in flesh. However, it is only when God\u2019s breath enters the motionless body that it becomes alive. Thus, resurrection is the reversal of the dying process and parallels God\u2019s original act of creating humans out of dust.
\nJesus is also described as entering Sheol to speak to the dead. The dead begged Christ for pity, mercy, and resurrection, because they recognized that death had no power over him (42:15\u201317) and he had the power to save (42:18). In response, Christ placed his name on their heads and claimed them as his possession (42:18, 20).
\nT<\/p>\n
4. The Eschatological Resurrected Body and the New Testament<\/p>\n
There are several New Testament accounts of a bodily resurrection from death where the resurrected continues their previous mortal life. In these passages, the resurrected person is identical in all ways to the pre-death self, apart from the medical condition which caused their death in the first place. The most well-known account is the account of Lazarus (Jn 11:1\u201345). For a list of resurrection texts appearing in the New Testament, see Appendix B.
\nA bodily resurrection to an eternal life is quite different. This is hinted at in the narrative taking place on the Mount of Transfiguration, in which Jesus is transfigured before the disciples\u2019 eyes\u2014\u201cHis face shone like the sun (or his face became different\u2014Lk. 9:29), and His garments became as white as light\u201d (Mt. 17:1, NAS) or \u201cradiant and exceedingly white\u201d (Mk 9:3, NAS). The narrative adds that both Elijah and Moses appeared with him (Mt. 3; Mk 9:5; Lk. 9:30), a prophet who had cheated death (2 Kgs 2) and a prophet who had been brought (resurrected) to Heaven at one point after death (an event possibly alluded to in Jude 1:9). The changing nature of the resurrected incorruptible body is also hinted at when Jesus was not immediately recognized by his followers (Lk. 24:13\u201321\u2014thought to be a fellow traveler; Jn 20:11\u201318\u2014thought to be a gardener; Jn 21:1\u201313\u2014thought to be a stranger at the shore). The resurrected Jesus is presented in the Gospels as a \u201cspirit being\u201d who could suddenly appear and disappear (Lk. 24:36\u201351; Jn 20:26\u201329).
\nIn conclusion, the most relevant text regarding a resurrection to immortality is 1 Corinthian 15, where the questions of how the dead are raised and what kind of body they will have (1 Cor. 15:35) are addressed. Paul uses the analogy of a seed which only grows or \u201cresurrects\u201d after it has been buried or \u201cdied\u201d in the ground to describe the nature of the resurrected body. This analogy is also used in early rabbinic Judaism to support and illustrate a resurrection belief (b. Ketub. 111b; b. Sanh. 90b; Eccl. Rab. 1:6\u20137; 3:11; cf. Gen. Rab. 28:3; Lev. Rab. 18:1; Eccl. Rab. 12:5). Paul makes the case that the resurrected body (seedling) is different than the buried body (seed), although the seedling comes from the seed. The resurrected body of the righteous is incorruptible, glorious, powerful, spiritual, and is ready for an eternal life, while the current body is corruptible and will therefore die (1 Cor. 15:42\u201344). However, Paul makes it clear that the righteous who are not dead when God returns will be changed and transformed so they also can partake in the heavenly Paradise (1 Cor. 15:51\u201354). Paul\u2019s description parallels several aspects of the death and resurrection view presented in 2 Baruch (see Table 18 and its associated discussion in the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic Literature). However, unlike 2 Bar. 50:2\u20134, Paul is only concerned with the future of the righteous. Table 16 outlines Paul\u2019s contrasts between the corruptible terrestrial body and the incorruptible, outer-worldly body\u2014that is spiritual and required by the heavenly realm. Paul\u2019s understanding, therefore, is in line with the general observation emerging from the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha, which is perhaps best illustrated in the Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah, with the \u201crobe of flesh\u201d and the \u201crobe of above.\u201d<\/p>\n
Table 16. The nature of the eschatological resurrected body in 1 Corinthians 15<\/p>\n
Reference
\nBody that is Buried
\nEschatological Resurrected Body
\n15:36\u201342a
\nDead body likened to a seed sown in the ground
\nResurrected body likened to a seedling emerging from the ground
\n15:42b
\nSown as a perishable body
\nRaised as an imperishable body
\n15:43a
\nSown in dishonor
\nRaised in glory
\n15:43b
\nSown in weakness
\nRaised in power
\n15:44
\nSown a natural body
\nRaised a spiritual body
\n15:45\u201348
\nThe first Adam (Gen. 2:7)
\nThe last Adam (Christ)
\nBecame a living soul
\nBecame a life-giving spirit
\nFrom the earth
\nFrom heaven
\n15:49
\nBears the image of the earthy
\nBears the image of the heavenly
\n15:50
\nFlesh and blood
\nPerishable
\nImperishable
\n15:52\u201356
\nPerishable
\nRaised imperishable\u2014put on the imperishable
\nMortal
\nPut on immortality
\nDeath
\nVictory over death
\nSin
\n(No more sin)<\/p>\n
Chapter 7<\/p>\n
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION<\/p>\n
