In treating this aspect of jubilee, the text first reminds that one should assist his impoverished fellow-Israelite so as to help him preserve his personal freedom (vv. 35\u201338). As commanded earlier (Exod 22:25), all loans to impoverished fellow Israelites were to be free of interest; interest could be taken from non-Israelites (Deut 23:19\u201320). The Israelite who voluntarily sold himself into slavery was not to be made to work as a slave, i.e., given degrading tasks to perform, but rather he was to be treated as a hired worker, and he was to be freed at the jubilee (v. 41). As the LORD claimed the land (v. 23), so he claimed the Israelites as his servants (v. 42). Such people were not therefore to be sold into actual slavery nor driven with rigor as slaves.
\n25:44\u201346 Israelites could acquire and possess non-Israelite male and female slaves as perpetual slaves, but they could not possess Israelites as perpetual slaves against their will. The debtor slave was to be released after six years of service (Exod 21:2\u20136), and the poor Israelite who sold himself voluntarily into slavery was to be released in the jubilee.
\n25:47\u201355 An Israelite who sold himself into slavery to a non-Israelite maintained the right of redemption (vv. 48\u201349). If the Israelite were redeemed, the price for his release was to be fairly and accurately calculated in view of the coming jubilee (vv. 50\u201352; cf. vv. 15\u201316, 27). If not redeemed, the Israelite was to be released in the Year of Jubilee. At all times the non-Israelite was not to drive the Israelite with rigor and harshness, but rather to treat him as a hired servant (v. 53).<\/p>\n
IV. PROMISES, WARNINGS VOICED (26:1\u201346)<\/p>\n
The main body of Leviticus closes in chapter 26 with a dramatic portrayal of future prospects for Israel in the promised land. If Israel would keep covenant with the LORD, the nation would be blessed in every way (vv. 1\u201313); but if Israel rebelled, the disloyal people would experience severe punishment and exile (vv. 14\u201339) from which only genuine repentance would bring relief (vv. 40\u201346).<\/p>\n
A. AN OBEDIENT PEOPLE PROMISED BLESSING (26:1\u201313)<\/p>\n
26:1\u201313 Prohibition of idols and faithful worship of the LORD, two of the most basic principles of the covenant (19:3\u20134, 30; Exod 20:4\u20136, 8\u201311) are here set forth in introduction to the chapter as prime examples of the faithfulness demanded in Israel. Abundant blessing awaited Israel if she kept covenant with the LORD. Bountiful crops (vv. 4\u20135, 10), peaceful security (v. 6), victorious armies (vv. 7\u20138), and numerical growth (v. 9) would be realized as the LORD confirmed the covenant (v. 9) by making his abode in Israel\u2019s midst (v. 11). All these blessings, however, were conditioned upon Israel\u2019s faithfulness. The land would be so productive that the farmer would barely get his grain harvested in time to gather his grapes, and his grapes gathered in time to sow his grain. His produce would be so abundant that much of the previous year\u2019s harvest would remain when time for harvest came again (v. 10). Security from fear of savage beasts (cf. Isa 11:6\u20139) and from fear of war (here symbolized by the sword) was promised. Such security would enable Israel to enjoy the land and its marvelous productivity fully. Enemies who foolishly attempted to invade an obedient Israel would be routed. To a faithful Israel, God promises I will walk among you and be your God, and you will be my people, and grounds the assurance of blessing in the memory of his liberation of the Israelites from being slaves to the Egyptians so that his people could walk with heads held high, i.e., not bent under the yoke of slavery (cf. Jer 8:10\u201313).<\/p>\n
B. ISRAEL WARNED AGAINST DISOBEDIENCE (26:14\u201346)<\/p>\n
26:14\u201322 If Israel would not listen to the LORD and obey his will, terrible consequences would follow. Not only would Israel fail to enjoy the abundant life depicted in verses 3\u201313, but its very opposites\u2014famine (vv. 19\u201320), anxious insecurity (v. 22), defeat in battle (vv. 16\u201317), and decimation of population (v. 22)\u2014would afflict the nation. In addition to these chastisements, pestilence and disease (v. 16), desolation and exile (vv. 27\u201333) would come upon a presumptuous and rebellious Israel. Four successive waves of chastisement, each more severe than the previous one, are threatened for the sinful nation that refuses to accept the LORD\u2019s discipline and return to him. A heart of cowardice would cause the collapse of Israel\u2019s resistance against invaders so that they would flee even when none were pursuing. Punishment seven times over may mean rather sevenfold punishment since intensity of chastisement rather than the number of afflictions seems suggested by the Hebrew idiom (also in vv. 21, 24, and 28). Further, the sky and the ground would seem impervious like iron and like bronze\u2014the sky would refuse to give needed rain, the soil would be hard, dry, and unproductive.
\n26:23\u201335 A rebellious Israel was to understand clearly that the chastisements she experienced were divine retribution against the nation for its violating the covenant it had made with the LORD. God would avenge the breaking of the covenant. Famine would be so severe that ten women would bake in one oven. In ordinary times each woman would need an oven for her own baking. In famine, the supply of bread would be so diminished that one oven would suffice for ten families, and the meager food supply would be rationed by weight. Famine would become so severe that dire starvation would lead to the horrible practice of cannibalism, so that the people would eat the flesh of sons and daughters (cf. 2 Kgs 6:28\u201329). The high places were local Canaanite hilltop sanctuaries which were later used by the Israelites as centers of idolatrous worship. God abhors idols and will take no delight in disobedient offerings. God threatened to scatter Israel among the nations. Israel was thus told early that national rebellion would lead to national exile. Then the vacated land could enjoy its sabbaths. A rebellious people would, of course, soon disregard the inconvenient sabbatical year ordinance (25:1\u20137, 35).
\n26:36\u201346 No courage or strength for renewal would be found among those of the rebellious nation surviving in the lands of their enemies at the time of exile (cf. 26:17). The nation which would experience the terrible judgments herein depicted would seem hopelessly doomed, but confession and repentance could bring pardon and renewal. If the nation would repent, the covenant with its blessing would be renewed. This covenant had been made first with Abraham (Gen 12:1\u20133, 7) and then confirmed with Isaac (Gen 26:3\u20135) and Jacob (Gen 28:13\u201315). Because of the ancient covenant, Israel, though severely chastised, would not be completely cast off but rather would have opportunity through repentance to be restored. A summary statement concludes the chapter and the main body of the Levitical legislation by emphasizing the divine origin and authority of its decrees, its laws, and its regulations.<\/p>\n
LEVITICUS 27:1\u201334: APPENDIX\u2014<\/p>\n
INSTRUCTION CONCERNING VOWS GIVEN<\/p>\n
Regulations concerning vows are here given in an appendix to the main body of Levitical legislation, perhaps because vows and the dedicatory gifts associated with them were purely voluntary. Once vows were made, however, they were binding and were to be strictly and conscientiously kept (Deut 23:21\u201323). Sacrifices vowed to the LORD have already been considered in the legislation concerning sacrifices in general (7:16; 22:18\u201323; 23:38). The vows treated here involve a person\u2019s solemnly promising to dedicate and give something to the LORD, i.e., to the sanctuary. Persons or property vowed to the LORD were termed qorban (\u201can offering or gift\u201d). Jesus condemned an abuse of the principle of dedicatory vows (Matt 15:5; Mark 7:11). The present discussion deals with the evaluating of persons and property for the purpose of determining the amount for which such dedicated persons or objects could be redeemed. Considered are vows of persons (vv. 2\u20138), vows of animals (vv. 9\u201313), and vows of real estate (vv. 14\u201325). The concluding paragraph (vv. 26\u201333) treats things which could not be dedicated to the LORD because they already belonged to him.<\/p>\n
I. Rules Given for Evaluating Persons Vowed (27:1\u20138)<\/p>\n
27:1\u20138 Although an individual might dedicate himself or a member of his family to the LORD, the services of such dedicated people were not needed in connection with the sanctuary. Accordingly, such persons were to be evaluated and the vow fulfilled by the payment of the proper redemption price for the person vowed. Verses 3\u20137 give equivalent values as redemption amounts varying with the age and sex of the person dedicated. The expression the sanctuary shekel is usually taken to mean that the Israelites had a \u201csacred shekel\u201d differing in weight from the ordinary shekel, but the expression may instead signify that a standard weight was kept at the sanctuary. This shekel is said repeatedly to equal twenty gerahs (v. 25, Exod 30:13), thus indicating that the Israelites understood clearly the amount involved. A person too poor to redeem himself was to be reevaluated by the priest according to his ability to pay, thus clearly demonstrating that persons dedicated by such freewill vows were to be redeemed by payment of money instead of being placed under service.<\/p>\n
II. Regulations Given for Animals Dedicated (27:9\u201313)<\/p>\n
27:9\u201313 A clean animal vowed to the LORD became the property of the sanctuary and was not to be redeemed or exchanged. If a man substituted another animal for one he had dedicated, both animals became holy, i.e., were regarded as the property of the sanctuary. An unclean animal unsuitable for sacrifice which was dedicated to the LORD was to be fairly evaluated by the priests and sold, and the proceeds given to the sanctuary. The giver could redeem such an animal by paying its value plus one-fifth (cf. 5:16).<\/p>\n
III. Dedicated Real Estate Treated (27:14\u201325)<\/p>\n
27:14\u201325 The rule for a house dedicated to the LORD is the same as that for an unclean animal (vv. 11\u201313). Gifts of family land to the sanctuary were affected by the jubilee regulations (25:8\u201324). An inherited field was reasonably and simply evaluated by the amount of seed needed to sow the field. For each homer (about five bushels) of seed, an evaluation of fifty silver shekels per jubilee period was made (vv. 16\u201317). The value of fields dedicated between Jubilee periods was reckoned proportionately (v. 18). A man could redeem his dedicated field at any time prior to jubilee by paying its current value plus one-fifth (v. 19). A field left unredeemed or (perhaps unethically) sold to another person became devoted to the LORD, the property of the priests at the time of Jubilee (vv. 20\u201321). A bought field dedicated to the LORD was similarly evaluated, but its total evaluation was to be given to the sanctuary immediately (on that day\u2014v. 23) because of the fact that the original seller held constant right of redemption to the land involved (25:24).<\/p>\n
IV. Objects Excluded from Vows Treated (27:26\u201334)<\/p>\n
27:26\u201327 A man could not dedicate to the LORD that which already belonged to him. Considered here are firstlings (vv. 26\u201327), devoted things (vv. 28\u201329), and tithes (vv. 30\u201333). All firstborn animals belonged to the LORD (Exod 13:12). The firstlings of unclean animals could be redeemed by payment of money (cf. 27:12\u201313). The rabbis understood \u201cunclean\u201d in this verse to refer to a ritually clean animal which was blemished and unsuitable for sacrifice.
\n27:28\u201329 Things devoted (placed under a ban) were utterly dedicated to the LORD, without possibility of redemption. The rabbis distinguished three kinds of ban\u2014the war ban, the justice ban, and the private ban. According to this analysis verse 28 treats of the private ban under which property or persons so devoted became most holy and thus unredeemable property of the sanctuary. Verse 29, on the other hand, treats of the more stringent justice ban under which persons legally convicted of heinous crimes were to be executed without possibility of ransom. For examples of the war ban, see Deuteronomy 2:34 and Joshua 6:17\u201319.
\n27:30\u201333 Giving a tithe, i.e., a tenth, of one\u2019s produce to the LORD was an ancient practice not originated by the Law of Moses, but rather assumed by it and regulated in it. Because the tithe belonged to the LORD, it was not something to be voluntarily dedicated by vow. The tithe of produce could be redeemed in the customary manner (v. 13), and such redemption may at times have proved more convenient (cf. Deut 14:22\u201327). Passing under the shepherd\u2019s rod alludes to an ancient method of counting the animals. A tithe was paid each year on the animals born that year. Substitutions or exchanges were not to be made, and, if made, were penalized as in verse 10.
\n27:34 Like the main body of legislation (26:46), the appendix on vows closes with emphasis upon the divine origin of the commands it records.<\/p>\n
THE BOOK OF NUMBERS<\/p>\n
NUMBERS INTRODUCTION<\/p>\n
TITLE AND CONTENTS<\/p>\n
The fourth book in the Pentateuch is Numbers, so named because of the census-taking activities it records. This name originates from the Septuagint Greek translation, which called the book arithmoi, \u201cnumbers;\u201d the Jews ordinarily termed the book \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05de\u05b4\u05d3\u05b0\u05d1\u05b7\u05bc\u05e8 (b\u0259midbar), \u201cin the wilderness,\u201d a phrase taken from the first verse.
\nThe Hebrew title seems fitting, as the theme of Numbers is the wilderness experience of Israel. The trek from Sinai to Canaan that should have required but a few months at most was extended to a period of nearly forty years by the people\u2019s disobedience, a time that allowed the passing of one generation and the maturation of the next one. Although the book contains considerable legislation, it is primarily a historical narrative, which combines a wide variety of textual materials from statistics and lists to poetry and even prophecy. Thus while Leviticus contains some history but is mostly legislative, Numbers alternates between history and law, but is predominantly historical.
\nAfter relating Israel\u2019s last days at Sinai and the start of her journey to Canaan, the book documents Israel\u2019s tragic rebellion, the great delay it caused, and the subsequent renewal, in the next generation, of the march toward promised Canaan. Thus while the history is marred by sinfulness, its greater emphasis is upon preparation and the LORD\u2019s redemptive purpose.<\/p>\n
STRUCTURE AND SETTING<\/p>\n
Without necessarily accepting David Dorsey\u2019s contention that the literary structure of the \u201cbook of the law\u201d extends to a hexateuch including Joshua, one may appreciate his threefold analysis of the structure of the Pentateuch as historical prologue (Gen 1:1\u2013Exod 19:2), treaty at Sinai (Exod 19:3\u2013Num 10:10), and historical conclusion (Num 10:11\u2013Josh 24:33). Within this framework Numbers completes the Sinai material begun in Exodus and begins the historical narration of Israel\u2019s approach to Canaan. The book itself may be conveniently divided along geographical lines into three parts, which we entitle \u201cIsrael Prepares to Leave Sinai\u201d (1:1\u201310:10), \u201cIsrael Journeys from Sinai to Moab\u201d (10:11\u201321:35), and \u201cVictorious Israel Encamps in Plains of Moab\u201d (22:1\u201336:13). The middle unit revolves geographically around the encampment at Kadesh so that its contents divide into consideration of events \u201cFrom Sinai to Kadesh\u201d (10:11\u201314:45) and events \u201cFrom Kadesh to Moab\u201d (15:1\u201321:35).
\nAlternatively the textual material of Numbers can be organized around its two generations, the older one which perished because of its rebellion, and the younger one which came to anticipate the exciting events of its entrance into and conquest of Canaan. In this regard D.T. Olson suggests organizing the text into two units, each beginning with a census: section I: The Death of the Old Generation; the first Exodus generation fails in the wilderness (1:1\u201325:18); and section II: The Birth of the New; the second Exodus generation prepares to take the land of Canaan (26:1\u201336:13). Although this suggestion is intriguing, the more customary understanding that the Numbers text develops along geographical lines, as noted above, seems preferable.
\nOn either analysis of structure, the opening words of Numbers connect the book to the Levitical legislation, which precedes it, and its closing movement prepares for the Deuteronomic presentation of Moses\u2019 proclamation of the law on the plains of Moab. Interestingly, it is Numbers that describes at length the role of the Levites, a topic practically omitted in Leviticus, which stresses instead the Levitical priesthood.
\nRecently, however, the anthropologist Mary Douglas has assessed the structure of Numbers. Similar in theme to her structural analysis of Leviticus, Douglas views the book to be a unified whole. She first proposes that Numbers is structured chiastically to mirror the early days of Israelite history in Genesis, beginning with Abraham. She then argues that the entire book of Numbers itself is a ring (chiasm), with parallel rungs of story and law. While Douglas\u2019s theory is certainly brilliant, and it is among the most in-depth analyses available, it seems almost too good to be true. For over 100 years critical scholars have criticized the unity and structure of the book, and, while it is the position of the authors in this commentary that Numbers is a unified composition, we freely admit that a host of structural problems persist.<\/p>\n
AUTHORSHIP AND DATE<\/p>\n
Numbers is the fourth book of Moses. As throughout the Pentateuch after his introduction in Exodus, the great lawgiver is the major character in the book. Moses\u2019 personal involvement with the Exodus-Deuteronomy material is seen in that all the laws were given through Moses, and all the events are related to his life. The text further indicates that Moses personally recorded the wilderness itinerary (Num 33:1\u20132). Throughout the remainder of the Old Testament the centrality of Moses is emphasized as the writers look back to the Pentateuch as \u201cthe law of Moses\u201d (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Kgs 14:6; 2 Chr 23:18; Ezra 3:2; Neh 8:1; Dan 9:11). The New Testament continues this recognition (cf. Luke 2:22; John 1:45; Acts 13:39; Rom 10:5; 1 Cor 9:9; Heb 10:28). Further, that Moses was the author of the Pentateuch is the overwhelming voice of Jewish and Christian tradition throughout the centuries, with but little occasional and sporadic dissent. To dismiss this consistent tradition as \u201cuncritical\u201d is to reveal a prejudice against the past that seems unwarranted. The ancients were not stupid, and their understandings, while obviously not normative, should not be disregarded in cavalier fashion without convincing data.
