2\u20133. exiles of the wilderness \u2026 wilderness of the peoples The \u201cwilderness of the peoples\u201d is where God brought a purified Israel \u201cinto the bond of the covenant\u201d (Ezek. 20:35\u201338). At the start of the Maccabean revolt, \u201cthose seeking righteousness and justice fled into the desert\u201d (1 Macc. 2:29). The group who moved to Qumran had a similar purpose (1QS 8:4\u201316).
\n4. [and shall encamp against the king(?)] of the Kittim in Egypt The king of the Kittim has to be the one who aims at \u201ccutting off the horn [of Israel]\u201d (a reconstruction supported by 4QpapMf frag. 3:4).
\n4\u20135. when his time (has arrived) \u2026 the horn [of Israel In apocalyptic thought, God has set the course of history from beginning to end. This description calls to mind Dan. 11:11, 44. The \u201chorn\u201d is a symbol of power (8:3\u201326).
\n5. a time of salvation God\u2019s promise to redeem his chosen ones (Isa. 49:8) will be fully realized only as a result of the final war.
\n5\u20136. There shall be [great] panic [among] the sons of Japheth Panic is spread by God\u2019s action (Zech. 14:13); the \u201csons of Japheth\u201d are peoples from Asia Minor and the nearby areas (cf. Gen. 10:2\u20135).
\n6. Asshur shall fall \u2026 no rescue for it Isaiah\u2019s oracle against Asshur (Isa. 31:8) is given an eschatological interpretation (cf. 1QM 11:11\u201312) and associated with Dan. 11:45.
\nthe Kittim\u2019s dominion \u2026 without a remnant Contrary to God\u2019s people, of whom a remnant was spared (Ezra 9:14\u201315).
\nneither shall there be an escape Cf. 2 Chron. 12:7 (God restrains his anger) and Dan. 11:42 (Egypt is predicted not to escape from a contemptible ruler).
\n1:8\u201315 In a world of darkness, the righteous will spread light and await God\u2019s shining manifestation (1:8\u20139a). The Kittim will fall on a day of fierce carnage involving human and heavenly beings (1:9b\u201312a). The Sons of Light and the Sons of Darkness will each win three encounters, but in the seventh God will subdue Belial\u2019s army (1:12b\u201315).
\n1:8. [the Sons of Rig]hteousness \u2026 times of darkness Cf. Prov. 4:18. The struggle between light and darkness is symbolic of the battle between righteousness and wickedness (cf. 1QM 1:6) that is part of God\u2019s mysterious plan.
\n9. for peace and blessing, glory, joy, and long life Cf. 17:7. Similar rewards are often promised in eschatological contexts (e.g., 1QS 4:6\u20138; Sir. 1:11\u201313; 1 En. 5:7).
\ncarnage Heb. nahshir (cf. 1:10, 13), from an old Persian word found also in the Aramaic Levi Document (4Q246 frag. 1 1:5). The presence of foreign vocabulary leads some to suggest that the dualism found in the Dead Sea Scrolls was of Iranian origin.
\n10. the day he has appointed long ago In the apocalyptic perspective of the scroll, all events are parts of a divine plan, every detail of which has been prearranged to culminate on that day. In the midst of turmoil, this view inspires security and hope in the faithful.
\ncongregation of divine beings The idea of angels aiding in battle is found e.g., in Exod. 23:20\u201322; 2 Macc. 10:29; 1 En. 56:5; Num. Rab. 16:24; B. Hag 14b.
\n11\u201312. This (is) a time of tribulation \u2026 none was comparable to this Both Jer. 30:7 and Dan. 12:1 speak of intense trouble as a necessary step toward redemption for God\u2019s elect. The groups using 1QM considered themselves as \u201cthe people whom God redeems\u201d through similar afflictions.
\n12. hastening toward the end The ultimate battle over the forces of evil will unfold at an accelerated pace and will result in the sudden eruption of redemption.
\n13. three lots In 1QM, \u201clot\u201d (goral) means both a predetermined group of persons (as in 1:1) and a preordained portion of time.
\n14. skirmishing battalions The reading of the word \u201cbattalions\u201d (digle) is uncertain. On the basis of 16:11, \u00c9mile Puech suggests \u201cthere shall be fallen [nepile] (within the ranks) of the skirmishers.\u201d
\nhand of God The expression probably refers to a personal intervention of God that will seal the issue of the battle (cf. Exod. 14:31; 1QM 3:8). Elsewhere in 1QM, the \u201chand of God\u201d is the chief angel acting on behalf of God (cf. 13:10\u201313).
\n1:16\u2013bottom This damaged section seems to have focused on the seventh lot, during which God is to contribute to the final extermination of the Sons of Darkness. The next lines would have contained details about the participation of the Sons of Light in the battle and perhaps a description of the pursuit and of the anticipated celebration of victory (cf. 1QM 3:11; 18\u201319; 4Q491 Ma frag. 16).
\n1:16. the holy ones In 1QM, the term is used both for angels and for men (3:5; 12:1).
\nhe shall shine in help In the Psalms, God is expected to \u201cappear\u201d to save his people (Ps. 80:2; 94:1). He is the most likely agent in this decisive phase of the war (cf. 1QM 1:8, 14).
\n17. [\u2026 upro]ar [of a] large multitude Restored after 1:11.
\n17\u201318. they shall set the hand to [their] weapon[s of war The Sons of Light, as in 8:8 and 16:6.
\n1:end\u20139:bottom These sections provide the rules for the mobilization and the assignment of the troops during the war (1:end\u20132:15), followed by details on signaling (2:16\u20133:12) and identification instruments (3:13\u20135:2). Instructions are also given for the formation of the troops (5:3\u20137:8), their direction (7:9\u20139:9), and modification of their arrangement (9:10\u2013bottom).