This chapter functions as the summary and conclusion both for this monograph and the companion volume, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocalyptic Literature. This being the case, for ease of reference, figures from the companion volume will be prefixed with \u201c1-,\u201d while figures from the current monograph will be prefixed with \u201c2-.\u201d The resurrection passages appearing in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, present very diverse views. Each literary work containing a \u201clife-after-death\u201d view seems to present a unique perspective, even those compositions presenting scant details regarding the events following death and the eschatological time. This study identified eighteen distinct and complete views (from death to eternity) regarding life-after-death with varying degrees of complexity ranging from the basic view of 2 Maccabees (Fig. 1\u20132) and Psalms of Solomon (Fig. 2\u20136) to the more complex views of the Book of Watchers (Fig. 1\u20136) and 2 Baruch (Fig. 1\u201315). Considering this literature, it becomes apparent that there is no progression from a basic to a more complex death and resurrection view as multiple levels of complexity are attested throughout this period. Thus, there is no linear development of the resurrection belief; rather, multiple views co-existed, although an eschatological bodily resurrection belief became the central tenet for both Rabbinic Judaism and the Early Christian Church. Moreover, there seems to be no evidence in this literature that supports a shift in focus from a bodily resurrection toward the immortality of the soul, as the fate of both the body and soul seem to be of great interest to the authors and the communities to which they belonged. From this study, it could also be concluded that just because Jewish and\/or Christian texts borrowed terms or concepts also present in Greek philosophical texts, it does not necessarily mean the whole philosophical framework was accepted. Rather, this study has shown these terms and concepts were adapted to fit into the theological framework of the composition.<\/p>\n
1. Human Anthropology<\/p>\n
One of the primary elements impacting these diverse resurrection views is the understanding of human anthropology. Figure 2\u20137 shows the three positions present in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha. The first (Body) considers a living human being as only consisting of a body and life-giving-breath from God. Following death, the body returns to dust while the breath returns to God. Thus, the person ceases to exist as there is no element of that person existing past the physical death of the body. The second (Body + Soul) is a bipartite view which suggests a person is both a body and a soul\u2014a soul which lives on after the physical death of the person. The third (Body + Soul + Spirit) is a tripartite view which suggests a person consists of a body, soul, and spirit, the latter two components existing beyond death. The books appearing in grey, in these three categories of Figure 2\u20137, do not clearly state the anthropological view, although details provided in these literary works make their suggested placement the most likely. From Figure 2\u20137, it becomes clear that the predominant view appearing in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha is the bipartite view (Body + Soul), while only a handful of books seem to belong to the first category (Body). Only one book belongs to the tripartite category (Body + Soul + Spirit). The view that humans have a soul that exists independently from the body after the point of death, therefore, is by far the majority position presented by these books. As such, if a Jewish or Christian document dated to the Second Temple period seemingly presents a bipartite view, strong evidence from the larger context needs to be provided by the exegete if a different anthropological view is argued. It could also be argued that if the anthropological view of a certain text is not specifically stated, the reader could assume the writer held a bipartite view, unless there is evidence in the text to the contrary. This raises an important question for a New Testament scholar. If Jesus seems to present a bipartite view in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk. 16:19\u201331), or in his warning against the one who can kill both the body and soul (Mt. 10:28), could it be assumed this view of the afterlife and anthropology represent Jesus\u2019 personal theological view? If this is the case, Jesus\u2019 personal view would certainly be in line with the majority view appearing in Second Temple period literature (see Fig. 2\u20137).<\/p>\n
Human Anthropology
\nBody
\nSirach
\n2 Maccabees
\nSibylline Oracles 4
\nTestament of Adam
\nPsalms of Solomon
\nBody + Soul
\nWisdom of Solomon
\n4 Ezra
\nBook of Watchers (1 En. 1\u201336)
\nBook of Parables (1 En. 37\u201371)
\nBook of the Epistles of Enoch (1 En. 91\u2013105)
\n2 Enoch
\n3 Enoch
\nSibylline Oracles 1, 2, 7, 8
\nApocryphon of Ezekiel
\nApocalypse of Zephaniah
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\nVision of Ezra
\nQuestion of Ezra
\nApocalypse of Sedrach
\n2 Baruch
\nApocalypse of Elijah (C)
\nApocalypse of Elijah (H)
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\nTestament of the Twelve Patriarchs
\nTestament of Job
\nTestament of Abraham
\nJubilees
\nJoseph and Aseneth
\nLife of Adam and Eve
\n4 Baruch
\nHistory of the Rechabites
\n4 Maccabees
\nPseudo-Philo
\nHellenistic Synagogal Prayers
\nOdes of Solomon
\nBody + Soul + Spirit
\nPseudo-Phocylides<\/p>\n
Figure 7. Human Anthropology\u2014The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha<\/p>\n
Conversely, if Jesus does not hold a bipartite view, an alternative explanation is warranted for his statements. With regard to parables, could a parable present an overarching theological framework (e.g. in the case of the Rich Man and Lazarus, upon death the soul leaves the body, the righteous are brought to Paradise for their reward while the wicked are brought to Hades for their punishment, and there is a possibility of a resurrection) which contradicts the personal view of the person recounting the parable\u2014making the main theological point of the parable true, yet the overall theological framework false? Although this is an important question, this issue is outside the scope of this study.