\nMoses appears to have been preeminently qualified to write the Pentateuch. Royally educated in Egyptian schools and likely aware of the cultural background of his Mesopotamian ancestors, including their demonstrated appreciation of law codes, Moses would have possessed oral traditions, perhaps even written records, from the patriarchal period preceding him. Moses had personal knowledge of Egyptian and Midianite geography and culture, and as the covenant mediator between God and Israel he had firsthand knowledge of the LORD\u2019s requirements for his people. The years of wandering in the wilderness which Numbers documents would have offered ample time for composition. Thus Moses possessed means, motive, and opportunity for writing the Pentateuch. The art of writing was known many centuries before Moses, scribal skill was common in Moses\u2019 time, and important documents seem to have been customarily preserved in writing. Hence, from an a priori standpoint there seems little cogent reason to deny the possibility of Moses\u2019 involvement in the writing and preservation of the book of the law.
\nAs students of history we must be aware that what we do not know about the past is greater than what we do know. We do not know exactly how the Mosaic material has been preserved through the centuries for us. Questions of sources, traditions, and transmission are therefore totally appropriate, and investigation of such questions should and will continue.<\/p>\n
MESSAGE<\/p>\n
The message of Numbers involves promise and hope but, for the most part, it is hope deferred and promise delayed. While two generations of Israelites do come into focus in the book, by any reckoning the greater stress is on the first of these, the rebellious generation that witnessed the miracles of the Exodus, received the LORD\u2019s instruction at Sinai, and departed enthusiastically to go to Canaan, only to see their robust optimism melt in the desert heat and the other harsh realities of the wilderness. In this trying situation disaffection, dissatisfaction, and grumbling led to greater and greater distrust, which eventually broke out in disobedience and rebellion. The great rebellion at Kadesh is thus the negative centerpiece of the book of Numbers.
\nThe story of this popular revolt against Moses and the LORD is well known. At the people\u2019s request (Deut 1:22), Moses sent out twelve spies to reconnoiter Canaan. After surveying the Promised Land, the majority of these brought back the pessimistic and faithless report that the tribes of Israel would surely be powerless against the mighty Canaanites in their strong citadels. Only Caleb and Joshua opposed this counsel, insisting that a faithful Israel, which relied on the LORD\u2019s promised aid, must certainly prevail. Interestingly, these men agreed with the majority concerning the two basic facts uncovered in their forty days\u2019 reconnaissance in the land\u2014the country was beautiful but the inhabitants were truly formidable foes. The difference between the counsel of Caleb and Joshua and that of the ten other spies lay not in their analysis of the facts but in their faith. Joshua and Caleb trusted the LORD, whereas the other men did not trust God, hence were cowed and intimidated. The people however followed the unbelieving assessment of the majority, gave way to mass hysteria, and rebelled outright against the LORD and his appointed leaders Moses and Aaron.
\nIn this crisis the LORD threatened to annihilate the panicked people who were standing in revolt against the holy covenant and their divine sovereign. As in the golden calf episode earlier (Exod 32:1\u201334:35), Moses interceded effectively, the people repented, and the LORD relented. The people\u2019s sin of infidelity and disobedience, however, brought dire consequences. Prohibited from entering the beautiful land, they were consigned to live out their lives in the dreary arid wilderness around Kadesh. In an ironic touch the LORD made their prayer their punishment. In their fear they wished for death in the wilderness as preferable to entrance into Canaan (14:2\u20133). In retribution for their rebellion the LORD answered their prayer by granting their wish.
\nTo all the negativism of this sordid episode and its aftermath, three positive motifs stand in clear contrast in the text of Numbers. These are the character of Moses, the covenant faithfulness of the LORD, and the renewal of promise for the generation emerging from the wilderness experience.
\nThe true greatness of Moses as a human leader is seen in the text of Numbers more clearly than in any other biblical narrative. A genuinely faithful \u201cservant in all God\u2019s house\u201d (Heb 3:5), Moses combined deep humility with unswerving loyalty to his covenant task as mediator between the holy LORD and his sinful, recalcitrant people. The fickle faithlessness of the people contrasted with the LORD\u2019s responses, underlines God\u2019s fidelity to his covenant purpose to bless Israel and ultimately all mankind. This theme, echoed strongly throughout Scripture, is emphasized by the details of the wilderness experience. Truly, the LORD revealed himself repeatedly as compassionate and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in love and faithfulness (cf. Exod 34:6\u20137). Convinced of these precious realities the new generation prepared to recommit itself to the LORD so as to stand ready to inherit his promises.<\/p>\n
SPECIAL PROBLEM: LARGE NUMBERS IN THE CENSUSES<\/p>\n
A problem that has received a great deal of attention in the book is the seemingly inflated numbers in the military censuses of chapters 1 and 26. While many interpreters insist that the numbers are original and authentic, numerous other suggestions have been offered, from textual corruption to the proposal that the censuses themselves are interpolations, and thus unhistorical.
\nMost critical scholars are of the opinion that the census figures are the product of later priestly editors who wished to inflate the population totals to reflect a more prominent past for their people. However, virtually no evidence can be adduced in favor of such a proposition, and the language and structure of the censuses attest to their antiquity. Military censuses were the order of the day in Israel\u2019s monarchial period (cf. 2 Sam 24; 2 Chr 14, 17, etc.), as well as in other cultures at the time (at Mari, Alalakh, and Ras Shamra). Thus they are known at a very early date, and there is no reason to doubt that the military censuses are an original and early catalogue of Israel\u2019s population.
\nNevertheless, a problem persists in the exact figures of the censuses. The principle difficulty is based on the Hebrew term \u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05b6\u05e4 (eleph), which is traditionally translated \u201cthousand,\u201d but could possibly instead be rendered \u201cclan.\u201d Such is the preferred rendering in Judges 6:15 and 1 Samuel 10:19, and it can be argued that Numbers 10:4 and 31:5 are best understood in this way. If this translation is adopted in the censuses, the figures are significantly reduced. Based upon this presupposition, Mendenhall\u2019s study yields a total of just over 20,000 in the Exodus; that of Clark suggests about 140,000; and that of Wenham approximately 75,000. Compare this data with Gottwald\u2019s literal reckoning (reading eleph as \u201c1000\u201d) of 2.5 million (see note above).
\nConservative scholars have generally accepted the numbers as authentic, and have argued that large census figures simply harmonize the population accounts of Exodus 1. Gleason Archer, for example, argues that the numbers must be authentic in order to understand Exodus 1:9. However, he seems to overlook the fact that the Pharaoh is not afraid of the Israelites alone, but of their potential alliance with other peoples (Exod 1:10). In addition, it is unlikely that the Pharaoh felt that the Israelites were a threat to the entire Egyptian empire, but to only the Delta region in which they labored. This potentiality would not require such a large force. Still, however, the fact that both eleph and \u05de\u05b5\u05d0\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea, (m\u0113\u02be\u00f4th, \u201chundreds\u201d) are juxtaposed in the censuses (Num 1:21, 23, 25, 27, etc.) most naturally suggests that they are both to be read as numerals, exposing the primary weakness of reading the former as \u201cclan.\u201d
\nScholarship has yet to find a flawless conclusion to the conundrum of large numbers. On the one hand, the text most naturally reads \u201cthousand\u201d rather than tribe; on the other hand, it seems nearly impossible for 2.5 million people to have traversed the wilderness, assembling at the tabernacle on holy convocations (cf. Leviticus 23) and other appointed meetings. It is also questionable whether a fighting force of 603,550 (Num 1:46) would cause the spies to shy away from battle (13:26ff.). However, we may leave the question open. Neither suggestion affects the date of the material nor its reliability, and each is ultimately based upon how one views the evidence.<\/p>\n
NUMBERS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT<\/p>\n
Concerning the continuing relevance of the ancient Israelite history revealed in the Hebrew Scriptures, Paul declared in Romans 15:4, \u201cFor everything that was written in the past was written to teach us, so that through endurance and the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope.\u201d More specifically the same apostle traced at length Number\u2019s record of the wilderness generation\u2019s rebellion and ruin in 1 Corinthians 10:1\u201311 The essential lesson is that privilege involves responsibility for us as it did for them. God calls to faithfulness and demands his people\u2019s loyal allegiance. We should learn from the failure of the unbelieving older generation in Numbers and from the success of the trusting younger generation. As God punishes those who disobey his laws and trifle with his covenant, so he also empowers those who do his will and trust his promises.
\nThe writer of Hebrews likewise documents the permanent value of the wilderness record given in Numbers by utilizing this record and the inspired commentary on it in Psalm 95:7\u201311 in a lengthy admonition to his hearers (Heb 3:1\u20134:13). Warning of \u201csin\u2019s deceitfulness\u201d he reminds, \u201cWe have come to share in Christ if we hold firmly to the end the confidence we had at first\u201d (3:14). Echoing again Psalm 95:7\u20138, he adds,
\nAs has just been said: \u201cToday, if you hear his voice, do not harden your hearts as you did in the rebellion.\u201d Who were they who heard and rebelled? Were they not all those Moses led out of Egypt? And with whom was he angry for forty years? Was it not with those who sinned, whose bodies fell in the desert? And to whom did God swear that they would never enter his rest if not to those who disobeyed? So we see that they were not able to enter, because of their unbelief. (3:15\u201319)
\n, moreover, pictures the divine oath concerning the rebellious generation, \u201cThey shall never enter my rest.\u201d The Hebrew writer expounds upon this promised rest (compare Deut 12:9) and the warning implicit in those who missed it, saying, \u201cTherefore, since the promise of entering his rest still stands, let us be careful that none of you be found to have fallen short of it. For we also have had the gospel preached to us, just as they did; but the message they heard was of no value to them, because those who heard did not combine it with faith\u201d (Heb 4:1\u20132). Continuing his emphasis upon the rest promised to the people of God, the writer of Hebrews adds, \u201cIt still remains that some will enter that rest, and those who formerly had the gospel preached to them did not go in, because of their disobedience\u201d (4:6). He then concludes with the exhortation, \u201cLet us, therefore, make every effort to enter that rest, so that no one will fall by following their example of disobedience\u201d (4:11). Finally, the Hebrews writer underlines the seriousness of his inspired warning by stressing the character and power of the word of God and the openness of our hearts before him (4:12\u201313).
\nComparing our Christian living to the experience of the wilderness generations, we need to remember that, as they came out of physical bondage in Egypt, so we have come out of spiritual slavery to sin, as they were journeying toward an inheritance and rest in Canaan, so we are traveling toward a heavenly inheritance and rest for our souls. This new exodus motif for the Christian life reminds us that it is the wilderness that is parallel to our living in this age between our redemption and our resurrection. For this reason we must follow closely our greater \u201cprophet like unto Moses,\u201d Jesus Christ, trust him to guide us on the journey, and look confidently to our eternal destiny. In this lifelong enterprise we must not let the frustrations and testing of our \u201cwilderness\u201d lead us into tragic rebellion.