\n1:end\u20132:15 This section describes a war of 40 years (35 years of battle and 5 sabbatical years) against hostile nations. The beginning (not preserved) probably described the first six years. Then instructions are given about the assignment of the chiefs of the congregation for the seventh, the first \u201cyear of remission\u201d (1:end\u20132:6a). Details follow about the mobilization of the troops for the remaining 33 years, excluding four other years of remission (2:6b\u20139a). Finally, the calendar is sketched for the 35 years of service, that is, the first six and the 29 years of war against the sons of Shem (9 years), Cham (10 years), and probably Japheth (10 years) (2:9b\u201315; cf. 4QpapMf frags. 13+75+14:1\u20134).
\n2:1. fathers of the congregation, 52 Cf. 2:3, 7. Lay leaders of the community, headed by the priests and Levites (cf. Num. 31:26). Their number matches the number of weeks in the solar calendar used by the Qumran congregation: this 364 day calendar had 4 quarters of 13 weeks, which ensured that the Sabbaths and festivals always fell on the same monthly dates without overlapping.
\nthe chief priest and his deputy The highest authorities of priesthood, as in 2 Kings 25:18 (= Jer. 52:24); the term \u201cdeputy\u201d (mishneh) is used only there in reference to the second in command.
\n1\u20132. 12 chiefs who are to serve steadily before God A similar role was assigned by David to Asaph and his kinsmen before the Ark of the Covenant (1 Chron. 16:37).
\n2. 26 chiefs of divisions Rather than the 24 prescribed in 1 Chron. 24:3\u201319; 25:9\u201331; Ant. 7.365; M. Ta\u2019an. 4:2; T. Ta\u2019an. 3:2; T. Suk. 4:26\u20137; the difference is explained by the solar calendar used by the group (see above).
\n4. for their festivals, for their new moons and Sabbaths The three terms are often associated in the Bible (e.g., 1 Chron. 23:31, in reverse order).
\n6. the appointed time of the year of remission A sabbatical year (cf. Deut. 31:10), free of any military activity; there are to be four others (cf. 1QM 2:8\u20139).
\n6\u20137. the men of renown appointed to the meeting Leaders of the group that assists the \u201cfathers of the congregation\u201d (Num. 16:2; cf. 1QM 3:3\u20134).
\n7\u20138. from all the tribes of Israel they shall equip for themselves men of worth Moses used a similar mode of partial conscription to set up a troop against Midian (Num. 31:3\u20134).
\n8\u20139. they are a Sabbath of rest for Israel The prescriptions about the sabbatical year for the land (Lev. 25:4\u20135) are here applied to the military campaigns.
\n9. the war shall be prepared The meaning of the verb \u201cprepare\u201d (arak) is disputed. Yigael Yadin suggests that the first six years consist of a general war \u201cwaged\u201d by the whole congregation against its main enemies.
\n10\u201313. Aram \u2026 Elam The \u201cwar of the divisions\u201d is to be fought against all nations, divided along the lines of the sons of Noah: Shem, Ham, and Japheth. A detailed list is provided for the sons of Shem only (cf. Gen. 10:22\u201324 and Jub. 8:10\u201330). The ultimate outcome of the war will be the establishment of God\u2019s universal dominion.
\n2:16\u20133:12 The title (2:16\u201317a) introduces a list of specific trumpets to be used for the various phases of the war (2:17b\u20133:2a), followed by the particular phrase to be inscribed on each instrument (3:2b\u201311). All inscriptions bear the name of God, thus stressing that every single aspect of the war, from beginning to end, will unfold according to divine will. These prescriptions are derived from those given to Moses in Num. 10:1\u201310.
\n3:2. summoning the congregation As the people departed from Sinai to move toward the plains of Moab, Moses was instructed to have two silver trumpets made for the priests \u201cto summon the community and to set the divisions in motion\u201d (Num. 10:2).
\n3\u20134. men of renown, chiefs of the fathers of the congregation The lay leaders of the congregation (as in 2:1, 3, 6\u20137).
\n4. when they gather in the house of meeting This calls to mind the gathering of the elders to the Tent of the Meeting to receive the spirit and share the burden of the people (Num. 11:16). This \u201choly council\u201d (cf. CD 20:24\u201325) is perhaps equivalent to the \u201ccouncil of the community\u201d of other Qumran texts (e.g., 1QS 8:1; 1QSa 1:25\u20132:10).
\n6. \u201cReturn of the mercies against those who hate God\u201d The war for which the faithful are departing signals the \u201creturn\u201d of the mercy that God had shown to their ancestors several times in the past when fighting for them against their enemies (Ps. 136:10\u201324; 4Q403 frag. 1 i 23).
\n9. he shall not turn away his anger Arguing against the false prophets of Jerusalem, Jeremiah foretold that the anger of the LORD against the wicked \u201cshall not turn back \/ Till it has fulfilled and completed His purposes\u201d (Jer. 23:20).
\n3:13\u20135:2 In War Scroll, standards (i.e., banners) are used to identify the different groups involved in the war; they bear slogans that change according to the various phases of the battle. A first list of standards details the structure of the community, from the whole people to the smallest unit (3:13\u2013bottom); a separate fourfold list was probably intended for the priests and the Levitical clans (4:1\u20135). The following units prescribe the changes to be made, first on these four standards (4:6\u20138), then on those of the whole congregation (4:9\u201314). The length of each standard is finally set according to its importance (4:15\u201317). Several slogans contain puns that confirm the believers\u2019 identity as members of the hosts of God and their faith in his support.
\n4:1. standard of Merari Merari is the third clan of the tribe of Levi. The missing text at the end of col. 3, therefore, may have detailed the standards for the priests, sons of Aaron, and those of Gershon and Kohath, the two other clans of the tribe (cf. Num. 3:17).
\n2. without any remnant From Ezra 9:14, this is a favorite phrase of the author to express his conviction that the army of Belial will be completely annihilated (cf. 1QM 1:6 and 14:5).
\n5. upon the 10-stringed harp The \u201c10s\u201d of Merari are assimilated to this music instrument used to accompany thanksgiving hymns (Ps. 33:2; 92:4; 144:9).
\n6. Truth of God, etc. These slogans express the claim of the troops to be on God\u2019s side for a war during which he will display his truth and glory by establishing justice and executing judgments (cf. Exod. 24:16\u201317; Mic. 6:5; Ps. 19:10; 117:2).