\nThe bi-and tripartite view of human anthropology introduces several additional elements impacting the death and resurrection view. First, what is the nature of this soul: is it mortal or immortal? Second, where does it go when parting from the body? Third, does the soul of the righteous and the wicked face a different fate following the physical death? If it does, it would require a postmortem evaluation of the soul\u2014a judgment of the soul. Fourth, will the soul be reunified with the body in the eschatological future? An option requiring a bodily resurrection. Fifth, will the soul be in a conscious or an unconscious state while awaiting this eschatological reunification? The literature belonging to the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha provides a different answer to these questions, hence the diversity in resurrection views (see Table 17). Table 17 lists the destination of the disembodied soul of the righteous and the wicked, indicated the state of the soul while disembodied (conscious\/unconscious), and notes whether the soul will experience its reward or punishment while in this state. A question mark indicates the literary work does not provide a clear answer. The righteous and the wicked soul have been given the abbreviation R and W respectively.<\/p>\n
Table 17. The disembodied souls<\/p>\n
Literary Work
\nDisembodied Soul
\nState of the Soul
\nExperiences its Reward\/Punishment
\nRighteous (R)
\nWicked (W)
\nConscious
\nUnconscious
\nWisdom of Solomon
\nGod
\n?
\n4 Ezra
\nReturn to God for 7 days before sent to a holding chamber
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\nBook of Watchers
\nHolding chambers
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\nBook of the Epistle of Enoch
\nSheol
\nR?\/W
\nR?
\n2 Enoch
\n?
\n?
\n3 Enoch
\n3 days in the grave \u2192 judgment before God\u2019s throne
\nR\/W
\nSibylline Oracles
\nHeavenly Vault
\nHades, the Murky dark
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\nApocalypse of Zephaniah
\n3 days in the air \u2192 judgment in Hades
\nRighteous \u2192 Heaven
\nWicked \u2192 remains in Hades
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\nHeaven\/Paradise
\nBowel of Hades
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\nVision of Ezra
\nInfernal Regions
\nR\/W
\nQuestion of Ezra
\nHigher Atmosphere
\nLower Atmosphere
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\nApocalypse of Sedrach
\nThird Heaven\/Paradise God\u2019s Kingdom Bosom of Abraham
\nPlace of Punishment
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\n2 Baruch
\nTreasuries for the Souls
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\nApocalypse of Elijah
\nWestern Region
\nR?\/W
\nR\/W
\nTestament of the Twelve Patriarchs
\nCaptivated by Beliar
\nR\/W
\nTestament of Job
\nHeaven
\nHades
\nTestament of Abraham
\nJudgment at the first gate of Heaven
\nRighteous \u2192 Paradise
\nIn-betweens \u2192 Limbo
\nWicked \u2192 Destruction
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\nSeventh Heaven
\nSheol
\nR
\nW?
\nR
\nLife of Adam and Eve
\nThird Heaven?
\n?
\nR?\/W?