\nThe positive side of this New Testament warning taken from the Numbers record of the wilderness generations is the constancy of Christ. We focus on Jesus, \u201cthe apostle and high priest whom we confess\u201d (Heb 3:1). \u201cChrist is faithful as a Son over God\u2019s house. And we are his house, if we hold on to our courage and the hope of which we boast\u201d (Heb 3:6). Thus, \u201csince we have a great high priest who has gone through the heavens, Jesus the Son of God, let us hold firmly to the faith we profess\u201d (Heb 4:14).<\/p>\n
OUTLINE OF NUMBERS<\/p>\n
Part One: Israel Prepares to Leave Sinai\u20141:1\u201310:10
\nI. Israel Numbered\u20141:1\u201354
\nA. Census Takers Appointed\u20141:1\u201316
\nB. The Census Taken\u20141:17\u201346
\nC. Levites Exempted\u20141:47\u201354
\nII. Positions Assigned for Encampment and March\u20142:1\u201334
\nIII. Levites Numbered, Appointed for Service\u20143:1\u20134:49
\nA. Levites Set Apart for Sanctuary Service\u20143:1\u201313
\nB. Levites Numbered and Their Duties Given\u20143:14\u201339
\nC. Levites Exchanged for Israel\u2019s Firstborn\u20143:40\u201351
\nD. Levites Numbered for Actual Service\u20144:1\u201349
\nIV. Miscellaneous Laws Issued\u20145:1\u20136:27
\nA. Unclean Excluded from Camp\u20145:1\u20134
\nB. Law of Restitution Treated\u20145:5\u201310
\nC. Divine Judgment to Be Sought for Suspected Adulteress\u20145:11\u201331
\nD. Nazirite Vow Regulated\u20146:1\u201321
\n1. Nazirite Law Stated\u20146:1\u20138
\n2. Accidental Violation Treated\u20146:9\u201312
\n3. Termination Ceremony Depicted\u20146:13\u201321
\nE. Priestly Benediction Revealed\u20146:22\u201327
\nV. Special Offerings Made by Tribal Leaders\u20147:1\u201389
\nA. Wagons and Oxen Provided\u20147:1\u201311
\nB. Dedicatory Offerings Brought\u20147:12\u201388
\nC. Divine Voice Speaks from Mercy Seat\u20147:89
\nVI. Tabernacle Inauguration Completed\u20148:1\u201310:10
\nA. Sacred Lamps Affixed by Aaron\u20148:1\u20134
\nB. Levites Inducted\u20148:5\u201326
\n1. Instructions for Cleansing Given\u20148:5\u201314
\n2. Cleansed Levites Begin Service\u20148:15\u201322
\n3. Age of Active Levite Service Stipulated\u20148:23\u201326
\nC. Passover Observed, Supplementary Passover Provided\u20149:1\u201314
\nD. Provisions for Guidance Depicted\u20149:15\u201310:10
\n1. Israel Directed by the Cloud\u20149:15\u201323
\n2. Silver Trumpets Made\u201410:1\u201310
\nPart Two: Israel Journeys from Sinai to Moab\u201410:11\u201321:35
\nI. From Sinai to Kadesh\u201410:11\u201314:45
\nA. Israel Departs Sinai\u201410:11\u201336
\n1. Order of March Reviewed\u201410:11\u201328
\n2. Moses Asks Hobab to Accompany Israel\u201410:29\u201332
\n3. The Departure Noted\u201410:33\u201336
\nB. Israel Complains of Difficulties\u201411:1\u201335
\n1. Fire Brought at Taberah\u201411:1\u20133
\n2. People Cry for Meat\u201411:4\u20139
\n3. Near Exhaustion, Moses Entreats God\u201411:10\u201315
\n4. God Answers Moses\u2019 Plea\u201411:16\u201323
\n5. Elders Appointed as Aides for Moses\u201411:24\u201330
\n6. Blessing of Quail Made a Curse by Lusting People\u201411:31\u201335
\nC. Moses\u2019 Uniqueness Challenged\u201412:1\u201316
\n1. God Rebukes Effrontery of Miriam and Aaron\u201412:1\u20138
\n2. Moses Intercedes for Stricken Sister\u201412:9\u201316
\nD. The Great Rebellion at Kadesh Punished\u201413:1\u201314:45
\n1. Leaders Chosen for Reconnaissance in Canaan\u201413:1\u201316
\n2. Moses Commissions Intelligence Team\u201413:17\u201320
\n3. Spies Reconnoiter Canaan\u201413:21\u201325
\n4. Pessimistic Report Returned\u201413:26\u201329
\n5. Caleb\u2019s Faithful Counsel Repudiated\u201413:30\u201333
\n6. Hysterical Congregation Threatens Revolt\u201414:1\u20134
\n7. Joshua, Caleb Plead with the People\u201414:5\u20139
\n8. God Threatens to Annihilate Israel\u201414:10\u201312
\n9. Moses Again Intercedes for His People\u201414:13\u201319
\n10. God Pardons, but Reveals Consequences\u201414:20\u201325
\n11. Divine Decree Announced to Israel\u201414:26\u201335
\n12. Faithless Spies Die by Plague\u201414:36\u201338
\n13. Abortive Southern Invasion Repelled\u201414:39\u201345
\nII. From Kadesh to Moab\u201415:1\u201321:35
\nA. Additional Laws Given\u201415:1\u201341
\n1. Amounts Given for Sacrificial Accompaniments\u201415:1\u201316
\n2. Ground Meal Offering Stipulated\u201415:17\u201321
\n3. Sin Offerings Considered Again\u201415:22\u201331
\n4. A Sabbath Breaker Stoned\u201415:32\u201336
\n5. Commemorative Tassels Ordained\u201415:37\u201341
\nB. Rebellion of Korah Punished\u201416:1\u201317:13
\n1. Korah Revolts, Moses Responds\u201416:1\u201311
\n2. Dathan, Abiram Refuse Summons\u201416:12\u201314
\n3. Censer-Bearing Company Appears before Tent\u201416:15\u201321
\n4. Moses, Aaron Intercede for Threatened People\u201416:22\u201324
\n5. Moses Predicts the Rebels\u2019 Fate\u201416:25\u201330
\n6. Predicted Earthquake and Fire Destroys Rebels\u201416:31\u201335
\n7. Censers of Rebels Consecrated as Memorial\u201416:36\u201340
\n8. Plague on Recalcitrant People Halted through Aaron\u2019s Intercession\u201416:41\u201350
\n9. Demonstration of Priestly Authority Planned\u201417:1\u201311
\n10. People Frightened by Events\u201417:12\u201313
\nC. Duties, Dues of Priests and Levites Regulated\u201418:1\u201332
\n1. Sanctuary Duties of Priests and Levites Reemphasized\u201418:1\u20137
\n2. Priestly Revenues Listed\u201418:8\u201320
\n3. Levites to Be Supported by Tithe\u201418:21\u201324
\n4. Levite Offering from Tithe Stipulated\u201418:25\u201332
\nD. Water of Purification Ordained\u201419:1\u201322
\n1. Preparation of Purificatory Ash Described\u201419:1\u201310
\n2. General Law of Cleansing Stated\u201419:11\u201313
\n3. Specific Applications Made\u201419:14\u201322
\nE. Final Events at Kadesh Related\u201420:1\u201321
\n1. Miriam Dies\u201420:1
\n2. Water Crisis Experienced Anew\u201420:2\u201313
\n3. Passage through Edom Denied\u201420:14\u201321
\nF. Israel Journeys to Moab\u201420:22\u201321:35
\n1. Aaron Dies\u201420:22\u201329
\n2. King of Arad Defeated\u201421:1\u20133
\n3. Murmuring People Punished, Saved through Bronze Serpent\u201421:4\u20139
\n4. Several Encampments Listed\u201421:10\u201320
\n5. King Sihon Defeated; Amorite Territory Occupied\u201421:21\u201330
\n6. Israel Defeats Og, Takes Bashan\u201421:31\u201335
\nPart Three: Victorious Israel Encamps in Plains of Moab\u201422:1\u201336:13
\nI. Balak, Balaam Conspire against Israel\u201422:1\u201325:18
\nA. Balaam Summoned to Moab\u201422:1\u201341
\n1. Balak Calls Balaam to Curse Israel\u201422:1\u20136
\n2. Balaam Declines First Summons\u201422:7\u201314
\n3. Presumptuous Balaam Permitted Journey\u201422:15\u201320
\n4. Balaam Delivered, Counseled by Donkey\u201422:21\u201330
\n5. God Speaks to Balaam\u201422:31\u201335
\n6. Balaam Arrives in Moab for Attempted Cursing\u201422:36\u201341
\nB. Balaam Delivers Divine Oracles\u201423:1\u201324:25
\n1. Balaam Blesses Israel, Frustrates Balak\u2019s Intent\u201423:1\u201312
\n2. Balak Foiled Again As Balaam Voices Second Blessing\u201423:13\u201326
\n3. Balaam Proclaims Third Blessing before Frustrated Moabites\u201423:27\u201324:9
\n4. Balaam\u2019s Concluding Messages Recorded\u201424:10\u201325
\nC. Israel Enticed to Idolatrous Lewdness\u201425:1\u201318
\n1. Israelites Engaged in Heathen Rites by Moabite Women\u201425:1\u20135
\n2. Phinehas Takes Decisive Action in Midianite Seduction\u201425:6\u20139
\n3. Phinehas Rewarded by Confirmation of Priesthood\u201425:10\u201313
\n4. Slain Couple Identified\u201425:14\u201315
\n5. Midianites Slated for Punishment\u201425:16\u201318
\nII. Israel Prepares to Enter Canaan\u201426:1\u201336:13
\nA. Second Census Taken\u201426:1\u201365
\n1. The Census Commanded\u201426:1\u20134
\n2. Israel Numbered Again\u201426:5\u201351
\n3. Land Division Planned\u201426:52\u201356
\n4. Levites Counted\u201426:57\u201362
\n5. Wilderness Judgment Recalled\u201426:63\u201365
\nB. Zelophehad\u2019s Daughters Granted Inheritance Rights\u201427:1\u201311
\n1. Daughters Make Appeal for Father\u2019s Inheritance\u201427:1\u20134
\n2. Favorable Ruling Establishes Precedent; Order of Inheritance Stipulated\u201427:5\u201311
\nC. Joshua Commissioned to Be Moses\u2019 Successor\u201427:12\u201323
\n1. Moses Told of Approaching Death\u201427:12\u201314
\n2. Joshua Appointed in Response to Moses\u2019 Request\u201427:15\u201323
\nD. Schedule for Public Offerings Given\u201428:1\u201329:40
\n1. Daily Offering Stated\u201428:1\u20138
\n2. Sabbath Offering Stated\u201428:9\u201310
\n3. New Moon Offering Depicted\u201428:11\u201315
\n4. Offering for Days of Unleavened Bread Depicted\u201428:16\u201325
\n5. Pentecost Offering Depicted\u201428:26\u201331
\n6. Offering for Feast of Trumpets\u201429:1\u20136
\n7. Offering for Day of Atonement Listed\u201429:7\u201311
\n8. Offering for Tabernacles Enumerated\u201429:12\u201338
\n9. The Matter Concluded\u201429:39\u201340
\nE. Vows of Women Regulated\u201430:1\u201316
\nF. Israel Avenged upon Midian\u201431:1\u201354
\n1. Midianites Devastated in Holy War\u201431:1\u201312
\n2. Captives Executed; Purification Rites Required\u201431:13\u201320
\n3. Additional Purification Regulation Given\u201431:21\u201324
\n4. Spoils of War Apportioned\u201431:25\u201347
\n5. Special Offering Made by Officers\u201431:48\u201354
\nG. Reuben, Gad, Part of Manasseh Permitted Transjordan Settlement\u201432:1\u201342
\n1. Reuben, Gad Petition for Eastern Inheritance\u201432:1\u20135
\n2. Moses Rebukes Tribal Selfishnesp
\n3. Revised Proposal with Invasion Role Approved\u201432:16\u201327
\n4. Inheritance Compact Formally Concluded\u201432:28\u201332
\n5. Provisional Defensive Settlement Described\u201432:33\u201342
\nH. Wilderness Route Reviewed\u201433:1\u201349
\n1. Exodus from Egypt Recalled\u201433:1\u20134
\n2. Route Traced from Egypt to Sinai\u201433:5\u201315
\n3. March to Kadesh and Wanderings Listed\u201433:16\u201336
\n4. Journey to Plains of Moab Recalled\u201433:37\u201349
\nI. Instructions Given for Conquest, Inheritance\u201433:50\u201336:13
\n1. Canaanites to Be Expelled, Their Gods Destroyed, Their Land Possessed\u201433:50\u201356
\n2. Intended Boundaries Described\u201434:1\u201315
\n3. Leaders Chosen for Land Division\u201434:16\u201329
\n4. Cities Ordained for Levites\u201435:1\u20135
\n5. Cities Slated for Refuge\u201435:6\u201334
\n6. Heiresses\u2019 Marriage Restricted\u201436:1\u201313<\/p>\n
BIBLIOGRAPHY<\/p>\n
COMMENTARIES<\/p>\n
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Budd, Philip J. Numbers. WBC. Nashville: Nelson, 1984.<\/p>\n
Davies, Eryl W. Numbers. NCBC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.<\/p>\n
de Vaulx, J. Nombres. Sources bibliques. Paris: Gabalda, 1972.<\/p>\n
Gray, George Buchanan. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Numbers. ICC. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1903.<\/p>\n
Harrison, R.K. Numbers. The Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1990.<\/p>\n
Levine, Baruch A. Numbers. 2 vols. AB. New York: Doubleday, 1993.<\/p>\n
Milgrom, Jacob. Numbers, \u05d1\u05bc\u05de\u05d3\u05d1\u05bc\u05e8. The New JPS Torah Commentary. Philadelphia and New York: Jewish Publication Society, 1990.<\/p>\n
Noordtzij, A. Numbers. Bible Student\u2019s Commentary. Trans. by E. van der Mass. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983.<\/p>\n
Noth, Martin. Numbers. OTL. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968.<\/p>\n
Wenham, Gordon J. Numbers. TOTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981.<\/p>\n
SPECIAL STUDIES<\/p>\n
Aharoni, Yohanon. The Land of the Bible. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967.<\/p>\n
Aharoni, Yohanon, and Michael Avi-Yonah. The Macmillan Bible Atlas. Rev ed. New York: Macmillan, 1977.<\/p>\n
Albright, William F. \u201cJethro, Hobab and Reuel in Early Hebrew Tradition.\u201d CBQ 25 (1963): 1\u201311.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Names Shaddai and Abram.\u201d JBL 54 (1935): 173\u2013204.<\/p>\n
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\u2014\u2014\u2014. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan. New York: Doubleday, 1968.<\/p>\n
Alfrink, B. \u201cL\u2019expression ne\u02be\u0259saph \u02beel-am\u0101yw.\u201d Old Testament Studies 5 (1948): 118\u2013131.<\/p>\n
Bartlett, J.R. Edom and the Edomites. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989.<\/p>\n
Baumgartner, Albert I. \u201cThe Paradox of the Red Heifer.\u201d VT 43 (1993): 442\u2013451.<\/p>\n
Bechtel, L.M. \u201cShame as a Sanction of Social Control in Biblical Israel: Judicial, Political and Social Shaming.\u201d JSOT 49 (1991): 47\u201376.<\/p>\n
Beitzel, B. The Moody Atlas of Bible Lands. Chicago: Moody, 1985.<\/p>\n
Ben-Barak, Zafrira. \u201cInheritance by Daughters in the Ancient Near East.\u201d JSS 25 (1980): 22\u201333.<\/p>\n
Brichto, Herbert Chanan. \u201cThe Case of the s\u00f4\u1e6d\u0101 and a Reconsideration of Biblical \u2018Law.\u2019 \u201d HUCA 46 (1975): 55\u201370.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. The Problem of \u2018Curse\u2019 in the Hebrew Bible. Philadelphia: Scholar\u2019s Press, 1963.<\/p>\n
Carteledge, Tony W. \u201cWere Nazirite Vows Unconditional?\u201d CBQ 51 (1989): 409\u2013422.<\/p>\n
Christensen, Duane L. \u201cNum 21:14\u201315 and the Book of the Wars of Yahweh.\u201d CBQ 36 (1974): 359\u2013360.<\/p>\n
Clark, R.E.D. \u201cThe Large Numbers in the Old Testament.\u201d Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute 87 (1955): 82\u201392.<\/p>\n
Coats, George W. \u201cBalaam: Sinner or Saint.\u201d BR 18 (1973): 21\u201329.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cHumility and Honor: A Moses Legend in Numbers 12.\u201d In Art and Meaning: Rhetoric in Biblical Literature, pp. 97\u2013107. Ed. by D.J.A. Clines, D.M. Gunn, and A.J. Hauser. JSOTSupp 19. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1982.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cLegendary Motifs in the Moses Death Reports.\u201d CBQ 39 (1977): 34\u201344.<\/p>\n
Cohen, Chaim. \u201cThe Biblical Priestly Blessing (Num 6:24\u201326) in the Light of Akkadian Parallels.\u201d Tel Aviv 20 (1993): 228\u2013238.<\/p>\n
Cross, Frank Moore. Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201c\u05d0\u05b5\u05dc, \u02be\u0113l.\u201d TDOT, 1:242\u2013261. Ed. by G.J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974.<\/p>\n
Davies, G.I. The Way of the Wilderness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Wilderness Itineraries: A Comparative Study.\u201d TynBul 25 (1974): 46\u201381.<\/p>\n
de Vaux, Roland. \u201cLe pays de Canaan.\u201d JAOS 88 (1968): 23\u201329.<\/p>\n
Diamond, Eliezar. \u201cAn Israelite Self-Offering in the Priestly Code: A New Perspective on the Nazirite.\u201d JQR 88 (1997): 1\u201318.<\/p>\n
Douglas, Mary. In the Wilderness: The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.<\/p>\n
Dumbrell, W.J. \u201cMidian\u2014Land or League?\u201d VT 25 (1975): 323\u2013337.<\/p>\n
Eissfeldt, Otto. The Old Testament: An Introduction. Trans. by Peter Ackroyd. New York: Harper & Row, 1965.<\/p>\n
Finkelstein, I. The Archaeology of the Israelite Settlement. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1988.<\/p>\n
Fishbane, Michael. \u201cAccusations of Adultery: A Study of Law and Scribal Practice in Numbers 5:11\u201331.\u201d HUCA 45 (1974): 25\u201345.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford: Clarendon, 1985.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cForm and Reformulation of the Biblical Priestly Blessing.\u201d JAOS 103 (1983): 115\u2013121.<\/p>\n
Fisher, L.R. \u201cNew Ritual Calendar from Ugarit.\u201d HTR 63 (1970): 485\u2013501.<\/p>\n
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Hanson, H.E. \u201cNum. XVI 30 and the Meaning of b\u0101r\u0101\u02be.\u201d VT 22 (1972): 353\u2013359.<\/p>\n
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Humphreys, Colin J. \u201cThe Number of People in the Exodus from Egypt: Decoding Mathematically the Very Large Numbers in Numbers I and XXVI.\u201d VT 48 (1998): 196\u2013213.<\/p>\n
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McEvenue, S.E. \u201cA Source Critical Problem in Num. 14, 26\u201338.\u201d Bib 50 (1969): 453\u2013465.<\/p>\n
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\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cOf Hems and Tassels.\u201d BAR 9:3 (1983): 61\u201365.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Paradox of the Red Cow (Num. XIX).\u201d VT 31 (1981): 62\u201372.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Priestly Doctrine of Repentance.\u201d RB 82 (1975): 186\u2013205.<\/p>\n
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Redford, D.B. \u201cPi-Hahiroth.\u201d ABD, 5:371. Ed. by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992.<\/p>\n
Rendtorff, Rolf. Die Gesetz in der Priesterschrift: Eine Gattungsgeschichtlichen Untersuchung. G\u00f6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1954.<\/p>\n
Ringgren, H. \u201c\u05d2\u05b8\u05d1\u05b7\u05e2, g\u0101va\u02bf.\u201d TDOT, 2:438\u2013439. Ed. by G.J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975.<\/p>\n
Rogers, C. \u201cMoses: Meek or Miserable?\u201d JETS 29 (1986): 257\u2013263.<\/p>\n
Safren, Jonathan D. \u201cBalaam and Abraham.\u201d VT 38 (1988): 105\u2013113.<\/p>\n