\n7. \u201cRight hand of God,\u201d etc. The engagement is a sacred event, occurring like the biblical festivals at a time determined by God, whose manifestation of strength will dissolve the courage of the enemies and bring about their extermination (cf. Lev. 23:2; Isa. 66:16; Zech. 14:13; Ps. 118:15\u201316).
\n8. \u201cExaltation of God,\u201d etc. The slogans for returning to the camp appropriately carry the praises of people who have been witnessing God\u2019s great deeds and his victory (cf. Deut. 32:3; Ps. 149:6; Sir. 51:12).
\n10\u201311. \u201cAssembly of God \u2026 Hosts of God\u201d These two phrases refer to the identity of the military troop fighting on behalf of all those who belong to God (cf. Exod. 12:41; Num. 20:4; Ezek. 38:4).
\n12. \u201cBattle of God,\u201d etc. The slogans for the engagement underscore once more the participation of God in the action (cf. Num. 21:14; 31:3; Jer. 25:31; 51:56; Ps. 71:16; etc.).
\n13. \u201cDeliverances of God,\u201d etc. Intended for the joyful return to the camp, these inscriptions call to mind psalms celebrating God\u2019s salvation (Ps. 18:19; 78:4; 98:3; etc.). They are similar to watchwords given by Judas Maccabaeus before launching an attack (2 Macc. 8:23; 13:15).
\n4:18?\u20135:2 A new section began in the lost end of col. 4. It dealt with an inscription for the \u201cprince\u201d (nasi) of the whole congregation. This secular leader does not appear elsewhere in 1QM, but a similar figure is known from other manuscripts. The name of the instrument bearing the inscription is damaged and cannot be reconstructed with certainty: is not a standard (ot), but rather a shield (magen) or a scepter (matteh).
\n5:1. the prince of the whole congregation A figure of the same title is identified with the \u201cstaff\u201d (shevet) who is to rise from Israel in the end-time \u201cto destroy all the children of Seth\u201d (CD 7:20, interpreting Num. 24:17). A mention of the prince has also been added twice to the \u201crule of the standards of the whole congregation\u201d in one copy of War Scroll (cf. 1QM 3:13\u201314 with 4Q496 papMf frag. 10:3\u20134). According to another war text, he will lead the final pursuit and slay the king of the Kittim (4Q285 Sefer ha-Milhamah frag. 4).
\nLevi and Aaron Aaron alone is mentioned in 3:14.
\n2. the names of the 12 commanders of their tribes Another addition to the wording of 3:14.
\n5:3\u20137:8 The first part of this section provides rules to array and equip the heavy infantry, the \u201cfront formations\u201d composed of 21,000 uniformly armored men (5:3\u201315). The light infantry comes next, a force of 7,000 younger men, equipped with various weapons (5:16\u20136:7). The cavalry is divided in light and heavy units, to which are added \u201cmounts for the men of the rule,\u201d for a total force of 6,000 horsemen (6:8\u201318). The last part of the section specifies the age ranges of other groups, prescribes the exclusion of people unfit for battle, and explains how the purity of the camp shall be maintained (6:19\u20137:8).
\n5:4. burnished bronze The shields are to be made with the same technique as the vessels crafted by Hiram for the Temple of Solomon (2 Chron. 4:6).
\n5. a skillful work, in gold and silver, and bronze As sacred objects, the weapons are to be the work of gifted crafters, as were the furnishings of the Tent of the Meeting and the ephod and breastpiece for Aaron and his sons (Exod. 26:1, 31; 28:6, 15). The shields are to be decorated with metals like those offered by the Israelites for the Tent or laid aside by David for the Temple (25:3; 31:4; 1 Chron. 22:14).
\n6. precious stones Cf. 5:9, 14. Yadin notes that Roman shields were decorated with drawings of jew-els. In the Bible, precious stones are associated with the future glory of Jerusalem (Isa. 54:12). Wisdom of Ben Sira mentions them as part of Aaron\u2019s garments (Sir. 45:11; cf. 50:9).
\n6:2. \u201cFlash of spear This phrase, as the \u201cflame of a sword\u201d of 6:3, is adapted from the description of a punitive attack against Nineveh in Nah. 3:3.
\n3. a sword devouring the slain The image of God\u2019s devouring sword appears frequently in the Bible in the context of a judgment (cf. Deut. 32:42; Isa. 31:8; Ezek. 21:33\u201334).
\n6. to pay the full requital of their evil The final war is understood as a just requital for all enemies of God and his people (cf. Isa. 59:16\u201318; 66:6; Jer. 51:24; Obad. 15).
\nthe kingship shall belong to the God of Israel An adaptation of Obad. 21, the conclusion of the prophet\u2019s oracle about the Day of the LORD.
\namong the holy ones of his people he shall do worthily Derived from Num. 24:18. The future triumph will be the result of a synergy between the power of God and the commitment of the combatants identified as \u201cthe saints of his people\u201d (cf. 1QM 11:5\u20137; 12:11; 16:1).
\n7:1. those who order the camps shall be from 50 years to 60 The text has been corrected; the initial wording was \u201cfrom 40 years to 50.\u201d
\n2. who strip the slain, etc. Similar people appear in the reports of David\u2019s victory over Goliath and of Saul\u2019s death and in prophecies against Egypt and Gog; according to the latter, the land is purified by the burial of the dead (cf. 1 Sam. 17:22; 31:8; Ezek. 29:19; 39:12).
\n4\u20135. lame, blind, crippled, etc. These restrictions, apparently derived from those concerning priesthood, might be explained by the belief in the presence of angels in the midst of the troop (Lev. 21:17\u201321; cf. 1QM 7:6 and 1QSa 2:3\u20136; Sifre Deut. 190).
\n5. day of vengeance A reference to the final and victorious battle against the army of Belial.
\n6. man who is not purified from a (bodily) discharge An extension of the prescription about the holiness of the camp found in Deut. 23:11.
\n7. the latrine, 2,000 cubits or so Lit. \u201cthe place of the hand,\u201d a euphemism as in Deut. 23:13; 11Q19 Templea 46:13. Joshua ordered the Israelites to keep 2,000 cubits between them and the Ark of the Covenant (Josh. 3:4).