\nPseudo-Philo
\nUnderworld
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\n4 Maccabees
\nHeaven
\nFiery torment
\nR\/W
\nR\/W
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\nSpirit \u2192 God
\nSoul \u2192 Hades
\nR\/W
\nOdes of Solomon
\nSheol
\nR\/W<\/p>\n
It should be noted that this reunification at the time of the eschatological resurrection and judgment, presented in most of these resurrection passages of this period, does not support the Platonic or Gnostic notion that the soul (\u201cthe spiritual\u201d) is pure while the body (\u201cthe physical or material\u201d) is impure (the source of evil which has imprisoned the soul), because the righteous will spend eternity in their bi-or tripartite state. Moreover, the soul described in these writings, at times, seems to have a very literal and physical depiction, as the reward and punishment experienced by the soul requires a \u201cbody.\u201d The Vision of Ezra (Fig. 1\u201312) serves as a good example.<\/p>\n
2. The Nature of the Soul<\/p>\n
Figure 2\u20138 shows the three categories pertaining to the nature of the wicked soul. It is not helpful to consider the souls of the righteous as they will experience immortality as a part of their reward. The focus should be on the soul of the wicked as their fate is where one would naturally see significant variation in the views relating to the immortality of the soul. The first category of books presents the view that the soul is mortal in the sense that the wicked (Body + Soul) will be completely annihilated. The second category of books present the soul as having a beginning, but no end. Therefore, the souls of the wicked will also exist throughout eternity. Unlike the righteous, who will receive their eternal reward, the wicked will experience their eternal punishment. The third category of books presents the soul as being truly immortal in that the soul has neither a beginning nor an end\u2014they pre-existed life on earth and they will experience an eternity of reward or punishment. The books appearing in grey in these three categories do not clearly state the destiny of the wicked souls, although details provided in these literary works make their suggested placement the most likely. It should also be noted that several books belonging to Second Temple period literature do not seem to show much interest in the final destiny of the wicked but focus instead on the reward in store for the righteous, therefore making it difficult to determine the nature of the soul in those books.<\/p>\n
Soul of the Wicked
\nMortal Soul
\n(Final Destruction of the Wicked)
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\nPseudo-Philo
\nLife of Adam and Eve
\nHellenistic Synagogal Prayers
\nOdes of Solomon
\nImmortal Soul
\n(Beginning but no end)
\n4 Ezra
\nBook of Watchers
\nBook of the Epistle of Enoch
\nSibylline Oracles 7, 8
\nApocalypse of Zephaniah
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\nVision of Ezra
\nQuestion of Ezra
\nApocalypse of Sedrach
\n2 Baruch
\nApocalypse of Elijah (H)
\nTestament of the Twelve Patriarchs
\nTestament of Job
\nTestament of Abraham
\n4 Maccabees
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\nImmortal Soul
\n(No beginning and no end)
\nWisdom of Solomon
\n2 Enoch
\n3 Enoch<\/p>\n
Figure 8. Human Anthropology\u2014The Souls of the Wicked<\/p>\n
3. Scope of the Resurrection<\/p>\n
The diverse resurrection views appearing in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha also differ in their scope, ranging from a universal resurrection to a more limited one. The limited resurrection views consider the resurrection as the eschatological reward of the righteous (Figs. 1\u20132, 2\u20135, and 2\u20136), while views containing a resurrection, both of the righteous and the wicked, seem to emphasize God\u2019s theodicy, in which the righteous are rewarded for their loyalty and the wicked are punished or destroyed due to their disloyalty to God and His instructions. Although most of the resurrection views in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha contain a dual resurrection, they are not always universal in nature, as demonstrated by the Book of Watchers (Fig. 1\u20136) in which only some of the wicked are resurrected to receive punishment. Most of the resurrection views also consider the dual resurrection of both the righteous and the wicked as an important aspect of the reward and punishment process. A portion of the reward of the righteous is to see the punishment given to their former persecutors and enemies, while a portion of the punishment of the wicked is to see rewards bestowed upon the righteous and those they previously persecuted (only one book, Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah, presents a view similar to the book of Revelation, introducing a time gap between the resurrection of the righteous and the wicked [Fig. 2\u20132]). The question of the nature of the resurrected body then becomes important\u2014will their body look the same as before they died or different? If seeing what happens to \u201cthe others\u201d is a part of the reward or punishment, then it becomes very important that they recognize \u201cthe others.\u201d Otherwise, who cares? This is the resurrection view presented in 2 Baruch (Fig. 1\u201315).<\/p>\n
4. Number and Function of the Judgments<\/p>\n