Sasson, Jack M. \u201cNumbers 5 and the Waters of Judgment.\u201d BZ 16 (1972): 249\u2013251.<\/p>\n
Sasson, V. \u201cThe Meaning of whsbt in the Arad Inscription.\u201d ZAW 94 (1982): 105\u2013111.<\/p>\n
Savran, G. \u201cBeastly Speech: Intertextuality, Balaam\u2019s Ass and the Garden of Eden.\u201d JSOT 64 (1994): 33\u201355.<\/p>\n
Snaith, Nahum H. The Hebrew New Year Festival. London: SPCK, 1947.<\/p>\n
Speiser, E.A. \u201cThe Background and Function of the Biblical N\u0101\u015b\u00ee\u02be.\u201d CBQ 25 (1963): 111\u2013117.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cUnrecognized Dedication.\u201d IEJ 13 (1963): 69\u201373.<\/p>\n
Stade, B. \u201cBeitr\u00e4ge zur Pentateuchkritik.\u201d ZAW 15 (1895): 166\u2013178.<\/p>\n
Stern, P. The Biblical \u1e24erem: A Window on the Religious Experience of Biblical Israel. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991.<\/p>\n
Toorn, K. van der. \u201cDid Jeremiah See Aaron\u2019s Staff?\u201d JSOT 43 (1989): 83\u201394.<\/p>\n
van Seters, J. \u201cThe Terms \u2018Amorite\u2019 and \u2018Hittite\u2019 in the Old Testament.\u201d VT 22 (1972): 64\u201381.<\/p>\n
von Rad, Gerhard. The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays. London: SCM, 1966.<\/p>\n
Weidner, E. \u201cAssyrische Itinerare.\u201d Archiv f\u00fcr Orientforschung 21 (1966): 42\u201346.<\/p>\n
Weingreen, J. \u201cThe Case of the Daughters of Zelophehad.\u201d VT 16 (1966): 518\u2013522.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Case of the Woodgatherer (Numbers XV 32\u201336).\u201d VT 16 (1966): 361\u2013364.<\/p>\n
Wellhausen, Julius. Die Composition des Hexateuchs. 3rd ed. Berlin: G. Reimer, 1899.<\/p>\n
\u2014\u2014\u2014. Prolegomena to the History of Ancient Israel. New York: Scribner\u2019s, 1957.<\/p>\n
Wenham, Gordon J. \u201cAaron\u2019s Rod (Numbers 17, 16\u201328).\u201d ZAW 93 (1981): 280\u2013281.<\/p>\n
Wenham, J.W. \u201cLarge Numbers in the Old Testament.\u201d TynBul 18 (1967): 19\u201353.<\/p>\n
Wifall, W. \u201cAsshur and Eber, or Asher and Heber.\u201d ZAW 82 (1970): 110\u2013114.<\/p>\n
Wright, David P. \u201cPurification from Corpse Contamination in Numbers xxxi 19\u201324,\u201d VT 35 (1985): 213\u2013223.<\/p>\n
Yadin, Yigael. The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1963.<\/p>\n
Yahuda, A.S. \u201cThe Name of Balaam\u2019s Homeland.\u201d JBL 64 (1945): 547\u2013551.<\/p>\n
Young, Edward J. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1960.<\/p>\n
Zuckschwerdt, E. \u201cZur literarischen Vorgeschichte des priestlichen Nazir-Gesetzes (Num 6:1\u20138).\u201d ZAW 88 (1976): 191\u2013205.<\/p>\n
NUMBERS 1:1\u201310:10\u2014PART ONE<\/p>\n
ISRAEL PREPARES TO LEAVE SINAI<\/p>\n
The first section of the Numbers narrative treats the preparations made at Sinai for the journey to the land promised by God to Israel. Commanded by the LORD to take a census, Moses first numbered all the people except the Levites (ch. 1). Plans for order of march and encampment were made (ch. 2), and then the Levites were numbered and their duties assigned (chs. 3\u20134). A number of laws were given, including the provisions for those specially consecrated as Nazirites (chs. 5\u20136). After dedicatory offerings had been made for the tabernacle (ch. 7) and other preliminary details attended to (chs. 8\u201310), the Israelites set out from Sinai, approximately one year after they had arrived there.<\/p>\n
I. Israel Numbered (1:1\u201354)<\/p>\n
A. CENSUS TAKERS APPOINTED (1:1\u201316)<\/p>\n
1:1\u201316 The expression, the LORD spoke, occurs almost one hundred times in Numbers alone and shows God\u2019s special direction of Moses as Israel\u2019s authorized leader. The LORD met with Moses at the Tent of Meeting, the tabernacle, which symbolized the Divine Presence in Israel\u2019s midst (cf. Exod 29:42; 25:22; Lev 1:1). The first day of the second month was the month after the erection of the tabernacle (Exod 40:17). At this time the LORD commanded that a census be taken for military purposes (v. 3). As Israel prepared to leave Sinai and approach her promised inheritance, effective military organization was essential. The popular title \u201cNumbers\u201d is derived in large measure from this and a later census (ch. 26). Each tribe of Israel was divided into clans; each clan was divided into families (septs; cf. Josh 7:16\u201318). These terms for tribal subdivisions seem, however to be frequently used loosely. Adult males only were numbered since these would fill the military ranks (cf. 2 Chr 25:5). One man from each tribe, collectively noted princes of Israel (2:3\u201331), was to assist in the census. Most of them bear theophoric names, i.e., names which include the name of, or allusion to, deity. Doubtless the descendants of these men in later generations proudly recalled their leadership roles. Deuel in verse 14 is perhaps better \u201cReuel\u201d as in 2:14. The Hebrew term for clans (singular \u05d0\u05b6\u05dc\u05b6\u05e4, \u02beeleph) may also be rendered \u201cthousand\u201d; a different word (singular \u05de\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05e4\u05b8\u05bc\u05d7\u05b8\u05d4, mi\u0161p\u0101\u1e25\u0101h) is translated \u201cclans\u201d in verse 2 and elsewhere.<\/p>\n
B. THE CENSUS TAKEN (1:17\u201346)<\/p>\n
1:17\u201346 Exodus 30:11 and 38:25\u201328 apparently refer to this same census as providing silver used in the construction of the tabernacle. Accordingly, the present passage has to do with the final phase of a census project begun earlier. Declaring their ancestry, the people were counted and registered with the men of military age being listed by name. Verses 20\u201346 give the details of the count; each tribe went forth in practically identical fashion, followed by a summary statement. The tribes are listed here as they were grouped for encampment (Leviticus 2). The numbers in this census seem high since 603,550 men of military age would point to a total population of two to three million people for ancient Israel. Such an estimate for Israel\u2019s population constitutes what is perhaps the major problem in the book of Numbers, and one that has provoked considerable discussion among commentators. On the one hand, Exodus chapter 1 stresses remarkable population increase in Israel, and the problem of feeding such a vast multitude is well answered by the fact of God\u2019s miraculous provision for his people in the wilderness. On the other hand, such a figure appears inordinately large in the light of other biblical data concerning the size of Israel\u2019s forces at other times and the scope and size of Israel\u2019s later habitation in Canaan as reflected by archaeological excavations.
\nThat numbers are particularly subject to corruption in Hebrew textual transmission is well evidenced. One need only compare parallel accounts in Samuel and Chronicles, for examples; the \u201c700 chariots\u201d in 2 Samuel 10:18 compared to the \u201c7000 chariots\u201d in 1 Chronicles 19:18; and the \u201c4000 stalls\u201d in 2 Chronicles 9:25 compared to \u201c40,000 stalls\u201d in 1 Kings 4:26. It is possible that some such error in transmission has occurred in regard to the Israelite population figures, so that the figures given in the original text have been enlarged. One way in which such could have taken place is found in the fact that the word translated \u201cthousand\u201d has other meanings such as \u201cclan\u201d (see note to v. 16), possibly also \u201ctroop,\u201d and a related form of the same consonants means \u201cleader.\u201d Perhaps the census figures actually deal with such groups and not with \u201cthousands\u201d as commonly translated. The overall problem remains complex, even on this supposition, since this proposed solution must maintain that the totals for the figures are a later scribal insertion in the text. Finally, because archaeological population estimates are not absolute, faulty scribal transmission in this case, while possible, remains unproven. Good special studies on the problem are those by R.E.D. Clark and J.W. Wenham, and among the commentaries, the excursuses by G.J. Wenham and Ashley are especially helpful.<\/p>\n
C. LEVITES EXEMPTED (1:47\u201354)<\/p>\n
1:47\u201354 The Levites were exempted from military service, hence were not counted in the military census. They were later to be counted in connection with their replacing the firstborn as special servants for the LORD (3:15, 45\u201351). Instead of military obligation, the Levites were to render special services in relation to the tabernacle\u2014to carry \u2026 to take care \u2026 to take it down and to set up the portable sanctuary. The tabernacle of the Testimony is so called because the two \u201ctables of the testimony\u201d on which the Ten Commandments were engraved were located within the ark inside the Most Holy Place (cf. Exod 25:21\u201322; 31:18). Unauthorized persons who tampered with the holy precincts did so under penalty of death. The Levites encamping around the tabernacle provided a buffer between people and sanctuary and prevented unintentional violation of the sacred space by the people, thus averting divine wrath on the Israelite community. Encampment arrangements for the tribes are set forth in chapter 2.<\/p>\n
II. Positions Assigned for Encampment and March (2:1\u201334)<\/p>\n
God intended that the tribes be grouped into four camps (vv. 2\u201331) with the Levites assigned a position between sanctuary and people (v. 17). The chapter concludes by noting Israel\u2019s obedience (vv. 32\u201334). The encampment plan may be charted as follows:<\/p>\n
2:1\u20132 The Israelites were to encamp around the Tent of Meeting; i.e., the sanctuary, which symbolized the presence of God in Israel\u2019s midst (Exod 25:8), was to be the center of the encampment and of the march (v. 17). The standard was evidently a pole or banner marking the respective three-tribe units of Judah (v. 3), Reuben (v. 10), Ephraim (v. 18), and Dan (v. 25); the banners were similar markers for the individual tribes within the units. According to Jewish tradition the standard of Judah bore the likeness of a lion, that of Reuben the figure of a man, that of Ephraim the figure of an ox, and that of Dan the figure of an eagle. Again, according to tradition, each tribe had its own embroidered flag, the color of which corresponded with that tribe\u2019s stone in the high priest\u2019s breastplate (Exod. 39:14).
\n2:3\u20139 The camp of Judah was positioned to the east, toward the sunrise. This was the position of honor and preeminence, since the sanctuary faced east (cf. Gen 49:8\u201312). The tribes were grouped, as far as possible, according to the relationship of their progenitors in Jacob\u2019s family (Gen 29:31\u201330:24; 35:18). Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun were Leah\u2019s fourth, fifth and sixth sons respectively (cf. vv. 10, 18, 25). The Hebrew term for leader (\u05e0\u05b8\u05e9\u05b4\u05c2\u05d9\u05d0, n\u0101\u015b\u00ee\u02be) denotes \u201cone lifted up,\u201d hence \u201cchief prince.\u201d They will set out first indicates that the order of listing was also the order of march (see vv. 16, 17, 24, and 31).
\n2:10\u201317 Continuing clockwise, the camp of Reuben was to be situated on the south and was to march second (cf. notes to v. 3). Reuben and Simeon were sons of Leah, Gad a son of Leah\u2019s handmaid, Zilpah (Gen 29:32\u201333; 30:10\u201311). The Tent of Meeting was to occupy center place in the march as well as the encampment. The camp position of the various families of Levites is given in 3:23, 29, 35, and 38.
\n2:18\u201324 The camp of Ephraim was to be situated on the west and to march next among the tribal camps. This camp consisted of the \u201cRachel tribes,\u201d Ephraim and Manasseh being descended from her older son, Joseph (Gen 30:24; 41:50\u201352) and Benjamin being descended from her younger son (Gen 35:18).
\n2:25\u201334 Encamping on the north and marching last, the camp of Dan was composed of Dan and Naphtali, tribes descended from Rachel\u2019s handmaid, Bilhah (Gen 30:5\u20138) and Asher, descended from Leah\u2019s handmaid, Zilpah (Gen 30:12\u201313). Obediently organized for encampment and march as the LORD commanded Moses, the people were better prepared to leave Sinai.<\/p>\n
III. Levites Numbered, Appointed for Service (3:1\u20134:49)<\/p>\n
Selected by God in lieu of the firstborn sons previously claimed, the Levites were to be set apart for special tabernacle service, to minister to the Aaronic priesthood and thus to all Israel (3:1\u201313). The Levites were numbered by their three divisions, and camp position and sanctuary duties were assigned to each division (3:14\u201339). Because the firstborn males were more numerous than the Levites assigned to take their place, a special redemption tax was taken from the excess number of firstborn (3:40\u201351). Finally, the Levites of suitable age for actual service were counted and their specific duties assigned (4:1\u201349). The section anticipates the actual installation of the Levites recorded in 8:5\u201326.<\/p>\n
A. LEVITES SET APART FOR SANCTUARY SERVICE (3:1\u201313)<\/p>\n
3:1\u20134 Familiar from Genesis, the expression this is the account of the family, literally \u201cthese are the generations,\u201d often introduces a genealogy. A list of Aaron\u2019s sons who served as priests follows; Moses\u2019 sons were classified among the nonpriestly Levite families (1 Chr 23:14). The genealogical paragraph (vv. 1\u20134) is preparatory for the designation of the Levites\u2019 special role. On the anointing of Aaron\u2019s sons, see Exodus 30:30 and the notes to Leviticus 8:13. Were ordained is more literally \u201cwhose hands he filled,\u201d a phrase used to signify appointment to office. The ritual disobedience and death of Nadab and Abihu is treated in Leviticus 10:1\u20132. Since these men had no sons to succeed them as priests (cf. 1 Chr 24:2), Eleazar and Ithamar were left as the only priests during the lifetime of their father Aaron.
\n3:5\u201310 The Levites were designated to assist the priesthood, here represented by the high priest Aaron. As the Levites performed their duties, they, like the priests, were serving the whole community of Israel. Claimed by God from Israel (v. 12), the Levites were given by him to the priests to perform the more menial tasks in connection with the sanctuary (8:16\u201319). The Levites were not authorized to perform the special functions of priests at the altar and in the sanctuary under the penalty of death (cf. 18:1\u20137).
\n3:11\u201313 By sovereign choice God claimed the Levites, who had rallied to Moses during the shameful episode of the golden calf (Exod 32:25\u201329), in lieu of the firstborn. When God killed the Egyptian firstborn in the final plague, he spared the Israelite firstborn and set them apart for himself (Exod 13:2, 11\u201316). Now the Levites were to be taken in their place. The exactness of the exchange is seen in 3:40\u201351.<\/p>\n
B. LEVITES NUMBERED AND THEIR DUTIES GIVEN (3:14\u201339)<\/p>\n
3:14\u201320 The count of the Levites by their families and clans (see note to 1:2) was to be taken in order to negotiate the exchange of the Levites for the firstborn (vv. 40\u201351). The firstborn were ordinarily redeemed when they were a month old (18:16) at which time an infant is assumed viable. Chapter four records a census of adult Levites for purposes of actual service. The Levite genealogy given here reflects a tripartite division into clans (Gershonite \u2026 Kohathite \u2026 Merarite) which was ideally suited for distribution of responsibility among the Levites.
\n3:21\u201326 The tabernacle faced eastward. The relative positions of the Levite groups are depicted on the chart (see p. 196). The Gershonites were responsible for dismantling, transporting and assembling the tabernacle tent and its accessories. The materials for which they were responsible were all fabrics and coverings. These materials are described in the tabernacle design in Exodus 26:1\u201314; 26:36; 27:9\u201316. The Merarites had charge of the cords of the court hangings (v. 37); accordingly verse 26 refers to ropes of the sanctuary itself. The tent ropes are assumed in the section dealing with the design of the sanctuary but are explicitly mentioned in the account of the actual construction (Exod 35:18; 39:40). The Gershonites\u2019 responsibility for everything related to their use is spelled out in detail in 4:24\u201327.
\n3:27\u201332 The priestly family of Aaron was descended from Kohath (Exod 6:18, 20), which gave distinction to this branch of the Levites. Accordingly, the Kohathite responsibilities appear somewhat more exalted than those of the other Levites in that the Kohathites had charge of the holy furnishings and vessels. The sanctuary duties of the Kohathites are detailed in 4:2\u201320. Eleazar, son of Aaron, a Kohathite, was appointed over the three Levite chiefs, Eliasaph (v. 24), Elizaphan (v. 30) and Zuriel (v. 35).
\n3:33\u201337 The Merarites were given charge of the framework of the tabernacle and of the courtyard enclosure (cf. 4:29\u201333 and notes). All this hardware equipment is described in the design for the tabernacle and the courtyard given in Exodus 26:15\u201337 and in Exodus 27:9\u201319, respectively.