\nNo indecent nakedness shall be seen This prohibition is adapted from Deut. 23:15, where the consequence is spelled out: God would \u201cturn away from you.\u201d
\n7:9\u20139:9 When the battle line is arrayed, priests and Levites are dispatched, as for a ritual ceremony, to strengthen the troops and to direct their movements. During each phase of the operations, priests blow modulated signals in their trumpets; at the climax of action, Levites join them and blow in ram\u2019s horns \u201ca great war alarm to melt the enemy\u2019s heart\u201d (7:9\u201315a). The seven lines of skirmishers go out first to weaken the enemy (7:15b\u20139:2); then the whole army launches a general pursuit (9:3\u20137a). The section ends with a prescription for the priests to stand at a distance in order to avoid defiling themselves in the unclean blood of the slain (9:7b\u20139).
\n7:10. dressed with clothes of white byssus, etc. Combines an allusion to the dressing of Josephus by the Pharaoh with the descriptions of the garments made for Aaron and his sons, and those to be worn at Yom Kippur (Gen. 41:42; Exod. 39:28\u201329; Lev. 16:4; cf. also Exod. 26:1; 36:8). In the Rabbinic literature, the priest who is \u201canointed for war\u201d (M. Sot. 8:1; T. Sot. 7:17; T. Hor. 2:1, 10) also wears special clothing (B. Yoma 72B).
\n11\u201312. they shall not enter the sanctuary with them An adaptation of a similar interdiction concerning women after childbirth (Lev. 12:4).
\n14. seven ram\u2019s horns In the narrative of the destruction of Jericho, seven priests are given instruction to carry a ram\u2019s horn before the Ark of the LORD and to blow them to direct the troops (Josh. 6:4). In 1QM this task is entrusted to the Levites, who blow the ram\u2019s horns only at the time of slaughter (8:9\u201310; 16:8; 17:13); all other signals are given by the priests with the trumpets.
\n9:8. they are holy, etc. This instruction is based on the interdiction for the priests to defile themselves by contact with dead bodies, except those of very close relatives (Lev. 21:6); a reference to priestly anointing is made in the same context, in relation to the high priest (21:12).
\n9:10\u2013bottom This section, mostly lost, contained rules for special maneuvers called \u201cfolding of hands,\u201d \u201cbow,\u201d \u201cwings,\u201d and \u201ctower\u201d; the latter comprised 300 men, equipped with long shields on which the names of angels were written. The \u201ctower\u201d is probably, like the Roman \u201ctortoise\u201d (testudo), a closed formation in which the shields of the soldiers standing in the outer ranks form a wall on the front and the sides, whereas those of the other soldiers were raised above their heads as a roof. There were also details about the setting up of an ambush (9:17\u2013bottom).
\n15. Mich[ae]l, etc. The names Michael and Gabriel occur in the book of Daniel (8:16; 10:13). Raphael is the angel sent by God as a guide for Tobit (Tob. 3:17; etc.). In similar lists found in the Pseudepigrapha or in Rabbinic literature, the name of the fourth archangel is sometimes Uriel or Phanuel, rather than Sariel (1 En. 9:1; 40:9; etc.).
\n9:end\u201314:bottom The second major part of 1QM is made of three groups of prayers. The first ones were to be recited at the camp, as the army was preparing for the war (9:end\u201312:bottom). The second were meant probably for the battlefield, to support the troops about to engage in fighting (12:end\u201314:1). The third are blessings and prayers of exaltation designed for the joyful celebration following victory (14:2\u2013bottom).
\n9:end\u201312:bottom The first prayers are introduced at the end of col. 9. They were to be recited at the camp (mentioned in 10:1), perhaps by the chief priest (cf. 15:5). They serve to provide a context for the coming war. The first section praises God for having manifested his power in the past, both in the creation of the universe and in several victories over Israel\u2019s enemies; these accomplishments served as a basis for the prophets to anticipate the final triumph of God and of his people (9:end\u201311:12). The second section stresses that this time has now come: God will deliver, once and for all, his mighty enemies into the hands of his elect ones, assisted by the heavenly hosts (11:13\u201312:6). God is then urged to arise as a glorious warrior king, to bring the triumph to completion, and to fill his inheritance with blessings, so that his reign may be established forever (12:7\u201316). The last prayer is lost; it may have alluded to the return of the victorious troop to Jerusalem (12:17\u2013bottom). The prayers embody many biblical quotations, references, or allusions: they are interpreted in relation to the present context and to a group who claims to be the faithful remnant of Israel and therefore the real addressee of the prophetic promises of salvation.
\n10:1. to be on guard against any untoward nakedness An adaptation of the more general instruction given by Moses to the Israelites as they go out as a troop against an enemy (Deut. 23:10).
\n1\u20132. you (stand) in our midst, etc. An indirect quotation of the words of encouragement uttered by Moses to those entering the Promised Land: they should not fear its inhabitants, in spite of their number, since God would dislodge them little by little (Deut. 7:21\u201322). The biblical text has been adapted to fit the perspective of the final war: instead of inhabitants to be dislodged, the enemies are to be plundered after their destruction.
\n2\u20135. \u201cBefore you join battle, etc. A quotation of the instructions for war found in Deut. 20:2\u20134, with slight variations: in 1QM, the exhortation \u201cdo not be in fear\u201d (Deut. 20:3) appears in first rather than second position, perhaps to make it more prominent (cf. 1QM 15:8; 17:4); the tetragrammaton (Deut. 20:4) is never used in 1QM. God\u2019s personal involvement in the coming battle again provides the main ground for facing with courage a superior enemy.