There is also variation in resurrection views when it comes to the function and the number of judgments. If considering the 18 unique and complete death and resurrection views outlined in this study, it becomes apparent that most of these views present an eschatological judgment (Judgment II), in which the righteous will receive their reward and the wicked their punishment. It also becomes apparent that many of these views also have a judgment of the soul following the physical death of a person. This judgment determines whether the soul is righteous, neutral, or wicked, and their immediate and\/or future fate (Judgment I). In the case of resurrection being a reward for the righteous, it would also require a pre-resurrection judgment to determine who these righteous are. The Testament of Abraham presents an additional Judgment process (Judgment III) which will also take place in the eschatological time and will be universal in nature (Fig. 2\u20131). Table 18 outlines the number of judgments presented in these 18 unique views\u2014brackets indicate the given judgment is not clearly mentioned in the literary work, although it is certainly implied. It should also be noted that Judgment I is an ongoing judgment as it judges the newly dead until the time of the eschatological resurrection and judgment. Thus, Apocalypse of Zephaniah (Fig. 1\u201310) and Questions of Ezra (Fig. 1\u201313) allow for repentant wicked souls to move to the category of the righteous souls. The neutral souls of the Testament of Abraham, those who are in need of an additional righteous deed to be counted among the righteous, are described as being in a state of limbo until the day of eschatological judgment unless someone intercedes on their behalf, an act deemed to push them over the line (Fig. 2\u20131). 3 Enoch also describes \u201cintermediate souls\u201d who are purified from sin in Sheol until they are deemed pure and can then join the \u201crighteous\u201d souls in heaven. However, 3 Enoch does not describe an eschatological resurrection and judgment. Instead, it describes a daily ongoing judgment, leaving a potential category for in-between souls (Fig. 1\u20139).<\/p>\n
Table 18. Number of judgments presented in the 18 unique resurrection views of the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha<\/p>\n
Literary Work
\nJudgment I Death\/Judgment
\nJudgment II Resurrection\/Judgment
\nJudgment III
\n2 Maccabees
\n\u00d7
\nWisdom of Solomon
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n4 Ezra
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nBook of Watchers
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nEpistles of Enoch
\n\u00d7
\n2 Enoch
\n\u00d7
\n3 Enoch
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n(\u00d7)
\nApocalypse of Zephaniah
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nVision of Ezra
\n\u00d7
\nQuestions of Ezra
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n2 Baruch
\n(\u00d7)
\n\u00d7
\nTestament of Abraham
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\n\u00d7
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\n(\u00d7)
\n\u00d7
\nPseudo-Philo
\n\u00d7
\n4 Maccabees
\n\u00d7
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\n(\u00d7)
\nPsalms of Solomon
\n(\u00d7)
\n(\u00d7)<\/p>\n
The relationship between resurrection and judgment within the context of the question of theodicy raises an interesting hermeneutical and theological question. This study shows that a resurrection belief also requires a belief in a judgment as there is a need to determine who will be resurrected and\/or evaluate who is righteous or wicked since they will receive a different destiny. However, does a promise of a future judgment in Second Temple period literature, and by extension in biblical literature, imply there will also be a form of afterlife and a possible future resurrection, even if this belief is not explicitly stated? Further research into the relationship between a future judgment and implied afterlife is warranted. Based on the reverse relationship noted in this study, a tentative suggestion could be made. The context and the nature of the future judgment would probably be the determining factor. If the future judgment seems to be personal and is mentioned in a composition which also promotes a set of ethical behaviors for an individual to adopt (or provides a list of behaviors to avoid), it could be assumed an individual\u2019s actions will be evaluated at a future judgment, thus implying some type of afterlife. Otherwise, what would be the purpose of the judgment? Alternatively, if the future judgment is mentioned in the context of the nation of Israel, the judgment may probably not imply a personal afterlife but may instead provide a hope for the survival of the nation.<\/p>\n
5. Final Destiny of the Righteous and the Wicked<\/p>\n
The final destiny of the righteous and the wicked also impacts a death and resurrection view, as the wicked may be annihilated or punished for all eternity. The final destiny of the righteous also affects the type of body needed to live in that location. If the righteous will spend eternity on earth\/new earth, they would only need an earthly body. However, if the righteous will be brought to heaven following the eschatological resurrection and judgment, they would need a \u201cheavenly body\u201d as described in 2 Baruch, Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah, and Psalms of Solomon (Figs. 1\u201315, 2\u20132, and 2\u20136). This view is best described in the Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah (Fig. 2\u20132), which describes the \u201crobes-of-flesh\u201d intended for earthly dwelling and the \u201crobes-of-above\u201d necessary for dwelling in heaven. Table 19 shows the final destination of the righteous and the wicked as outlined in this study. Some of the resurrection passages considered in this work did not provide a full resurrection picture, as they only focused on either the fate of the righteous or the wicked, and did not reveal the final destiny of the other group, or only alluded to their final destination. This ambiguity or uncertainty has been indicated by the use of \u201c?\u201d in the following table.<\/p>\n
Table 19. Final destiny of the righteous and the wicked<\/p>\n
Book
\nRighteous
\nWicked
\nSirach
\nWorld?