\n3:38\u201339 Encamped east of the tabernacle, the priestly family of Aaron and his sons would serve to \u201cguard\u201d the entrance of the Tent of Meeting against unauthorized access by anyone else (cf. v. 10). The total number of Levites is given as 22,000. The sum of the figures from verses 22, 28, and 34 is 22,300. The inconsistency may be resolved easily by noting that the loss of one Hebrew letter in the transmission of verse 28 (by \u05e9\u05c1\u05e9\u05c1 being written for \u05e9\u05c1\u05dc\u05e9\u05c1) would raise the number there given from 8300 to 8600, thus exactly accounting for the discrepancy. Apparently such has taken place. The correctness of the total is demonstrated from the use of it in the computation of verses 43\u201351.<\/p>\n
C. LEVITES EXCHANGED FOR ISRAEL\u2019S FIRSTBORN (3:40\u201351)<\/p>\n
3:40\u201351 The LORD having claimed the Levites for priesthood in the place of the previously chosen firstborn Israelites (cf. vv. 11\u201313), these groups were now to be exchanged. While their livestock was to be exchanged as groups without being counted and exchanged head for head, the Levites and firstborn were to be exchanged exactly. The redemption of a firstborn son ordinarily required that five silver shekels be paid to the sanctuary (18:16; cf. Lev 27:1\u20138). In the present instance the Levites were exchanged on a one-to-one basis thus releasing the bulk of the firstborn from their obligation to serve or be redeemed, and only for the excess of firstborn was monetary redemption required. The number of firstborn (22,273) seems small in contrast to the total number of Israelites of military age given in 1:46. Assuming that number has been correctly preserved (see note to 1:46), the text here may speak only of those born after God claimed the firstborn as his own. Hence the law of Exodus 13:2 was not retroactive. Since the excess of firstborn was 273, the total to redeem them was 1365 shekels (273\u00d75) calculated according to the sanctuary shekel of twenty gerahs, which weight was used for all transactions involving the sanctuary (see note to Lev 27:3, 25; cf. Exod 30:13). This redemption money was not coins, of course, but instead the appropriate weight of silver (cf. Gen 23:16); coinage developed in Israel many centuries later.<\/p>\n
D. LEVITES NUMBERED FOR ACTUAL SERVICE (4:1\u201349)<\/p>\n
4:1\u20136 This census of male Levites from ages thirty to fifty was designed primarily for planning the heavy work of transporting all parts of the portable sanctuary, as the context (v. 5) shows. Interestingly, the Hebrew word for serve here (\u05e6\u05b8\u05d1\u05b8\u05d0, \u1e63\u0101b\u0101\u02be) is the same as that used for the military service of the other tribes in chapter one (1:3, 20, 22, 24, et al.). The Levites formed a \u201choly army\u201d for divine service. The Kohathites, the family to which Aaron belonged, are mentioned first because they had the exalted task of carrying the most holy things, here the actual furniture of the sanctuary. The priests, Aaron and his sons, were to cover the holy furniture prior to the Kohathites\u2019 entrance into the sanctuary. The Kohathites were not to touch these holy things (v. 15). Only the bronze laver (Exod 30:18) was left uncovered. The shielding curtain, which separated the Holy Place in the tabernacle from the Most Holy Place, was used to cover the sacred ark in transport (cf. Exod 26:31\u201333). The covering made from hides of sea cows, or dugongs, marine mammals similar to dolphins frequenting Old World coastal waters, served as weatherproofing for the ark in transit. The word rendered \u201csea cow\u201d (\u05ea\u05b7\u05bc\u05d7\u05b7\u05e9\u05c1, ta\u1e25a\u0161) is somewhat obscure, and hence translations vary, others preferring to translate the expression \u201cgoatskins\u201d or \u201cfine leather\u201d (cf. Exod 26:14). A beautiful exterior covering cloth of solid blue distinguished the sacred ark from the other furniture during transportation. Fabrics dyed purple-blue were collected from the people as part of the original offering for the sanctuary (Exod 25:3\u20134). Although the poles (cf. 1 Kgs 8:8) were left in the ark in the sanctuary service (Exod 25:15), they necessarily had to be temporarily removed when the priests covered the ark for transport.
\n4:7\u201311 A blue cloth also covered the table of the Presence (Exod 25:23\u201330), to protect the finish of the table from being marred by the utensils carried upon the table during march. The particular expression, the bread that is continually there, is not found elsewhere; the thought is set forth in Exodus 25:30. Atop the table and its vessels was spread a scarlet cloth (Exod 25:3\u20134), and over this the waterproofing cover made from hides of sea cows (cf. v. 6 and notes). The lampstand and its utensils were also covered with a blue cloth and with a covering of hides and placed upon a carrying frame which was perhaps a wooden tray or pole (cf. Num 13:23). The gold altar, the altar of incense (Exod 30:1\u201310), was similarly covered.
\n4:12\u201315 Perhaps because it stood in the courtyard outside the tent, the bronze altar was covered with a purple cloth (Exod 25:3\u20134) instead of the blue cloth used for the sanctuary furniture. Upon the purple cloth all the utensils were placed and all was covered with the waterproof covering for transport. The text warns that the Kohathites must not touch the holy things. Violation of this prohibition brought death to Uzzah (2 Sam 6:6\u20137).
\n4:16\u201320 As chief over the Levite leaders, Eleazar (3:32) was to oversee the sanctuary service and also the work of the Kohathites (cf. vv. 28, 33). He was thus in charge of the entire tabernacle and everything in it, including the oil for the light (see Exod 27:20), the fragrant incense (see Exod 30:34\u201338), the regular grain offering (Leviticus 2, Exod 29:40), and the anointing oil (see Exod 30:22\u201333). Because of the Kohathites\u2019 solemn responsibilities, the warning of verse 15 is intensified in verse 20. The priests were to cover the furniture as directed so that the Kohathites would neither see nor touch the actual pieces, but rather would come in physical contact only with the wrappings, carrying the frames and poles. Men of Beth Shemesh died for looking into the ark (1 Sam 6:19).
\n4:21\u201333 Under the oversight of Ithamar (cf. v. 16 and Exod 38:21), the Gershonites were responsible for the fabrics and coverings of the tabernacle complex, all of which are fully described in Exodus. The Merarites, likewise placed under Ithamar\u2019s oversight, were given charge of the sanctuary structural components and hardware, perhaps the heaviest items (cf. notes to 3:33\u201336). The Merarites and Gershonites were supplied with wagons for transport, but the Kohathites were to carry the holy things on their shoulders (7:7\u20139). The transporting of the holy sanctuary was highly and efficiently organized, with specific things being assigned to each man (cf. v. 49). \u201cUnder the direction of Ithamar\u201d is literally \u201cin the hand of Ithamar.\u201d
\n4:34\u201349 Promptly and dutifully carrying out the LORD\u2019s command (vv. 1, 21, 29), Moses, Aaron and the leaders counted the various Levite clans, and the Levites stood fully organized for their work of serving and carrying the Tent of Meeting. It is noteworthy that the heaviest physical work was the charge of the largest of the three groups, the Merarites (v. 44).<\/p>\n
IV. Miscellaneous Laws Issued (5:1\u20136:27)<\/p>\n
As Israel prepared to leave Sinai, certain laws were deemed appropriate for emphasis. Five matters treated here are: (1) exclusion of the ritually unclean from the camp (5:1\u20134), (2) restitution for breach of trust (5:5\u201310), (3) the law of the suspected adulteress (5:11\u201331), (4) the law of the Nazirite (6:1\u201321), and (5) the priestly blessing (6:22\u201327).
\nWhile the principles of ritual and morality here inculcated were always important in Israel, they may have been particularly vital in facing the realities of camp life. The basic unifying factor in the above five matters, however, is the involvement of the priests in each. This involvement also provides the transition from the preceding discussion of the Levites as servants to the priests (chs. 3\u20134; especially 3:1\u20136) to the treatment of the gifts brought after the sanctuary had been consecrated (ch. 7).<\/p>\n
A. UNCLEAN EXCLUDED FROM CAMP (5:1\u20134)<\/p>\n
5:1\u20134 All the types of affliction mentioned here are described in detail elsewhere in the text. For full discussion of the uncleanness of infectious skin disease or \u201cleprosy,\u201d see Leviticus 13:1\u201314:57 and notes. Various kinds of bodily discharge which rendered a person ceremonially unclean are discussed in Leviticus 15:1\u201333. Uncleanness caused by contact with a dead body is considered in detail in Numbers 19:11\u201322 (cf. Lev 21:1, 11). Ritual purity was in ancient Israel an integral part of the holiness and sanctity required of Israel because God spiritually dwelt in their midst in the sanctuary (cf. Lev 15:31). All three types of uncleanness mentioned here were contagious (Lev 13:45\u201346; 15:4\u201312; Num 19:22). Again, promptly obeying the LORD\u2019s command, the Israelites sent the ritually unclean people outside the camp. Distinguishing clean from unclean was a basic priestly duty (Lev 10:10), but the people shared responsibility for maintaining a ceremonially pure camp.<\/p>\n
B. LAW OF RESTITUTION TREATED (5:5\u201310)<\/p>\n
5:5\u201310 Leviticus 6:1\u20137 requires a guilt offering and restitution for instances in which a person wrongs another in any way and so is unfaithful to the LORD (cf. Exod 22:7\u201313). The present passage treats a special case in which the offended party has died and has no close relative, in Hebrew literally \u201ckinsman redeemer\u201d (\u05d2\u05b9\u05d0\u05b5\u05dc, g\u014d\u02be\u0113l; cf. Lev 25:25), to whom the restitution can be made. In such cases the officiating priest, as representative of the LORD, receives the restitution as well as the atoning ram (cf. Lev 6:6\u20137). In verses 9\u201310 the text generalizes concerning priestly dues. On these sacred contributions, see notes to Leviticus 7:14 and compare Leviticus 7:7\u20139 and 10:12\u201315.<\/p>\n
C. DIVINE JUDGMENT TO BE SOUGHT FOR SUSPECTED ADULTERESS (5:11\u201331)<\/p>\n
5:11\u201315 For proven adultery, a clear violation of both the marriage pact and the covenant of God, the penalty was death (Exod 20:14; Lev 20:10). In the circumstance here described in which a matter is hidden \u2026 undetected and with no witness, marital infidelity is suspected but not proven. The suspicious husband overcome by feelings of jealousy could initiate a ritual-legal action against his wife without being liable for punishment in the event she were proven innocent (v. 31). In such cases a special grain offering for jealousy, similar in amount and treatment to the sin offering for the poor (see on Lev 5:11 and notes) was to be brought. Barley flour, coarser and cheaper (2 Kgs 7:1) than the usual \u201cfine flour\u201d (Lev 2:1; 5:11), marked this grain offering as distinctive. It was not a joyous act but a request for judgment.
\n5:16\u201322 The procedure outlined for the priests involved (1) placing the woman before the altar and preparing the water of the curse (vv. 16\u201318), (2) administering the curse oath (vv. 19\u201322), (3) symbolically adding the ink of the written curse to the water (v. 23), (4) offering the grain offering of jealousy (vv. 25\u201326), and (5) administering the water of the curse (v. 26). Consistent with good Hebrew style, verses 16 and 24 are anticipatory, the action involved being described in greater detail in each case in the verses following. Holy water was to be mixed with dust from the tabernacle floor. \u201cHoly water\u201d (\u05de\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05dd \u05e7\u05b0\u05d3\u05b9\u05e9\u05b4\u05c1\u05d9\u05dd, may\u00eem q\u0259d\u014d\u0161\u00eem) is apparently water taken from the bronze laver. The Greek translation has \u201cliving water\u201d (cf. Lev 14:5 and notes). While sanctuary dust and the ink of the written curse added to the water (v. 23) would doubtless increase the psychological intensity of the solemn judgment rite, nothing in the potion would be physically harmful. In this respect the curse water procedure differs markedly from \u201ctrial by ordeal\u201d which is known from other societies and to which this procedure is often compared (cf. note to v. 27). Loosened or disheveled hair (cf. Lev 10:6; 13:45; 21:10) was a sign of mourning and humiliation. Although symbolically the bitter water would activate a curse upon the guilty, in actuality appeal was being made to the LORD to use the water to render judgment in a capital case in which the community could not render judgment (cf. vv. 17, 21). The priest administered this special curse of the oath; the woman solemnly confirmed it (v. 22). The idea is that the horrible punishment experienced by the guilty woman would make her an example for curses, as in Jeremiah 29:22. The thigh is perhaps a euphemism for the sexual organs (cf. Gen 46:26); the word rendered abdomen (\u05d1\u05b6\u05bc\u05d8\u05b6\u05df, beten) probably refers to the womb. According to Jewish tradition, the punishment fit the sin, which began with the \u201cthigh\u201d and finished with the womb. The woman accepted the curse upon herself if she were guilty with the solemn words Amen, so be it (cf. Deut 7:15).
\n5:23\u201328 Writing these curses on a scroll and wiping their ink into the bitter water, the priest symbolized that the curse taken was included in the potion, which the LORD would use to punish the guilty. The priest then made the woman drink the water after administering the grain offering for jealousy, waving it and burning a handful as a memorial offering (cf. Lev 2:2). If she were guilty, the woman would experience bitter suffering, the exact nature of which is uncertain. Dropsy and painful miscarriage have been suggested. The fact that only the guilty would experience the physical effects also stands in contrast to \u201ctrial by ordeal\u201d (5:17) in which one\u2019s innocence must be demonstrated by overcoming a deadly potion or some mortal danger.
\n5:29\u201331 Interestingly, there is no biblical record of this law of jealousy ever having been utilized. This fact has led some to believe that the procedure was provided only for the wilderness period. If the woman were not guilty, her husband nevertheless was innocent of any wrongdoing, i.e., the husband was not to be punished for undue suspicion. If found guilty, the woman would bear the consequences of her sin, evidently meaning her execution (Lev 20:10).<\/p>\n
D. NAZIRITE VOW REGULATED (6:1\u201321)<\/p>\n
1. Nazirite Law Stated (6:1\u20138)<\/p>\n
6:1\u20134 The rules for this special vow of separation unto divine service include (1) the basic requirements of the vow (vv. 1\u20138), (2) provision for accidental violation of the vow (vv. 9\u201312), and (3) a 3completion ceremony for public recognition of the vow\u2019s fulfillment (vv. 13\u201321). Although a woman could legally make a vow, a minor daughter\u2019s vow required the consent of her father (30:3\u20135) and a wife\u2019s vow required the consent of her husband (30:6\u20138). The term Nazirite (\u05e0\u05b8\u05d6\u05b4\u05d9\u05e8, n\u0101z\u00eer) means \u201cone separated,\u201d i.e., unto God, as is shown by the context and the fuller form \u201cNazirite to God\u201d (Judg 16:5). The person who thus consecrated himself for divine service was (1) to abstain from all intoxicants and products of the grapevine (vv. 3\u20134), (2) to permit his hair to grow long (v. 5), and (3) to avoid all contact with the dead (vv. 6\u20138). The Nazirite vow here regulated was taken by the individual himself for a limited period of time. Samson, divinely proclaimed a Nazirite for life prior to his birth (Judg 16:7), was therefore a special case, for whom some of the regulations did not apply (compare v. 6 with Judg 14:19; 15:8). Historical sources indicate that Naziriteship for a limited period of time was somewhat prevalent in later Jewish history. Like priests on duty (Lev 10:9), the Nazirites were prohibited all wine and other fermented drink, including vinegar which was made from sour intoxicants. Not only from intoxicating beverages, but also from grape juice \u2026 grapes or raisins, i.e., all products of the grapevine, was the Nazirite to abstain. The Hebrew word for seeds (\u05d7\u05b7\u05e8\u05b0\u05e6\u05b7\u05e0\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dd, \u1e25ar\u1e63an\u00eem) and skins (\u05d6\u05b8\u05d2, z\u0101g) are quite rare and their meaning somewhat uncertain so that the translations vary.