\n5. Our [of]ficers shall address, etc. Apparently based on the list of people exempted from service in Deut. 20:5\u20139, of which only the disheartened (lit. the \u201cmelted hearts\u201d) remain. Yadin argues that all other have been dismissed at the time of conscription. I would suggest that the disheartened do not \u201cgo back home\u201d (yashov labayt in Deut. 20:8), but are rather \u201crestored\u201d (shov in the absolute in 1QM 10:5) and strengthened to become \u201cmighty men of worth,\u201d together with the willing hearted (cf. 11:9). If this is the case, then, no exemptions are permitted in this war, perhaps considered mandatory because of its eschatological and cosmic significance. Rabbinic tradition allows no exemptions in mandatory wars, generally defined as battles to settle the land (M. Sot. 8:7; J. Sot. 8:6 (22b); B. Sot. 44b).
\n6\u20138. \u201cWhen you are at war in your land, etc. A formal quotation of Num. 10:9, almost identical, save for the absence of the tetragrammaton before \u201cyour God.\u201d Trumpets are numerous in War Scroll and their use more complex, but they serve the same theological function of drawing God\u2019s attention to mobilize his saving power.
\n8\u20139. \u201cWho (is) equal to you, etc. A free adaptation of the argument put forward by Moses when he was asking God for the privilege to enter the Promised Land (Deut. 3:24).
\n9. \u201cWho is like your people Israel, etc. A combination of phrases based partly on Moses\u2019s reminder to Israel of its holiness and free election through the covenant and partly on David\u2019s praise of God after Nathan\u2019s oracle, both with references to God\u2019s saving actions (Deut. 7:6\u20139; 2 Sam. 7:23; cf. Ezra 9:11; Dan. 7:27; 8:24). Members of the Qumran yahad or similar groups could also identify themselves as the true \u201choly ones of the covenant\u201d because of their particularly stringent way of living it.
\n10\u201311. learned in the statute, etc. A remote allusion to Moses\u2019s speech urging Israel to keep the Law received through the hearing of the divine voice at the mountain, thereby showing the nations what a wise and discerning people they were (Deut. 4:5\u201312).
\n11\u201316. the expanse of the skies, etc. This account has only loose contacts with the biblical narratives of the creation and of the division of peoples (cf. Gen. 1:1\u20132:4a; 10:5; 11:7\u20139); an interesting parallel is found, however, in a thanksgiving hymn from Qumran Cave 1 (1QHa 9:11\u201322 [1:9\u201320]).
\n11:1. the battle is yours A refrain (cf. 11:2, 4) that echoes the words of David as he replied to Goliath\u2019s defiant provocation (1 Sam. 17:47). God is often referred to as a warrior in the Hebrew Bible (Exod. 15:3; 2 Chron. 20:15; Isa. 42:13; Ps. 24:8).
\ntheir corpses have been dashed into pieces with no one to bury (them) Corpses left without burial served as food for wild animals (Ps. 79:2\u20133); David predicted this fate for the bodies of Goliath and his troop (1 Sam. 17:46).
\n2. Goliath of Gath, etc. In this reference, the attention is focused on David\u2019s words of trust in God\u2019s name and power (1 Sam. 17:45, 47); they are used to support the conviction that God will lead the final war to its predetermined outcome. David \u201cserved\u201d God, in the first place, by being instrumental in Israel\u2019s salvation from the Philistines (2 Sam. 3:17\u201318). The defeat of Goliath is also singled out in the prayer of the priest anointed for war recorded in M. Sot. 8:1.
\n3. you also have saved us many times by the hand of our kings, etc. No specific event is mentioned; the insistence is on God\u2019s mercy, in spite of his people\u2019s sinful deeds: this was namely the case under kings Jehoahaz and Jeroboam II (cf. 2 Kings 13:1\u20139; 14:23\u201328).
\n5. Neither our power nor the force of our hands, etc. This statement echoes Moses\u2019s warning to the Israelites not to forget that they owe their success to God (Deut. 8:17\u201318).
\n6\u20137. \u201cA star rises from Jacob \u2026 and Israel is triumphant An explicit quotation of Balaam\u2019s oracle (Num. 24:17\u201319). The text of 24:18 appears here as the conclusion, with no mention of Edom and Seir. The oracle is interpreted as the anticipation of an eschatological act of salvation performed by God rather than a messianic figure. This is consistent with the emphasis put on God\u2019s kingship and with the minor role assigned to the Prince of the Congregation in War Scroll (cf. 1QM 5:1; 12:7\u20138).
\n7\u20138. your anointed ones, seers of fixed times The prophets, as in Ps. 105:15; their characterization as \u201cseers of fixed times\u201d may have been prompted by the figure of Balaam, who \u201cbeholds visions from the Almighty\u201d for the future (Num. 24:16\u201317).
\n8\u20139. to bring down the troops of Belial \u2026 to open hope (for) the melted heart The troops of Belial will be given over to the Sons of Light like the numerous nations of the land promised to the Israelites (Deut. 7:1). The poor redeemed by God and the melted hearts for which hope is opened are biblical images appropriated by members of the Qumran yahad.
\n9\u201310. the Pharaoh and the officers of his chariots A reference to God\u2019s triumph over Pharaoh, as in Moses\u2019s speech about the seven nations (Exod. 15:4; Deut. 7:18\u201319).
\nYou will kindle the brokenhearted like a flaming torch The image of the brokenhearted (lit. \u201cstricken spirits\u201d) is borrowed from Isaiah and brought together with an implicit quotation of Zechariah\u2019s oracle about the coming salvation of Jerusalem and Judah (Isa. 66:2; Zech. 12:6).
\n11\u201312. \u201cAsshur shall fall Isaiah\u2019s oracle about Assyria is interpreted as a prediction of the future intervention of God against the Kittim and stresses its supernatural character (Isa. 31:8; cf. 1QM 1:6).
\n13. those who are bowed to the dust As a parallel to \u201cthe poor ones,\u201d this image suggests the fragility of those who are at death\u2019s door (cf. Ps. 22:30; 44:26).
\nthe mighty men of the peoples Warriors like those of Moab, Edom, and Babel, whose heart, according to Jeremiah, will become like that of a woman in travail (Jer. 48:41; 49:22; 51:30).
\n13\u201314. to render the requital On the Day of the LORD, all the nations who had mistreated Israel were expected to be paid back (Joel 4:4, 7; Obad. 15); this is generalized to the wicked ones.