\nFire and worms
\n2 Maccabees
\nWorld
\nGrave
\nWisdom of Solomon
\nWorld
\nGrave
\n4 Ezra
\nWorld
\nHades\/Hell
\nBook of Watchers
\nWorld
\nFiery Abyss
\nBook of Parables
\nEarth to Come\/Dwell with God
\nCondemnation?
\nBook of Dream Visions
\nNew Age
\nFiery Abyss
\nBook of Epistles of Enoch
\nHeaven
\nHell
\n2 Enoch
\nParadise (Third Heaven)
\nHell (Fifth Heaven)
\n3 Enoch
\nGod\u2019s Throne
\nGehinnom
\nSibylline Oracles 2
\nRecreated world
\nDestruction by fire
\nSibylline Oracles 4
\nPleasant life on a fertile earth
\nPunished in the fire of Gehenna
\nSibylline Oracles 7
\nRecreated world
\nBurn in spirit by their perishing flesh
\nSibylline Oracles 8
\nRecreated world?
\nPunished by a torturous fire forever
\nSibylline Oracles Frag. 1
\nParadise
\nBurned with torches all day, forever
\nApocalypse of Zephaniah
\nHeavenly City
\nHades
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\nHeaven\/Paradise
\nHades\/Gehenna
\nVision of Ezra
\nHeaven\/Paradise
\nInfernal Regions\/Hellfire
\nQuestion of Ezra
\nGod\u2019s throne\/Upper Atmosphere
\nPlace of Punishment
\nApocalypse of Sedrach
\nParadise\/Third Heaven\/God\u2019s Kingdom\/Bosom of Abraham
\nPlace of Punishment
\n2 Baruch
\nHeaven\/Paradise\/World to come
\nPlace of torment\/Fire
\nApocalypse of Elijah (C)
\nHeaven
\nRecreated world
\n?
\nApocalypse of Elijah (H)
\nNew Jerusalem, Earth
\nPunishment
\nTestament of the Twelve Prophets
\nParadise\/Presence of the Lord
\nDestroyed by eternal fire
\nT. Job
\nHeaven
\nHades
\nT. Abraham
\nParadise
\nDestruction and eternal punishment
\nT. Moses
\n?
\nGehenna
\nT. Adam
\nHeaven
\nSheol
\nJubilees
\nHeaven
\nSheol
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\nSeventh Heaven
\nDestruction
\nJoseph and Aseneth
\nSeventh Heaven
\n?
\nLife of Adam and Eve
\nGarden of Eden with God
\nCondemned to Death
\nPseudo-Philo
\nWorld-to-Come
\nAnnihilation
\nLives of the Prophets
\nWorld-to-Come
\n?
\n4 Baruch
\nHeavenly Jerusalem
\n?
\n4 Maccabees
\nHeaven
\nFiery Torment
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\nGod
\nHades
\nPsalms of Solomon
\nHaven\/Glory\/Light of the Lord
\nDestruction
\nHellenistic Synagogal Prayers
\nParadise (regained)
\n?
\nOdes of Solomon
\nNew World
\nDestruction<\/p>\n
In the light of the profusion of views regarding the afterlife in the literature of the Second Temple period, a reader of the New Testament is faced with the following crucial question: Is it reasonable to assume that the New Testament presents a harmonized view of the resurrection and afterlife (see Figure 2\u20139 for an example of a harmonized resurrection view)? Or, should the reader instead be open to New Testament writers holding various views, thus being more sensitive to the differences between the differing eschatological accounts?<\/p>\n
Figure 9. A Harmonized Resurrection View<\/p>\n
This raises an important theological question regarding inspiration. If the Holy Spirit inspired the New Testament writers, could they hold different views regarding the resurrection belief? Is it possible to have a high view of Scripture while at the same time making allowance for different resurrection views? Could it be argued that the New Testament writers are in agreement on the main theological points (the big picture), that this life is not all there is? They suggest there is a life after death where the righteous will be rewarded and the wicked will be punished, although they may have different views regarding some of the finer details of this afterlife. Would such a consideration be regarded as an abandonment of the Reformation principles of Sola Scriptura, Tota Scriptura, Prima Scriptura, and the Analogy of Scripture by scholars belonging to a Protestant tradition?<\/p>\n
6. Use of the TaNaKh in Support of the Resurrection Belief<\/p>\n