\n6:5\u20138 Shaving or cutting the hair was prohibited throughout the duration of one\u2019s Nazirite vow. Unshorn hair was the visible sign of the Nazirite\u2019s consecration of all his powers unto God, i.e., he must be holy. That this was the primary mark of the Nazirite is seen in the use of the Hebrew term in Leviticus 25:5, 11 for an untrimmed vine, in the case of Samson in Judges 16:17, and in the emphasis upon the hair in the present context. Like the high priest (Lev 21:11), a Nazirite was to avoid any ceremonially defiling contact with a dead body. Like the anointing oil upon the high priest (Lev 21:12), the consecrated hair of the Nazirite, the symbol of his separation to God, placed upon him a ceremonial restriction greater than that of the ordinary priest (Lev 21:1\u20133).<\/p>\n
2. Accidental Violation Treated (6:9\u201312)<\/p>\n
6:9\u201312 Though scrupulously observing the regulations, one could not always avoid contact with the dead, thus defiling the hair he has dedicated. In this event, the individual was to undergo a cleansing ceremony, shave his head (cf. Lev 14:2, 9), offer appropriate sacrifices, and begin his vow anew. According to Jewish tradition, the hair thus defiled was buried. The cleansing ceremony is described in 19:11\u201313, which marks the seventh day as the day of his cleansing. The defiled Nazirite was to bring two doves or pigeons so that the priest could offer one as a sin offering and the other as a burnt offering (cf. Lev 5:7\u201310). The least expensive of animal offerings, these were provided for atonement after cleansing also in Leviticus 12:8; 14:22; 15:14; and 15:29. No offering was required after the cleansing of an ordinary Israelite defiled by contact with a corpse (19:11\u201322). Although the Nazirite\u2019s offense was inadvertent, it yet required atonement (cf. Lev 4:2). Having made his atoning sacrifices, the Nazirite was to consecrate his head, i.e., begin his vow anew. The guilt offering of a male lamb (Lev 5:14\u20136:7) was required, apparently because the defilement of the consecrated hair nullified its significance and removed that hair from its intended purpose (v. 18).<\/p>\n
3. Termination Ceremony Depicted (6:13\u201321)<\/p>\n
6:13\u201321 The ceremony here described involved extensive offerings, hence considerable expense. Later centuries saw the development of the custom of another person\u2019s performing the pious charity of paying this expense for a Nazirite, to which custom Acts 21:23\u201324 may allude. At the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, the sanctuary, the Nazirite was to present his offerings to the LORD, including a burnt offering, a sin offering, and a fellowship offering, and their appropriate accompaniments. These kinds of offerings are fully treated in Leviticus chapters 1, 4 and 3 respectively. Grain offerings of meal and drink offerings of oil and wine accompanied burnt offerings and fellowship offerings (15:3\u20137). This particular fellowship offering had two accompanying grain offerings (v. 17), adding to the ordinary grain offerings the basket of unleavened bread, a special accompaniment for the fellowship offering of thanksgiving (Lev 7:12; see also 2:4). Only the fat and the viscera of a fellowship offering were actually burned on the altar (Lev 3:6\u201311). The bulk of a fellowship offering provided a sacrificial meal for the worshiper and his guests; the boiled shoulder was a special additional priestly portion from a Nazirite\u2019s fellowship offering. The shoulder, cake and wafer, symbolically identified with the worshiper (v. 19), were waved before the altar as a wave offering (Exod 29:24; Lev 7:30) and then given to the priest. The bread and the thigh were the usual priestly portions (Lev 7:31\u201334). His vow fully satisfied, the individual who had been a Nazirite was released from its restrictions and, beginning with the sacrificial meal, could drink wine. The summary statement suggests that the prescribed offerings were a minimal requirement; one could do more. If a person vowed larger offerings, he was, of course, obligated to perform them.<\/p>\n
E. PRIESTLY BENEDICTION REVEALED (6:22\u201327)<\/p>\n
6:22\u201327 In terse but beautiful language the priests were to pronounce a threefold benediction marking Israel and each Israelite as the special objects of divine favor. The threefold repetition of the divine name, the LORD, makes quite clear that the LORD is the source of all blessings, the priests being but his mediators. Positive material benefits of divine blessing are enumerated in Deuteronomy 28:3\u201314. The \u201cyou\u201d is singular, addressing and including each faithful Israelite. The blessing asks also that the LORD keep you, i.e., guard, protect you from all evils, such as calamity or invasion. This prevention of evil is the negative side of the blessing wished. Recurrent in the Psalms, the beautiful Hebrew metaphor of the shining face speaks of the brightness of the face as a sign of inward delight and happy acceptance which results in the benevolent favor desired (cf. Ps 31:16; 80:3; Prov 16:15). The figurative words, the LORD turn his face toward you, expresses a wish for the favor of the LORD\u2019s approving recognition. An opposite figure, the hidden face as a sign of divine anger, occurs more frequently in Scripture (Ps 30:7; 44:24; 104:29). Peace is the desired result of divine recognition and blessing. The Hebrew term \u05e9\u05b8\u05c1\u05dc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd (\u0161\u0101l\u014dm) is here comprehensive for one\u2019s total well being. Placing the LORD\u2019s name upon the Israelites marked them as his people and assured them of his blessing. The term rendered \u201cLORD\u201d is the divine name YHWH (\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4), the covenant name of God (cf. Gen 2:4; Exod 3:13\u201314; 6:3). According to Jewish tradition, the actual divine name, for which later Jews ordinarily substituted the word adonai (\u201cour Lord\u201d), was pronounced in the priestly blessing. The priestly benediction closes with the promise I will bless them. Always deeply significant, this assurance must have been particularly encouraging to people preparing for the wilderness trek.<\/p>\n
V. Special Offerings Made by Tribal Leaders (7:1\u201389)<\/p>\n
In full realization of the deep significance of the newly erected tabernacle for the faith and life of their people, the princes of Israel voluntarily brought ox-drawn vehicles for the Levites\u2019 use and magnificently generous special dedicatory offerings for the altar. This action demonstrated in signally impressive fashion the commitment of the leaders and the people supporting them to the holy covenant and to the divine sanctuary.<\/p>\n
A. WAGONS AND OXEN PROVIDED (7:1\u201311)<\/p>\n
7:1\u20135 The present translation correctly uses when to paraphrase the opening words of the chapter which more literally would be \u201con the day.\u201d If this \u201cday\u201d refers here to the day mentioned in Exodus 40:1, 17, then the narrative in Numbers is not in chronological order (1:1). Yet the present context appears to presuppose information found in chapters 1\u20134. Therefore \u201con the day\u201d is used, as in verse 84, in the sense of \u201cat the time,\u201d all the events from Exodus 40 through Numbers 7 having taken only about 50 days (cf. Exod 40:17; Num 10:11). Moses\u2019 setting up the tabernacle is described in Exodus 40:16\u201333. How he anointed and consecrated it is described in Leviticus 8:10\u201311. Thus the activities mentioned include more than Exodus 40 details. At this point the tribal leaders mentioned in 1:2\u201316 brought generous offerings to the sanctuary. It is noteworthy that all the tribes participated equally, both in the gift of transport vehicles (v. 3) and in the altar offerings (vv. 12\u201383). Although some ancient versions favor covered carts as the understanding of the Hebrew technical term (\u05e6\u05b8\u05d1, \u1e63\u0101b) appearing here, the exact type of wagon is uncertain; the Akkadian cognate word seems to support the translation \u201cdraught wagons\u201d or \u201clarge wagons.\u201d
\n7:6\u201311 Apparently the purely voluntary and extremely generous offering took Moses by surprise, so that he needed divine instructions as to receiving (vv. 4\u20135) and administering (v. 11) the offerings. The Gershonites received two carts and four oxen for their work, the transport duties detailed in 4:25\u201326. The Merarites received the larger share, four carts and eight oxen, because of their heavier transport duties listed in 4:31\u201332. This transport, as well as other duties, was of course under the direction of Ithamar (4:28, 33). The Kohathites received no wagons because they were to carry on their shoulders the holy things assigned to them (4:4\u201315). The Hebrew word rendered dedication is \u05d7\u05b7\u05e0\u05bb\u05db\u05b7\u05bc\u05d4 (\u1e25an\u016bkkah; cf. 2 Chr 7:9). The Jewish feast by this name commemorates Judas Maccabeus\u2019s rededication of the altar in the intertestamental period.<\/p>\n
B. DEDICATORY OFFERINGS BROUGHT (7:12\u201388)<\/p>\n
7:12\u201383 Twelve practically identical paragraphs (vv. 12\u201383) detail the equivalent offerings of the respective tribes. Admittedly somewhat monotonous to the modern reader, these paragraphs do serve as a clear example of the repetitive style often characterizing ancient Hebrew literature. The order of mention is the order of encampment (2:3\u201331). Offered daily for twelve days were grain offerings, incense, burnt offerings, a sin offering, and fellowship offerings. The grain offerings and the incense were brought in costly vessels, also given for the sanctuary service. The Hebrew word rendered plate (\u05e7\u05b0\u05e2\u05b8\u05e8\u05b8\u05d4, q\u0259\u02bf\u0101r\u0101h) may suggest a large, deep dish. A hundred and thirty shekels is about 3\u00bc lbs. Translated sprinkling bowl is a word (\u05de\u05b4\u05d6\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05e7, mizr\u0101q) denoting a bowl suitable for throwing or tossing a liquid. This bowl\u2019s weight was seventy shekels, or about 1\u00be lbs. On the sanctuary shekel see note to 3:47, and for the grain offering compare Leviticus 2:1\u20133. The Hebrew word for dish (\u05db\u05b7\u05bc\u05e3, kaph) also means \u201cpalm of the hand,\u201d hence suggests a cuplike vessel; ten shekels is about four ounces. Instructions for a burnt offering \u2026 a sin offering \u2026 and a fellowship offering are given in Leviticus 1:3\u201313; 4:22\u201326; and 3:1\u201317 respectively.
\n7:84\u201388 The sum of all the tribal offerings for the dedication of the altar indicates again their liberality, all the more remarkable when one recalls the outpouring of materials already given when tabernacle construction began (Exod 25:2\u20137; 35:5\u201329; 36:3\u20137). A marvelous example was thus established for future generations. The total number of animals sacrificed indicates the physical impossibility of their being offered on one day, hence the necessity of the extended period.<\/p>\n
C. DIVINE VOICE SPEAKS FROM MERCY SEAT (7:89)<\/p>\n
7:89 The LORD had promised Moses he would commune with him at the Tent of Meeting, the sanctuary (cf. 1:1), specifically between the two cherubim above the atonement cover on the ark of the Testimony (Exod 25:10\u201322). With the tabernacle and its altar fully dedicated, Moses and the Israelites enjoyed the rich realization of this precious promise of the LORD\u2019s presence in their midst.<\/p>\n
VI. Tabernacle Inauguration Completed (8:1\u201310:10)<\/p>\n
The narration of Israel\u2019s preparation for leaving Sinai concludes with treatment of the kindling of the lamps (8:1\u20134), the induction of the Levites (8:5\u201316), special instructions concerning delayed observance of the Passover (9:1\u201314), and notice of divine provisions for Israel\u2019s guidance and protection (9:15\u201310:10). These concerns close the extended record of sanctuary origins and introduce the account of Israel\u2019s departure from Sinai, which follows in the text.<\/p>\n
A. SACRED LAMPS AFFIXED BY AARON (8:1\u20134)<\/p>\n
8:1\u20134 Emphasized here is the proper arrangement for the detachable oil lamps upon the golden lampstand (cf. Exod 25:37). By lighting the area in front of the lampstand the lamps would illuminate the table of the Bread of the Presence, which stood on the opposite (north) side of the Holy Place (Exod 26:35). The design of the lampstand is detailed in Exodus 25:31\u201340, its construction in Exodus 37:17\u201324 (cf. Exod 27:20\u201321). This beautiful fixture was made entirely of hammered gold\u2014from its base to its blossoms, i.e., from its bottom to its top.<\/p>\n
B. LEVITES INDUCTED (8:5\u201326)<\/p>\n
Supplementing the previous instruction of 3:5\u20134:49, these paragraphs treat the ceremonial cleansing of the Levites and the actual inauguration of their service. Again, a divine command (vv. 5\u201319) met with prompt obedience (vv. 20\u201322).<\/p>\n
1. Instructions for Cleansing Given (8:5\u201314)<\/p>\n
8:5\u201314 Having claimed the Levites as his servants (cf. 3:6, 11, 45), the LORD commanded Moses to purify them. Whereas the priests were \u201cconsecrated\u201d (\u05e7\u05b4\u05d3\u05b5\u05bc\u05e9\u05c1, qidd\u0113\u0161; see Exodus 29; Lev 8:12), the Levites were to be merely ceremonially \u201ccleansed\u201d (\u05d8\u05b4\u05d4\u05b7\u05e8, tihar). Less stringent therefore than the priestly ordination recorded in Leviticus 8:1\u201336, the purification ritual for the Levites involved (1) sprinkling of the \u201cwater of cleansing,\u201d (2) cutting off all bodily hair, and (3) washing of clothes and body. After their purification the Levites were to be presented for their public induction ritual which included (1) identification by the people (v. 10), (2) presentation before the LORD as a \u201cwave offering\u201d (v. 11), (3) substitutionary sacrifices (v. 12), and (4) commitment of the Levites to Aaron (v. 13). Water of Cleansing is literally, \u201cwater of sin,\u201d i.e., water cleansing from sin, just as \u201csin offering\u201d means, \u201coffering for sin.\u201d Traditional Jewish interpretation identified this with the water of the red heifer in 19:9, but more popular currently is the view that this was simply pure water from the laver, so named because of its intended effect in the ritual. Water was sprinkled on the Levites; the priests were thoroughly washed (Lev 8:6). After removing the hair from their whole bodies, the Levites were to wash their clothes (cf. Exod 19:10; Lev 14:8). The priests received official garments at their ordination (Lev 8:13). Bringing a young bull for a burnt offering (v. 12) accompanied by its customary grain offering and a second young bull for a sin offering, the Levites were to be presented publicly to the people at the sanctuary. These offerings are discussed in Leviticus 1, 2, and 4 respectively. Here the people were to lay their hands on them. In this way the people symbolically identified the Levites as their \u201coffering\u201d (v. 11) substituting for their firstborn (v. 16). The actual ceremony was probably performed representatively, with the tribal leaders laying their hands on certain Levite leaders. Aaron was then to present the Levites before the LORD as a wave offering (cf. 6:20 and notes). As \u201cliving sacrifices\u201d the Levites were solemnly presented before God, perhaps by being brought near the altar and then returned to their place. Then the Levites were to lay their hands on the sacrificial bulls to be offered for their atonement (see note to Lev 1:4). As the Levites substituted for Israel, so the animals substituted for the Levites in sacrifice (cf. Lev 1:4; also 16:21). To have the Levites stand in front of Aaron probably involves presentation as well as position, as in 3:6 where the same Hebrew construction is rendered present to Aaron. The text emphasizes that the Levites were to be given to function as servants to the priests. Although some have seen in the mention of the wave offering in verse 13 a second \u201cwaving\u201d ceremony in which Moses symbolized the LORD\u2019s giving the Levites to the priests, just as that in verse 11 has symbolized the Israelites\u2019 giving the Levites to the LORD, it seems more likely that both verses refer to the same act, the second reference being a summary mention. Just as Israel was to be a separated nation (Lev 20:26), so Moses was to set the Levites apart as a separated tribe. With the words the Levites will be mine the LORD again claimed the Levites (see 3:12\u201313 and notes).<\/p>\n
2. Cleansed Levites Begin Service (8:15\u201322)<\/p>\n
8:15\u201319 The LORD having claimed the Levites as his own (v. 14), after they were purified and presented, the Levites were to begin their work at the Tent of Meeting. Levite responsibilities are discussed in 3:6\u20138; 4:1\u201333. Exchanged for the firstborn sons whom God had originally claimed (Exod 13:2, 11\u201316), the Levites were now to be given to the priests. Thus, the divine transaction was threefold. God claimed the firstborn; God took the Levites instead of the firstborn; God gave the Levites to the priests for sanctuary service. Accordingly, the Levites were to work \u2026 on behalf of the Israelites, i.e., to perform the duties the firstborn of the people would otherwise have been obligated to do. The verb to make atonement seems to be used here in its fundamental sense of \u201ccover,\u201d the Levites serving as a protective shield between people and sanctuary. Only the priests could offer atoning sacrifices, but trespassing upon the sacred precincts could certainly bring plague as divine judgment upon the Israelites (cf. 1:51\u201353; 3:38; 18:22).