\n14. to make for yourself an everlasting name These events will bring God a fame as important as the miracle through which he saved his people at the Red Sea (Isa. 63:12).
\n15. to manifest your greatness The words appear in the summary of Ezekiel\u2019s judgment oracle against Gog (Ezek. 38:23); an explicit reference to it follows immediately.
\n16. Gog and all his battalions A powerful prince of the north expected to gather troops to march against Jerusalem (Ezek. 38:2, 7); here, he symbolizes the eschatological enemy and his allies annihilated by God and his heavenly hosts as a result of the final war.
\n12:1. your holy height In Isaiah, God\u2019s sanctuary in the heavens, from where he is urged to show his salvific power.
\n2. the bo]ok of the names The book of life, in which the names of the faithful are recorded (Exod. 32:32; Ps. 69:29; Dan. 12:1).
\nyour holy abode Another designation of the heavenly sanctuary; God\u2019s actions start here, either to bless his faithful or to raise his roaring voice against the wicked (Deut. 26:15; Jer. 25:30).
\n3. The mercies of [your] blessing[s \u2026] and the covenant of your peace The \u201celect ones of the holy people\u201d will benefit from God\u2019s loyalty and enjoy the promise of the everlasting peace that Isaiah envisioned for Jerusalem (Isa. 54:10).
\n7. the glory of your kingship This phrase is possibly borrowed from Ps. 145, in which David praises the everlasting dominion of God (145:11).
\n8. for the LORD is holy and the King of glory (is) with us Two parallel designations found in psalms celebrating God\u2019s kingship over the earth and its inhabitants (Ps. 24:7\u201310; 99:9).
\ntogether with the holy ones Heb. \u2018im kedoshim; Jean Carmignac reads \u2018am kedoshim (\u201cthe people of the holy ones\u201d) and links the phrase to Dan. 7:27 or 8:24 (cf. 1QM 10:10).
\n9. valiant in batt[le] This title, used as a parallel to \u201cKing of glory,\u201d is taken from Ps. 24:8.
\n9\u201310. [like] rain clouds \u2026 mist clouds \u2026 rainstorm The second image appears in Ezekiel\u2019s oracle against Gog (Ezek. 38:9, 16); the two others have been added to it as a symbol of God and the heavenly hosts coming to pour judgment (cf. Isa. 18:2; 30:30).
\n10. Arise, mighty one! Take your captives, glorious man! Adapted from the triumphant song of Deborah and Barak after the victory granted by God over the Canaanites (Judg. 5:12).
\n11. Put your hand upon the nape of your foes Jacob\u2019s last words about Judah\u2019s future are turned into an image of God\u2019s own victory over his enemies (Gen. 49:8).
\nCrush the nations (that are) your enemies A similar transposition on God of Balaam\u2019s blessing of Israel (Num. 24:8).
\n11\u201312. let your sword devour the guilty flesh God\u2019s promise to deal with those who reject him, found in the Song of Moses, is given a moral tone by being related to \u201cguilty\u201d flesh (Deut. 32:42; cf. 1QM 11:6; 19:4).
\nFill your land (with) Presence Lit. \u201cglory\u201d (kavod), God\u2019s particular way to make himself known and to manifest his absolute sovereignty (cf. Num. 14:21; Isa. 6:3).
\n12\u201313. abundant flocks in your fields, etc. These images of prosperity recall the fate of Abram as he came back from Egypt or the fate predicted of Jerusalem restored by its loyal God (Gen. 13:2; Isa. 54:12).
\n13. Zion, rejoice greatly, etc. A combination based on exhortations for Zion to celebrate the King of all earth, who turns its enemies to a spoil and comes to dwell in its midst (Zech. 2:14; Ps. 97:8).
\n13\u201314. Keep [your] gate[s] open continually, etc. This summary of Isaiah\u2019s description of Jerusalem\u2019s future glory stresses the triumph of the city rather than the shining presence of its LORD (Isa. 60:10\u201311, 14).
\n15. [lick] the dust [of your feet A phrase from another oracle about Zion\u2019s restoration, prompted by the use of \u201cbow down\u201d in the same verse (Isa. 49:23; 4Q492 Mb frag. 1:7).
\nDaughter]s of my people, etc. These feminine images, out of their biblical context, suggest a festive celebration of God\u2019s reign, either by the women or by the \u201cdaughter cities\u201d of the country (cf. Isa. 22:4; Jer. 4:30; Ps. 47:2; 97:8).
\n16. I]srael (is) to reign forever Daniel\u2019s vision of the four beasts and \u201cone like a human being\u201d is interpreted as carrying a similar promise, addressed to \u201cthe people of the holy ones of the Most High\u201d (Dan. 7:27).
\n12:end\u201314:1 The following prayers were to be recited on the battlefield, as the battle was about to take place (cf. 13:14). The end of an initial rubric is preserved at the top of col. 13: it prescribes that the priests (most likely led by the chief priest), the Levites, and the elders, having probably taken position next to the troops, bless God and his servants and curse Belial and his spirits (12:end\u201313:2a). Following the first blessings and curses (13:2b\u20133, 4\u20136), an elaborated hymn recalls God\u2019s loyalty to his covenant with the forefathers throughout history, up to the imminent struggle that will bring victory for light over darkness (13:7\u201317). A final prayer, made of two different units, is almost completely lost (13:18\u2013bottom, 13:end\u201314:1).
\n13:1. They shall bless \u2026 They shall denounce The binary structure of blessings and curses is a way to mark a clear distinction between the lot of God and that of Belial (13:5\u20136); it was part of the annual covenantal ceremony at Qumran (1QS 2:1\u201318; cf. Deut. 27\u201328).
\nhis truthful works God is also praised for the truth and justice of his handiwork in Ps. 111, which like the following prayer, refers to God\u2019s powerful works, to his everlasting covenant, and to the redemption of his people (Ps. 111:7; cf. 1QM 14:12).
\n3. all (who) serve him righteously (and) know him faithfully Probably the \u201cspirits of truth,\u201d that is, angels, as opposed to the spirits of Belial (cf. 13:4\u20135, 10\u201312).