A careful reading of all the resurrection passages appearing in the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha reveal that most of the distinct views on life after death, regardless of their complexity, are often supported by several key passages from the books that later became a part of the TaNaKh or shared motifs with these books. Future analysis of these key passages from the TaNaKh may shed further light on how the literary works from this period interpreted, understood, used, and reused the \u201cTaNaKh.\u201d It may even determine whether the resurrection belief is indeed present in these texts (based on good exegesis) or if this belief was read into these texts by Second Temple period authors (an example of eisegesis). Based on preliminary observations, some of these resurrection concepts seem to derive naturally from the \u201cTaNaKh,\u201d while others seem to be based on an interpretation or a more elaborate exegesis. Yet, other usages seem a bit more forced, and in those cases the TaNaKh appears to be considered a source of proof-texts, seemingly often disregarding the larger context of the text quoted or alluded to. Early Second Temple period resurrection texts seem to be supported by a creative use of the TaNaKh, while late Second Temple period texts, early Christian, and Rabbinic texts seem to utilize more proof-texting. A good example is the conclusion of 4 Maccabees, which gives a list of important texts in support of an afterlife and the instant reward in store for the soul of the righteous, a view excluding the need for a bodily resurrection which is in stark contrast to the parallel narrative of 2 Maccabees 7. Interestingly, it may be argued that these proof-texts could easily be utilized to support a universal eschatological resurrection belief, and this study shows that some of these passages were indeed used by other literary works in support of their unique perspective on the afterlife. For Christian writers, the main support for the resurrection belief was found in Jesus\u2019 resurrection. Thus, questioning the bodily resurrection belief was equated with questioning the historicity of Jesus\u2019 resurrection, the guarantor for the Christians\u2019 salvation hope. Hence, the Christian interpolations found in the Pseudepigrapha do not add much additional support from the TaNaKh in support of the resurrection belief. In Rabbinic Judaism, questioning that the resurrection belief did not derive from the Torah would disqualify the person from any share in the world to come\u2014thus their propensity to find proof-texts from the Torah, as attested in the Babylonian Talmud (b. Sanh. 90a\u201392b). An awareness of Second Temple period literature is helpful for gaining a better understanding of the death and afterlife views presented in the New Testament and Early Rabbinic literature, as it shows they are a part of the larger discussion taking place during this critical period. Table 20 provides a list of \u201cresurrection passages\u201d from the TaNaKh which were referred or alluded to in the context of the resurrection statements surveyed from the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha. However, \u201cResurrection Scripture Clouds\u201d are not included in this table. Table 21 centers on the 18 distinct afterlife views and indicates which views are supported by the TaNaKh\u2014references and allusions to the TaNaKh are bolded as a contrast to shared concepts. These two tables will give an indication of the number of TaNaKh texts that were perceived as resurrection texts and the texts that were most often referred or alluded to. The reader should keep in mind that the profusion of afterlife views continued beyond the close of the Second Temple period and has survived into present time. This is reflected by the diverse beliefs held by the many Christian denominations.<\/p>\n
Table 20. List of the TaNaKh passages referred or alluded to in the context of the resurrection statements surveyed from the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha.<\/p>\n
TaNaKh
\nApocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