\n8:20\u201322 This paragraph details the people\u2019s compliance with the LORD\u2019s instructions. The Levites purified themselves, literally \u201cde-sinned themselves\u201d (\u05d9\u05b4\u05ea\u05b0\u05d7\u05b7\u05d8\u05b0\u05bc\u05d0\u05d5\u05bc, yit\u1e25a\u1e6d\u1e6d\u0259\u02be\u00fb), i.e., from ceremonial uncleanness as directed in verse 7. After they had washed their clothes, Aaron presented them as a wave offering (see note to v. 11) and made atonement for them (v. 12).<\/p>\n
3. Age of Active Levite Service Stipulated (8:23\u201326)<\/p>\n
8:23\u201326 The mention of twenty-five years old in the text supplements 4:3, which gives the lower age limit as thirty (the Septuagint has \u201ctwenty-five\u201d throughout). Evidently Levites served an introductory apprenticeship period. Take part in the work is literally \u201cwar the warfare\u201d (cf. note to 4:3). Retirement at the age of fifty from regular service was mandatory. Older retired Levites could assist their brothers in the duties (\u05de\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05b6\u05e8\u05b6\u05ea, mi\u0161mereth) but not in the work (\u05e2\u05b2\u05d1\u05b9\u05d3\u05b8\u05d4, \u02bf\u0103b\u014dd\u0101h). The distinction between these two functions is not clear, but the former may include the lighter tasks in relation to the sanctuary furnishings (3:8).<\/p>\n
C. PASSOVER OBSERVED, SUPPLEMENTARY PASSOVER PROVIDED (9:1\u201314)<\/p>\n
9:1\u20138 Occurring in the first month of the second year, the first Passover after Israel left Egypt was celebrated prior to the instruction of 1:1 which was given in the \u201csecond month,\u201d but it is treated here because the special supplemental Passover, the main concern of the passage, was completed just before departure from Sinai (10:11). Instituted in Egypt as a means of deliverance, the feast was to be celebrated annually at the appointed time as a memorial (Exod 12:14, 24) not only in Canaan (Exod 12:25) but also in the wilderness. Interestingly, according to Jewish tradition, this was the only Passover observed during the wilderness period. At twilight is literally \u201cbetween the two evenings,\u201d i.e., at dusk (cf. Exod 12:6), or possibly, between dusk and dark. The rules and regulations are recorded in Exodus 12:1\u201328, 43\u201349 (cf. Deut 16:1\u20138). Those who could not celebrate at the proper time probably included Mishael and Elzaphan (Lev 10:4). Rendered temporarily ritually unclean due to contact with a dead body (19:11\u201313), these men were strictly prohibited from eating the sacrificial flesh of Passover (Lev 7:19\u201321). When they brought their problem to him, Moses told them to wait, literally \u201cstand,\u201d while he sought specific divine guidance as he had on numerous other occasions (cf. 15:34; 27:5; Lev 24:12).
\n9:9\u201314 Like uncleanness, being away on a journey could also prevent one\u2019s observing the feast at the proper time. Second Chronicles 30:1\u201327 records that King Hezekiah, renewing national Passover observance in his day, deferred the feast until the second month for a different reason. The LORD provided that such persons could still celebrate the LORD\u2019s Passover. People excluded from the regular Passover by insuperable obstacles were to observe a postponed Passover one month later. To this postponed observance all other Passover details applied. Significant among these were eating the lamb \u2026 unleavened bread and bitter herbs, not leaving any of it till morning and being careful not to break any of its bones (see Exod 12:8, 10, 46). The second Passover was intended only for those absolutely unable to keep the feast at the proper time; it was not to be considered a mere convenience. The Passover regulations applied equally to native-born Israelites and to alien sojourners living in their midst. Only the circumcised could eat the Passover lamb (cf. Exod 12:48).<\/p>\n
D. PROVISIONS FOR GUIDANCE DEPICTED (9:15\u201310:10)<\/p>\n
These two paragraphs deal with the fiery cloud and the two silver trumpets. Although quite different in nature, these two matters are related in that the time of march determined by the cloud\u2019s movement was to be announced and begun by trumpet signal.<\/p>\n
1. Israel Directed by the Cloud (9:15\u201323)<\/p>\n
9:15\u201323 In describing the dedication of the sanctuary Exodus 40:34\u201338 details how the cloud covered the divine tabernacle, literally, \u201cdwelling\u201d (\u05de\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05db\u05b8\u05bc\u05df, mi\u0161k\u0101n), and the glory of the LORD filled it. As the LORD had promised (Exod 25:8; 29:45), he made his divine presence to dwell spiritually in Israel in the tabernacle, called also the Tent of the Testimony (see note to 1:50). The association of the divine presence with the sanctuary, which had begun as its erection, continued throughout the journeyings of the LORD\u2019s people. The cloud and the fire were two aspects of the same reality, the symbolic presence of God (see Exod 14:24 and compare 24:16\u201317). Wherever the cloud settled, at the spot directly beneath it, the sanctuary around which the people encamped would be set up. Because the cloud symbolized the LORD\u2019s presence, its movement clearly indicated his will. Thus in following it the Israelites were acting at the LORD\u2019s command, literally \u201cat the mouth of the LORD.\u201d A year is literally \u201cdays,\u201d a term which may denote here an indefinite period although it sometimes signifies a year. Whether weary from arduous journeying or tired of prolonged encampment, the people faithfully obeyed the LORD\u2019s order, i.e., the divine directive of the cloud\u2019s movement. By the cloud the LORD had led his people out of Egypt (Exod 13:21\u201322); in this way he would also lead them into the Promised Land. The repetitive detail of verses 18\u201323 emphasizes the importance of the LORD\u2019s guidance.<\/p>\n
2. Silver Trumpets Made (10:1\u201310)<\/p>\n
10:1\u20137 To supplement the cloud\u2019s guidance by providing more immediate direction, Moses was to make two trumpets of hammered silver. The Hebrew word rendered \u201ctrumpet\u201d (\u05d7\u05b2\u05e6\u05d5\u05b9\u05e6\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05d4, \u1e25\u0103\u1e63\u00f4\u1e63r\u0101h) is to be distinguished from the ram\u2019s horn trumpets termed shophar and yobel (see note to Lev 25:10). Described by Josephus as slightly less than a cubit long, the silver trumpets seem depicted as somewhat longer on the Arch of Titus. They were slender straight clarions with flared mouth. In the wilderness these trumpets were to be used for assembling the people (vv. 2\u20133, 7) or their leaders (v. 4) and for signaling the march (vv. 5\u20136); in Canaan they were to peal in time of war (v. 9) and at festival times (v. 10). During each period the sounds for each purpose were to be distinguishable, as the text notes (cf. 1 Cor 14:8). Evidently the two trumpets had different tones, so that one could tell whether one or both were sounded. The Hebrew word for \u201csounding\u201d (t\u0259q\u00ee\u0101h) signifies in other contexts \u201cclapping;\u201d the word in verse 5 for \u201cblast\u201d (\u05ea\u05b0\u05bc\u05e8\u05d5\u05bc\u05e2\u05b7\u05d4, t\u0259r\u00fb\u02bfah) means elsewhere \u201cshout.\u201d Accordingly, one would expect the blast to have been a long sustained alarm and simple \u201csounding\u201d to have involved short staccato notes. Later tradition, however, has the matter exactly reversed. The sounds may also have differed in quality. The tribes camping on the east were Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun (see 2:3\u20139 and chart) while those on the south were Reuben, Simeon, and Gad (2:10\u201316). The trumpet blast also signaled the start for the western and northern camps (cf. 2:18\u201331).
\n10:8\u201310 Used for directing Israel or calling upon the LORD, the holy trumpets were to be blown only by the LORD\u2019s priests. Although their function would change as noted in verse 2, the trumpets were to be used throughout the generations, i.e., as long as the covenant with Israel endured. As the trumpet sound rallied the people for battle against an oppressive enemy, it also symbolically called upon the LORD to rally to their aid (cf. 2 Chr 13:12\u201316). At all joyous religious festivals when sacrifices were offered (Num 28:9\u201329:40; Lev 23:1\u201344), the trumpets were to sound, symbolically calling upon the LORD to receive the offerings of his worshiping people. Burnt offerings and fellowship offerings are treated in Leviticus chapters 1 and 3 respectively. The opening movement of Numbers closes with the words I am the LORD your God. Frequently in Leviticus, this reminder of Israel\u2019s covenant relationship to the LORD of all creation was the appropriate final word at Sinai where the covenant had been sealed.<\/p>\n
NUMBERS 10:11\u201321:35\u2014PART TWO<\/p>\n
ISRAEL JOURNEYS FROM SINAI TO MOAB<\/p>\n
The second section of Numbers records the wilderness experience of Israel after departure from Sinai. Her advance halted by rebellion, Israel saw the relatively brief journey become an extended sojourn in just retribution for the faithlessness of a generation. Chapters 10\u201314 document the events leading up to the great rebellion and the divine sentence it incurred, while chapters 15\u201321 narrate the story of the \u201clost generation,\u201d give miscellaneous laws and regulations, and trace the resumed journey to Moab.<\/p>\n
I. From Sinai to Kadesh (10:11\u201314:45)<\/p>\n
The bright hope evident as Israel left Sinai (ch. 10) soon turned to bitter murmuring as problems were encountered (ch. 11). Even Aaron and Miriam opposed Moses (ch. 12). Looking ahead to entrance in Canaan, Moses sent spies to reconnoiter, the majority of whom brought back the faithless, pessimistic report that, though the land was truly inviting, Israel would be unable to conquer its entrenched and powerful inhabitants (ch. 13). Accepting this evaluation despite the plea of Caleb and Joshua, the people of Israel rebelled against Moses and against the LORD. As punishment for this infidelity the people, barred from entering Canaan, were condemned to live out their days in the barren wilderness around Kadesh (ch. 14).<\/p>\n
A. ISRAEL DEPARTS SINAI (10:11\u201336)<\/p>\n
1. Order of March Reviewed (10:11\u201328)<\/p>\n
10:11\u201313 After the Israelites had encamped at Sinai for nearly a year (compare Exod 19:1\u20132), on the twentieth day of the second month of the second year came the divine signal for departure, the movement of the cloud (9:17\u201318) from above the tabernacle of the Testimony, i.e., the sanctuary containing the ten commandment tables (compare 1:50). In characteristic Hebrew style the introductory statement is anticipatory of the first part of the journeying, which involved several days and several incidents (v. 33; 12:16). Described in Deuteronomy 1:19 as \u201cthe great and terrible wilderness,\u201d the desert of Paran is often identified with the desert of Et-tih in the north-central Sinai peninsula (cf. Gen 21:21). Paran\u2019s exact boundaries are, however, uncertain. The LORD\u2019s command through Moses to depart Sinai is reviewed in detail in Deuteronomy 1:6\u20138.
\n10:14\u201328 The order of march discussed at length in 2:2\u201331 is reviewed in verses 14\u201327 with the position of the Levites being set forth in greater detail. The duties of the Gershonites and Merarites are set forth in 4:24\u201333. According to 2:17 the Levites marched in the midst of the tribes, after the camp of Reuben. The present passage refers therefore only to the actual burden-bearers of Gershon and Merari who preceded the main body of Levites in order to have the tabernacle set up when the holy furniture arrived (v. 21). Deuel in verse 20 is perhaps better \u201cReuel,\u201d as in 2:14. The relevant Hebrew letters are quite similar and therefore sometimes confused by the copyists. The term rendered the holy things (\u05d4\u05b7\u05de\u05b4\u05bc\u05e7\u05b0\u05d3\u05b8\u05bc\u05e9\u05c1, hammiqd\u0101\u0161) ordinarily refers to the sanctuary, but here doubtless refers to the sacred furnishings carried by the Kohathites (3:31; 4:1\u201320).<\/p>\n
2. Moses Asks Hobab to Accompany Israel (10:29\u201332)<\/p>\n
10:29\u201332 Moses\u2019 father-in-law, Reuel, was introduced in Exodus 2:16, 18. The KJV has here \u201cRaguel,\u201d the Greek form of the name. Called here a Midianite, he is identified as a Kenite in Judges 1:16; 4:11, thus indicating that the tribal designations of these nomadic peoples overlapped somewhat, with \u201cMidianite\u201d perhaps becoming a generic form (cf. Gen 37:25\u201328 and Judg 8:24). The Hebrew word rendered father-in-law (\u05d7\u05b9\u05ea\u05b5\u05e0, \u1e25\u014dth\u0113n) may apparently, under certain circumstances, designate a brother-in-law, hence could refer to Hobab, who is called Moses\u2019 \u1e25\u014dth\u0113n in Judges 4:11. Appealing to Hobab, Moses recalled the LORD\u2019s promise of the land, I will give it to you. First made to Abraham (Gen 12:7), this divine promise awaited fulfillment. The good things promised to Israel included prosperous inheritance in Canaan. Moses first appealed to Hobab by offering him a share in Israel\u2019s prosperity (see v. 32). Fully dependent upon the cloud for ultimate divine guidance, Moses wisely sought Hobab to serve as a native scout in the unfamiliar terrain, telling him you can be our eyes. Although the appeal on the basis of personal advantage alone failed, Moses\u2019 appeal on the basis of Israel\u2019s need for Hobab\u2019s services evidently succeeded (cf. Judg 1:16).<\/p>\n
3. The Departure Noted (10:33\u201336)<\/p>\n
10:33\u201334 Anticipated throughout the passage (vv. 12, 13, 28), the actual departure from Sinai, the mountain of the LORD where the LORD had revealed his glory (compare Exod 3:1), is described in the closing verses of the chapter. The holy ark is called the ark of the covenant because it contained the stone tablets on which were written \u201cthe words of the covenant, the ten commandments\u201d (Exod 34:28), also called \u201cthe testimony\u201d (Exod 25:21). The mercy seat atop the ark was the LORD\u2019s symbolic throne (1 Sam 4:4; cf. also Exod 25:8, 22). Accordingly, unlike the other sacred furniture (2:17; 10:21), the ark went before them, preceding the marching Israelites to symbolize the LORD\u2019s victorious leadership. Some expositors maintain the ark led the march only during those three days, but verses 35\u201336 indicate otherwise. Through the ark and its accompaniment, the overshadowing cloud of the LORD (see 9:15\u201323 and Exod 40:34\u201338), God led Israel in her battle against the wilderness, just as he would later in battle against her human foes (Deut 9:3; Josh 3:3\u20136).
\n10:35\u201336 Although priests carried the ark by its poles (4:6; Exod 25:14), they are not mentioned in verse 35, being, in a sense, mere functionaries. It was the movement of the ark, the ensign of divine leadership, that was significant. The words rise up, O LORD, which probably became a battle song of Israel\u2019s holy army, show clearly the meaning of the ark\u2019s movement\u2014it symbolized the LORD leading his people to victory. Richly elaborating upon this significant theme is Psalm 68, especially verses 1, 4, 7, 11, and 24. The LORD triumphantly led, however, only the obedient (1 Sam 4:1\u201311). Secure after arduous journey or victorious battle, Moses and the people welcomed the LORD\u2019s presence in the erected sanctuary with the words, return, O LORD. In later centuries the intense significance of the ark led David to bring it to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1\u201319; Ps 132:1\u201310) where Solomon gave it its rightful place in the temple (1 Kgs 8:1\u201313; 2 Chr 6:40\u201342). Countless thousands is literally \u201cten thousand thousands,\u201d but the sense is properly \u201cinnumerable hosts.\u201d<\/p>\n
B. ISRAEL COMPLAINS OF DIFFICULTIES (11:1\u201335)<\/p>\n
1. Fire Brought at Taberah (11:1\u20133)<\/p>\n
11:1\u20133 Popular optimism melting beneath the blazing sun, the real discomfort of the desert caused some Israelites foolishly to forget their glorious purpose and to focus only upon their present misery. Thus the people complained about their hardships, literally, \u201cthe people were like those complaining of evil.\u201d This faithless discontent aroused the sovereign LORD\u2019s righteous anger and he responded with fire from the LORD, i.e., fire caused by the LORD, perhaps through some natural means such as lightning (cf. 1 Kgs 18:38; 2 Kgs 1:10). A recurring theme in the present section is divine wrath provoked by Israel\u2019s infidelity (see vv. 10, 33; 12:9; 14:11\u201312). In this instance the people cried out, Moses prayed, and the fire died down. As in the shameful episode of the golden calf (Exod 32:30\u201332), Moses successfully interceded. No casualties are mentioned, and extensive damage to the camp was probably averted. Still, the act of divine judgment was clear warning against faithless murmuring. This episode gave the place its name, Taberah, i.e., \u201cburning.\u201d The location of Taberah, mentioned only here and in Deuteronomy 9:22, is uncertain. Because Taberah is omitted from the itinerary in 33:16, nor is any mention made of a journey from Taberah to Kibroth Hattaavah, Keil and others are probably correct in identifying Taberah as an \u201coutlying part\u201d of the latter encampment.<\/p>\n
2. People Cry for Meat (11:4\u20139)<\/p>\n
11:4\u20136 The (non-Israelite) \u201cmixed multitude\u201d which had joined the exodus from Egypt (Exod 12:38) now promoted discontent. Rendered rabble is a rare Hebrew term (\u05d0\u05b2\u05e1\u05b7\u05e4\u05b0\u05e1\u05bb\u05e3, \u02be\u0103saphsuph) apparently meaning \u201cgathering\u201d in a pejorative sense, like our \u201criffraff.\u201d Again the people started wailing, more literally \u201cwept again.\u201d No previous \u201cweeping\u201d is specified, but the text may allude to the murmuring of verse 1 or, less likely, that of Exodus 16:2\u20133. Although the complainers cried out for meat, the context shows that they actually yearned for the highly spiced and juicy edibles available to the Egyptian peasantry. Claiming they had enjoyed fish \u2026 at no cost, they exaggerated the fact that fish were both plentiful and cheap in Egypt, especially in the delta region. Cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions and garlic were vegetables abundant in Egypt, which served as dietary staples, especially for the poor. The Hebrew rendered \u201cleeks\u201d (\u05d7\u05b8\u05e6\u05b4\u05d9\u05e8, \u1e25\u0101\u1e63\u00eer) is literally \u201cgrass,\u201d evidently an allusion to its grasslike leaves. Ancient writers laud the quality and mildness of Egyptian onions. Only a very selective memory could recall Egypt\u2019s diet while forgetting its cruel bondage, yet the Israelites had murmured in similar fashion even before Sinai (compare Exod 16:3). Appetite is literally \u201csoul\u201d (\u05e0\u05b6\u05e4\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1, nephe\u0161). The word may denote as here the seat of the appetites and may also refer to the throat. Although divinely provided, the nourishing manna failed to satisfy the desire of the discontented for spice and variety. The word \u201cmanna\u201d means \u201cwhat is it\u201d and recalls the Israelite reaction when this \u201cbread from heaven\u201d was first supplied (Exod 16:13\u201315, 31).