\n4\u20136. Cursed be Belial, etc. An almost identical curse of Belial is found in a copy of the covenantal ritual from Qumran (4Q286 Bera frag. 7 2:2\u20135).
\n5. impure uncleanliness This biblical phrase, which refers to a woman\u2019s period of uncleanness or to the defilement of the land, is also used in the Pesher Habakkuk in relation to the deeds of the Wicked Priest (Lev. 20:18; Ezek. 36:17; 1QpHab 8:12\u201313).
\n7. [es]tablished a covenant with our fathers and kept it with their descendants An echo of the prayer of Solomon at the dedication of the Temple and of the national confession of the Sukkot festival reported by Nehemiah (1 Kings 8:21; Neh. 9:8).
\n8. for the help of the remnant, etc. Loyalty to his covenant grounds the expectations of the \u201cremnant\u201d with whom the group claiming to have been cast in the \u201clot of light\u201d may identify.
\n10. Commander of light Probably Michael the \u201cgreat prince\u201d who, according to the book of Daniel, stands with the sons of Israel (Dan. 12:1; cf. 1QM 9:15; 17:6\u20137; 1QS 3:20).
\n12. toward it is their one [ur]ge Like the strong attraction of man and woman for one another or the impulse of sin felt by Cain (Gen. 3:16; 4:7; Song of Sol. 7:11; cf. 1QM 15:10).
\n13. Who is like you, etc. Similar rhetorical questions, always implying a negative answer, are found in Solomon\u2019s prayer, in prophetic oracles, and in several psalms.
\n14:1. the fire of his outburst, etc. A combination of the image of God\u2019s burning wrath, taken from Ezekiel\u2019s oracles against Ammon, Jerusalem, and Gog, with a reference to his action against Egypt found in Isaiah (Isa. 19:1; Ezek. 21:36; 22:21, 31; 38:19).
\n14:2\u2013bottom The morning after their victory (14:2\u20134a), the troops return to the battlefield to praise the God of Israel who has kept his covenant with their fathers through them: in spite of their weakness, they were given the strength to resist the dominion of Belial and to fight the mighty of the nations assembled by God for total destruction. Their redemption confirms that the \u201cperfect of way\u201d are not only the \u201cremnant,\u201d but the authentic \u201choly people\u201d of God (14:4b\u201315). Only a few words are left of the next section, which urges God to rise up and to complete the execution of his judgment of the Sons of Darkness (14:16\u2013bottom). According to a manuscript from Cave 4, a closing section contained instructions for getting back to the camps.
\n2. they shall wash their clothes and cleanse themselves These prescriptions are phrased after the biblical rules for whoever has been in contact with a dead body (Num. 19:19; cf. 11Q19 Templea 50:8, 14\u201315).
\n4. they shall extol his name in a joyful community Adapted from David\u2019s invitation to the lowly to rejoice for God\u2019s rescue of the righteous (Ps. 34:4).
\nhe who provides faithfulness for his covenant A repetition of the statement on God\u2019s motivation to rescue Israel (Deut. 7:9).
\n5\u20136. tottering \u2026 dumb \u2026 slack hands Three metaphors for the weak used, with a few others, in Isaiah\u2019s prophecy on the building, in a reflourishing desert, of a Sacred Way for the joyful return to Zion of those redeemed by the LORD (Isa. 35:3\u20136).
\nan assembly of nation, etc. A combination of phrases from an oracle of Jeremiah\u2019s against Babylon and from the confession of Ezra (Jer. 50:9; Ezra 9:14).
\n6. teach war An allusion to David\u2019s prayer to the LORD after having been saved from all his enemies (Ps. 18:35 = 2 Sam. 22:35).
\n6\u20137. strength to stand and steadiness of loins Borrowed from Nahum\u2019s oracle against Nineveh (Nah. 2:2).
\n7. through the humble spirit [\u2026 shall] the stubborn heart [be cut] off Adapted from Isaiah\u2019s image of the brokenhearted and Ezekiel\u2019s portrayal of the guilty house of Israel (Isa. 66:2; Ezek. 3:7; cf. 1QM 11:10).
\nthose of blameless way \u2026 wicked nations In contrast with Moses\u2019s warning to the Israelites, but in the manner of the teaching of the Proverbs (Deut. 9:4\u20135; Prov. 11:20).
\n8. you who keep the covenant, etc. This new paraphrase of Moses\u2019s words connects the group with \u201cour\u201d fathers and inserts it within the generations of those who have benefited from God steadfastness (Deut. 7:8\u20139; cf. 1QM 13:8\u201314:4).
\n9. You have displayed through wondrous deeds your mercy An adaptation of David\u2019s prayer to be delivered from mortal enemies (Ps. 17:7).
\n10. you kept the soul of those you have redeemed An adaptation of a prayer of David in similar circumstances (Ps. 25:20\u201322; cf. 86:2; 97:10; 121:7).
\n11. the tall ones you have fel[led \u2026] Isaiah compared the mighty ones to tall trees of Lebanon to be felled by the LORD of Hosts (Isa. 10:33); in a pesher from Cave 4, they are identified with the Kittim (4Q161 pIsaa frags. 8\u201310 5\u201314). In 1QM, their humiliation is contrasted with the raising up by God of the remnant of his people.
\nfor all their warriors, etc. The enemy will have the fate anticipated by Amos for the wicked of Israel on the Day of the LORD (Amos 2:14; cf. Isa. 5:29; 43:13; etc.).
\n11\u201312. to their great men, etc. God demonstrates his own greatness as he humiliates the enemy and rescues the weak from their hands (Gen. 7:4, 23; Isa. 40:23; Ps. 107:40).
\n12. We, your holy people, etc. The rescue of the oppressed, which confirms God\u2019s power and truthfulness, leads to their self-identification with his \u201choly people,\u201d promised to honor and glory, and grounds their jubilant praise (Deut. 7:6; 26:19; Ps. 111:7; 150:2).
\n13. in all] the times and holy days, etc. These times for prayer match those mentioned in the Thanksgiving Hymns and in the closing section of Rule of the Community (1QHa 20:7\u201314 [12:4\u201311]; 1QS 10:1\u201310).