\nGen. 3:19
\n2 En. J32:1; Sib. Or. 8:96\u201399; Apoc. Mos. 41:1\u20132; Hel. Syn. Pr. 3:25\u201326; 12:49\u201350
\nExod. 3:6
\n4 Macc. 7:18\u201319; Hel. Syn. Pr. 16:7\u20139
\nDeut. 30:19\u201320
\n4 Ezra 7:129; 4 Macc. 18:18\u201319
\nDeut. 32:29
\n2 Macc. 7:6; Apoc. Elij. (H)
\nDeut. 32:29, 47
\n4 Macc. 18:18\u201319
\nDeut. 33:3
\n4 Macc. 17:17\u201321
\n1 Sam. 28:7\u201320
\nPs.-Philo 64:5\u20138
\nIsa. 26:19\u201321
\n2 Macc. 7:23; 4 Ezra 7:97; Apoc. Ezek. Frag. 1
\nIsa. 35:4\u20137
\nSib. Or. 8.205\u2013212
\nIsa. 49:6
\nSir. 48:1\u201311
\nIsa. 52\u201353
\n2 Macc. 7:23; Wis. 3:5\u20136
\nIsa. 52:1\u20132
\n1 En. 62:15a
\nIsa. 54:8\u201310
\n2 Macc. 7:28\u201329
\nIsa. 56:1
\n2 Macc. 7:28\u201329
\nIsa. 64:4\u201311
\n2 Macc. 7:28\u201329
\nIsa. 65:17
\nPs.-Philo 3:10
\nIsa. 66:22\u201324
\nSir. 7:17b; Ps.-Philo 3:10; Apoc. Elij. (H)
\nEzek. 34
\n1 En. 90:33
\nEzek. 37:1\u201314
\n1 En. 90:33; Sib. Or. 2.211\u2013226; 4.181\u2013182; Apoc. Elij. (H); Liv. Proph. 3:12; 4 Macc. 18:17; Odes 22:8\u201310
\nHos. 6:2
\n3 En. 28:7\u201310
\nMal. 4:1\u20136
\nSir. 48:1\u201311; T. Zeb. 9:8
\nPs. 1:5\u20136
\nPss. Sol. 14:9\u201310
\nPs. 50:1\u20136
\nApoc. Ezek. Frag. 1
\nProv. 3:18
\n4 Macc. 18:16
\nJob 42:17 LXX
\nT. Job 4:4\u201311
\nDan. 7:18, 22
\nWis. 3:7\u20138
\nDan. 12:1\u20133
\n1 En. 51:1\u20135; 102:4\u2013104:8
\nDan. 12:1\u20132
\nT. Benj. 10:8
\nDan. 12:2\u20133
\n4 Ezra 7:32\u201333; 2 Bar. 49\u201351; T. Mos. 10:9\u201314
\nDan. 12:2
\n2 Macc. 7:9b, 14b; Mart. Ascen. Isa. 4:14\u201318; Ps.-Philo 3:10; Pss. Sol. 2:31; 3:11\u201312
\nDan. 12:3
\nWis. 3:7\u20138; 2 En. 22:8, 10; 66:7; 4 Macc. 17:5; Ps.-Philo 33:1\u20135; Ps.-Phoc. 104b
\nDan. 12:13
\nWis. 3:5\u20136; T. Mos. 10:9\u201314<\/p>\n
Table 21. The 18 distinct afterlife views and the TaNaKh.<\/p>\n
2 Maccabees
\nGen. 1 [ex nihilo]; Deut. 28\u201332 [32:29]; Isa. 26; 52\u201353; Eccl. 12:13
\nWisdom of Solomon
\nIsa. 5:24; 52\u201353; Obad. 18; Dan. 7:18, 22; 12:1\u20133, 13
\n4 Ezra
\nDeut. 30:11\u201320; Isa. 26:19; Dan. 7:9\u201310; 12:2\u20133
\nBook of Watchers
\n(1 En. 1\u201336)
\nGen. 2:7; 4:9\u201310; 9:4\u20136; Eccl. 12:7
\nBook of the Epistle of Enoch
\n(1 En. 91\u2013105)
\nDan. 12:1\u20133
\n2 Enoch
\nGen. 3:19b
\n3 Enoch
\nHos. 6:2; Dan. 4 [celestial beings]; Dan. 7:9\u201310, 27
\nApocalypse of Zephaniah
\n–
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\n–
\nVision of Ezra
\n–
\nQuestion of Ezra
\n–
\n2 Baruch
\nGen. 1:8; Exod. 35:29\u201330; Dan. 2; 7; 12:1\u20133, 13
\nTestament of Abraham
\nDeut. 19:15 [the need for three witnesses || judgments]
\nMartyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
\nDan. 2; 7; 12 [Dan. 12:12\u20141335-day prophecy]
\nPseudo-Philo
\nExod. 34:29\u201335; Josh. 7; 1 Sam. 28:12\u201319; Isa. 65:17; 66:22; Dan. 12:2\u20133
\n4 Maccabees
\nGen. 3:24; 4:1\u20136, 8; 22:1\u201319; 39:7\u201323; 40:3; Exod. 3:6; Num. 25:6\u201313; Deut. 30:20; 32:1\u201343; 32:39, 47; 33:3; Isa. 43:2; Ezek. 37:1\u201314; Mal. 3:2\u20133; Ps. 34:20; Prov. 3:18; Dan. 3:1\u201330; 6:1\u201328; 12:3
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\nGen. 1:26\u201327; 2:7; 3:19b, 22; 6:3; Deut. 15:2\u20133; 1 Sam. 2:20; Ps. 8:6 [MT]; Eccl. 3:20; 12:7; Dan. 12:3
\nPsalms of Solomon
\nIsa. 2:5; 60:1; Ps. 1:5\u20136; Prov. 20:27; Dan. 12:2<\/p>\n
series Jewish and Christian Texts in Contexts and Related Studies
\ntitle Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Pseudepigrapha<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
FOREWORD Resurrection of the dead was in antiquity\u2014and in contemporary theological studies\u2014a celebrated, yet also controverted topic. In historical retrospect, one can appreciate how this insurgent hope that took shape in postexilic Judaism gradually emerged as a landmark eschatological doctrine within Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity. Much remains in darkness, however, regarding the formation, conceptual … <\/p>\n