\n11:7\u20139 This paragraph emphasizes that the manna could be prepared in several ways and was both free and flavorful. Coriander was an Old World herb, the seed of which was used in much the way caraway and sesame seeds are used today. The tiny, round, ridged seeds were gray and somewhat aromatic. The Hebrew word rendered resin (\u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05d3\u05b9\u05dc\u05b7\u05d7, b\u0259d\u014dla\u1e25) is somewhat uncertain, seemingly alluding in Genesis 2:12 to some (unknown) precious stone; here most translations take it to mean \u201cbdellium,\u201d a yellowish white gum resin. How the people went around gathering the manna is described in more detail in Exodus 16:16\u201330. Unlike the fish of verse 5, the manna was actually free. To process the gathered manna, the people used a type of crude handmill consisting of a large shaped rectangular base stone and a smaller fitted stone which was held with both hands to grind the grain placed on the base stone. More commonly, grain was crushed to flour with a simple stone mortar and pestle. The manna could be cooked in a pot, i.e., boiled, or made into cakes, i.e., baked (cf. Exod 16:23). Compared here to something made with olive oil, literally \u201ca dainty bit of the oil,\u201d the taste of the manna is likened in Exodus 16:31 to \u201cwafers made with honey.\u201d While perhaps slightly bland in contrast to the spicy vegetables listed in verse 5, the manna was nevertheless quite tasty. Daily with the dew the LORD brought the manna, and in this way he graciously provided a regular source of bread for his people (cf. Exod 14:4, 14). Yet they complained.<\/p>\n
3. Near Exhaustion, Moses Entreats God (11:10\u201315)<\/p>\n
11:10\u201315 Involving the people of every family, the disaffection became both widespread and public. The LORD became exceedingly angry because the crying for Egypt (v. 5) was tantamount to faithless rejection of the LORD\u2019s purpose for Israel (v. 20; see note to v. 1). Profoundly troubled by his inability to satisfy the murmuring people or to avert the wrath their faithlessness deserved, Moses neared the point of total breakdown, pouring forth a veritable tirade of questions (vv. 11\u201313). It is significant that this tirade is nowhere rebuked; rather the LORD responded by providing the help needed by his despairing servant. Because the LORD had not answered the people\u2019s cry, Moses felt deserted and isolated, powerless to deal with his overwhelming problems created by the burden of all these people (cf. Exod 33:1\u20133, 12\u201316). He asked, Did I conceive all these people? In the Hebrew text the pronoun is placed in the emphatic first position in its sentence, Moses thus suggesting that it was the LORD who had brought forth Israel as his son (Exod 4:22; Deut 32:18). Reminding the LORD that he had promised the land on oath to Israel\u2019s forefathers (Gen 12:7; Exod 33:1), Moses voiced two seemingly insurmountable problems, the first being that he could not provide the meat for which Israel was wailing. Moses\u2019 second and greater problem was that he could not alone sustain his burden, the heavy responsibility of the human spiritual leadership of Israel. As in the desperate moment recorded in Exodus 32:32, Moses longed for immediate death rather than face his own ruin, i.e., the calamity of being held responsible by God and nation for that which he could not possibly perform.<\/p>\n
4. God Answers Moses\u2019 Plea (11:16\u201323)<\/p>\n
Like Moses\u2019 dilemma, the LORD\u2019s response was twofold: he empowered subordinate leaders to assist Moses (vv. 16\u201317, 24\u201330), and he \u201cfulfilled\u201d the people\u2019s desire for flesh by providing quail in superabundance (vv. 18\u201323, 32\u201334), the latter blessing providing a source of plague for many.
\n11:16\u201317 Previously Moses had chosen qualified men to bear subordinate judicial responsibility (Exod 18:13\u201326); now seventy of Israel\u2019s elders were to be officially ordained to render service in other ways. That seventy was considered a full and representative number is seen in that the same number of elders had participated in celebrating the acceptance of the covenant at Sinai (Exod 24:1\u20132, 9\u201311). The word \u201celders\u201d (\u05d6\u05b0\u05e7\u05b5\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd, z\u0259q\u0113n\u00eem) may mean both \u201colder men\u201d and \u201cleaders,\u201d and the present translators see it used in both senses in verse 16 and thus render its second usage as leaders. As heads of families, the older men naturally exercised some leadership functions in Israel, as in other nations (cf. Exod 3:16, 18). The Hebrew term for officials (\u05e9\u05b9\u05c1\u05d8\u05b0\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd, \u0161\u014d\u1e6d\u0259r\u00eem) means originally \u201cscribes,\u201d \u201csecretaries,\u201d or perhaps even \u201corganizers,\u201d all indicating subordinate public roles. In Exodus 5:6 this word is rendered \u201cforemen.\u201d Once selected, these men were to come to the Tent of Meeting, the sanctuary (1:1), and there stand with Moses. The LORD would come down in a visible manifestation (see v. 25) and take of the Spirit that was upon Moses and put the Spirit on them. This was the LORD\u2019s Spirit (v. 29), identified in later Scripture as the Holy Spirit. Far from denoting any lessening of Moses\u2019 gifts or authority, the Spirit was to be imparted to the elders in such a way as to clearly show their subordination to Moses (cf. 12:6\u20138).
\n11:18\u201320 Moses was also to call upon the people to consecrate yourselves (cf. Exod 19:10), i.e., to prepare ritually for the coming manifestation of divine power. The LORD had heard when the people wailed for meat and longed for Egypt (vv. 4\u20136). Now meat would be given until it comes out of your nostrils and you loathe it. This surfeit in itself would have been a type of punishment, but their perversity brought on a greater one (v. 33). Truly in their wailing, the Israelites had rejected the LORD. To question the wisdom of the exodus, the great liberation which marked Israel as God\u2019s own (Exod 20:2), was to repudiate foolishly the LORD\u2019s presence and leadership; to do so because their diet seemed deficient in variety marked these Israelites as spiritual midgets.
\n11:21\u201323 Moses was staggered at the thought of providing a surfeit of meat for all Israel for an entire month. Six hundred thousand men on foot is an approximation of the military census total, \u201con foot\u201d being a technical term denoting soldiers (see 1:46 and notes). The flocks and herds, the livestock brought from Egypt (Exod 12:38), which would at any rate be later needed in Canaan, was doubtless inadequate for a constant meat supply for all the people. To Moses\u2019 question the LORD responded, Is the LORD\u2019s arm too short? i.e., does the LORD lack power (cf. Isa 50:2; 59:1)? Though at first somewhat incredulous, Moses would experience the fulfillment of the LORD\u2019s promise.<\/p>\n
5. Elders Appointed as Aides for Moses (11:24\u201330)<\/p>\n
11:24\u201325 Promptly carrying out the LORD\u2019s instruction (vv. 16, 18), Moses told the people and brought together seventy of their elders at the Tent, the sanctuary. At this point the LORD came down in a cloud and spoke with him (cf. 9:16). As a symbol of God\u2019s presence, the cloud descended to mark a special manifestation of the LORD. The LORD\u2019s speaking first to Moses indicated that his unique position was not impaired by the provision of assistants. As promised in verse 17, the LORD put the Spirit on the seventy elders who then prophesied. The verb \u201cprophesied\u201d (\u05d4\u05b4\u05ea\u05b0\u05e0\u05b7\u05d1\u05b5\u05bc\u05d0, hithnabb\u0113\u02be) is a denominative signifying the basic idea, \u201cto act as a prophet.\u201d Prophets were essentially spokesmen for God (cf. Exod 4:15, 16 and 7:1); here, as in the case of Saul (1 Sam 10:5\u20137; 18:10; 19:23\u201324) the Hebrew verb seems also to connote unusual observable behavior. The statement they did not do so again informs that their special experience was temporary, manifesting the fact of their introduction into official service. The KJV, following the Latin Vulgate, erroneously took the Hebrew verb form to be from suph (\u201cend,\u201d \u201ccease\u201d) instead of from yasaph (\u201cadd,\u201d \u201ccontinue\u201d).
\n11:26\u201330 Why Eldad and Medad had remained in the camp is unknown. Their action was evidently not one of rebellion, since God imbued them with the prophetic gift and Moses readily accepted their service. Their names may mean, respectively, \u201cGod has loved\u201d and \u201cbeloved.\u201d Most likely the statement that they were listed among the elders refers to the seventy elders whose selection would naturally have been duly recorded. Accordingly the number standing around the Tent (v. 24) is an approximation. These two men had not accompanied Moses and the other elders to the tabernacle, which stood in a clearing in the midst of the camp (2:2); yet the Spirit also rested on them, and they prophesied in the camp while the other elders were prophesying around the Tent (v. 25). Hearing this, Joshua, Moses\u2019 aide since youth (Exod 17:9; 24:13; 33:11), wished to prohibit their prophesying. Concerned for his master\u2019s honor and preeminence, Joshua feared that Eldad and Medad might be recognized as leaders independent of Moses since they had not attended the ceremony at the tabernacle. Moses doubtless appreciated Joshua\u2019s concern for his uniqueness, but he replied, I wish that all the LORD\u2019s people were prophets. Truly noble and generous in spirit Moses selflessly not only permitted, but genuinely and prayerfully welcomed, all leadership that would honor God in service to Israel.<\/p>\n
6. Blessing of Quail Made a Curse by Lusting People (11:31\u201335)<\/p>\n
11:31\u201335 In the spring, hordes of quail migrate northward from Africa to the Mediterranean area. These migrating quail fly with the wind. Landing to rest after the flight over the Red Sea, they can be easily captured. In this way the LORD had fed his grumbling people at an earlier time (see Exod 16:13). On this occasion the LORD used a southeast wind (Gen 8:1; Exod 10:13, 19; 14:21; Ps 78:26) to bring the quail from the sea, the Gulf of Aqabah. In the present instance enormous quantities of the quail were scattered around the camp and the surrounding area, thus actualizing the divine word (vv. 18\u201320). In some places the heaps of exhausted quail reached the height of about three feet, literally \u201ctwo cubits.\u201d Less likely, though ancient, is the alternative explanation that the quail hovered at this height to be easily caught in nets (cf. Ps 78:27\u201328). Ten homers is about sixty bushels, a homer being an ass-load, calculated as approximately six bushels. Each Israelite gathering at least this abundant amount, the people spread them out beneath the sun to dry. Herodotus informs that ancient Egyptians ate quail uncooked after thus curing them in the sun. Literally, \u201cbefore it was cut off,\u201d the Hebrew expression rendered before it could be consumed could possibly mean \u201cere it was chewed,\u201d as earlier translations have it. To understand the plague as occurring before the supply of meat was exhausted seems more in harmony with verses 19\u201320. Again the anger of the LORD burned against the people (see note to v. 1) because of their greed, gluttony, and ingratitude, and he struck them with a severe plague. This \u201cwasting disease\u201d (Ps 106:15) may have had some natural origin associated with the gluttonous eating of quail. Burial of the plague victims gave this wilderness place its name, Kibroth Hattaavah. The name means \u201cgraves of craving,\u201d documenting the tragic end of those who allowed their dietary craving (v. 4) to lead them into disaffection and sin. Assuming the traditional identification of Mount Sinai as Jebel Musa, Kibroth Hattaavah may possibly be identified with Rueis-el-Ebeirij, about ten hours by foot northeast of Jebel Musa. Hazeroth means \u201cenclosures\u201d or \u201csettlements.\u201d Also of somewhat uncertain location, this campsite is often identified with Ayin Khudra, an oasis several miles further northeast of Jebel Musa.<\/p>\n
C. MOSES\u2019 UNIQUENESS CHALLENGED (12:1\u201316)<\/p>\n
1. God Rebukes Effrontery of Miriam and Aaron (12:1\u20138)<\/p>\n
12:1\u20132 Having begun on the camp fringe (11:1) and having spread from the \u201crabble\u201d (11:4) to the Israelites generally (11:4, 10), dissatisfaction now reached the subordinate leaders in Moses\u2019 own family. The listing of Miriam first, as well as her punishment (vv. 9\u201315), may indicate that she induced Aaron to join her in attacking Moses. If so, Aaron again showed himself too pliable to evil suggestion, particularly one involving his self-importance (cf. Exod 32:1\u20132). Moses\u2019 Cushite wife could be Zipporah the Midianitess (Exod 2:16, 21), \u201cCushite\u201d being associated with Midian as \u201cCushan\u201d in Habakkuk 3:7. Ethnic slurs and family resentments die very slowly, which would permit such to be recalled by the dissidents, if deemed sufficiently cutting, even after many years. It seems more probable, however, in view of the explanatory for he had married a Cushite, that Moses had taken a second wife, a \u201cCushite\u201d either in the above sense or in the more frequent sense of \u201cEthiopian.\u201d For yet a third use of \u201cCush,\u201d see Genesis 2:13. The questions, Has the LORD spoken only through Moses? and Hasn\u2019t he also spoken through us? reveal that Moses\u2019 siblings\u2019 real complaint was against his preeminence; their personal attack was quite secondary. The eloquent Aaron (Exod 4:14) was the nation\u2019s high priest, to whom were committed the priestly oracles, the Urim and the Thummim (Exod 28:30). Exodus 15:20 terms Miriam \u201cthe prophetess.\u201d Tragically, they became dissatisfied with secondary status. The anthropomorphic clause, the LORD heard this, means that the LORD took note of their attack.
\n12:3 Did Moses brag about his own humility, or was he confessing what was in the situation a personal weakness? Powerless to personally supply the people\u2019s demand for meat in the previous crisis (11:13\u201314), Moses was equally powerless, due to his character, to defend himself against personal attack and so deal with the authority crisis precipitated by the revolt of his brother and sister. Had not Moses himself voiced a prayer for more prophets? (See 11:29.) The affirmation of Moses\u2019 humility, which documents his incapacity and explains the sudden divine intervention, is thus so essential to the context that the supposition of some expositors that verse 3 may be an editorial addition, perhaps by Joshua, is rendered unlikely. To be sure, Moses\u2019 humility, especially as viewed in the light of the New Testament praise of humility and meekness (e.g. Matt 5:3, 5; 11:29; 18:4; 23:12), is seen as a virtue, but one recorded by that remarkable objectivity of inspiration, which enabled Moses also to speak fully of his own shortcomings (e.g., 11:11\u201312, 21\u201322; 20:10\u201312, and Exod 4:10\u201315).
\n12:4\u20138 Assembling Moses, Aaron and Miriam at the Tent of Meeting, the sanctuary (1:1), the LORD descended, as before, in a pillar of cloud (cf. 9:15\u201323 and 11:25). Admonishing Moses\u2019 rebellious brother and sister to listen to my words, the LORD clearly and strongly affirmed Moses\u2019 unique leadership role. Like other solemn utterances this message is set in Hebrew in poetic style (cf. Gen 2:14\u201319; 27:27\u201329; 49:1\u201327).<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
In treating this aspect of jubilee, the text first reminds that one should assist his impoverished fellow-Israelite so as to help him preserve his personal freedom (vv. 35\u201338). As commanded earlier (Exod 22:25), all loans to impoverished fellow Israelites were to be free of interest; interest could be taken from non-Israelites (Deut 23:19\u201320). The Israelite … <\/p>\n