\n14. to li[ft] up to you those from the dust An echo of Hannah\u2019s prayer after Samuel\u2019s birth (1 Sam. 2:8; cf. Ps. 113:7). But in 1QM the elevation from dust \u201cto you\u201d (God) is opposed to the destitution of supernatural powers (Belial and his spirits).
\n16. Rise up, etc. This section mixes familiar psalmic language with the dualistic terminology of the scroll, urging the exalted God to complete the eradication of darkness and to fill the world with his light (cf. Ps. 7:7; 21:14; 50:1; 1QM 1:8).
\n14:end\u201320:? The last part of War Scroll contains a description of the war of \u201cIsrael\u201d against \u201call the nations.\u201d The war unfolds in three engagements: the lot of God takes the initiative of the first (15:4\u201316:10); following a counterattack by Belial\u2019s troops, the reserve is engaged (16:11\u201317:bottom); the whole army launches the last assault and the concluding pursuit (17:end\u201319:8). The narration serves as a framework for the powerful exhortations delivered to the Sons of Light by a priest before the first two encounters and for the prayer recited before the pursuit. The scroll ended with a praise of God, now lost (19:9\u201320:?), and perhaps instructions for the return to Jerusalem and the celebration of the victory.
\n15:1\u20133 Starting somewhere at the end of col. 14, this section sets the stage for the eschatological war: it introduces the earthly opponents and their supernatural counterparts, puts them face to face, and anticipates the final result of their confrontation. This summary has similarities with the general introduction found in col. 1.
\n15:1. a time of tribulation An adaptation of Jer. 30:7 and Dan. 12:1, as in 1QM 1:11\u201312. Members of the Qumran group probably considered themselves to be the true Israel promised to redemption.
\n3. day of ven[geance] by the sword of God Biblical oracles predicted a day of retribution during which the sword of the LORD was to shed the blood of Israel\u2019s oppressors (cf. Isa. 34:5\u20138; Jer. 46:10; 47:6; 1QM 7:5).
\n15:4\u201316:10 Standing with his company, the chief priest reads a special prayer before ordering the troops (15:4\u20136a). Another priest who is \u201cassigned for the appointed time of vengeance\u201d then strengthens the troops with a rousing speech (15:6b\u20137a): there is nothing to fear, since God himself is to fight against this wicked enemy, whose might is only apparent (15:7b\u201316:2). A similar priest, \u201cwho is anointed for war\u201d and speaks to the troops is found in M. Sot. 8:1. Details follow about the signals given by priests and Levites to conduct the engagement (16:3\u201310).
\n15:5. the prayer of the appointed time for wa[r Perhaps the prayer on the battlefield found in 1QM 12:end\u201314:1.
\n7\u20138. Be strong and resolute, etc. A partial quotation of the priestly exhortation prescribed in Deut. 20:3 (cf. 1QM 10:3\u20134), supplemented with excerpts from others by Moses, Joshua, and David, in various contexts (Deut. 31:6; Josh. 10:25; 2 Sam. 2:7).
\n9\u201310. in darkness \u2026 like melting smoke Isaiah\u2019s images are used to contrast the irresistible attraction of the wicked for darkness and falsehood with the futility of their action (Isa. 28:15; 29:15; 51:6; cf. 1QM 13:12).
\n11. their multitude (shall become) like cha[ff(?) The beginning of 15:11\u201316 is supplied by a separate fragment. The comparison of the enemy with chaff may have been inspired by Isaiah\u2019s anticipation of the salvation of Zion or by the psalmist\u2019s view of the fate of the wicked (Isa. 29:5; cf. Ps. 1:4).
\nshall soon wither This is usually predicted of evil men and wrongdoers (Ps. 37:2).
\n16. the God of I[srae]l, etc. Sukenik tentatively inserted here another fragment that provides a few words at the beginning of 15:16\u201318.
\n16:1. has summoned a sword In Jeremiah\u2019s view, a sword had been \u201csummoned\u201d to perform God\u2019s judgment against \u201call the inhabitants of the earth,\u201d including those of Jerusalem; here, the \u201csaints of his people\u201d are expected to benefit from God\u2019s mighty action (Jer. 25:29; cf. 1QM 6:6).
\n3. the priests shall blow for them, etc. The priests and Levites conduct the engagement with trumpets and ram\u2019s horns, as explained in 7:9\u20139:9. In this single encounter, however, only two types of trumpets, those of \u201cmemorial\u201d and those of \u201cthe slain,\u201d are mentioned.
\n16:11\u201317:bottom As the battle unfolds, Belial and the Sons of Darkness subject the skirmishers to severe casualties. The priests call in reserve troops that the chief priest strengthens with an efficient speech, while the first combatants receive the signal to withdraw (16:11\u201314). The battle is interpreted as a \u201ccrucible\u201d in which God is putting his people to a test: like their forerunners Nadab and Abihu, the fallen did not stand it (16:15\u201317:3). Several arguments are used to boost the reservists: their enemy is said to be worthless, whereas they are promised to be supported by the archangel Michael during the battle and, as a result of their victory, to be granted peace, blessing, and everlasting knowledge (17:4\u20139). The various phases of this second engagement follow the signals given by priests and Levites (17:10\u201315). The third encounter or \u201clot\u201d was briefly described in the bottom of the column, from which only a few words are preserved (17:16\u2013bottom).
\n16:11. When [Belial(?)] girds himself The name of Belial is the most likely here. According to 1QM 1:13\u201314, the \u201cSons of Light\u201d and \u201cthe army of Belial\u201d are to prevail, in turn, three times each; only with the seventh \u201clot\u201d will the issue of the battle be decided.
\n15. puts the he[a]rt of his people to test As silver and gold, the hearts (or minds) of men, particularly the righteous ones, are refined in heat (Prov. 17:3 = 27:21; Dan. 11:36; 12:10). This image dominates the passage (1QM 16:11; 17:1, 9): for the Qumran group, it may have provided an explanation for the tribulations experienced by its members and a motivation to support them.
\nFor you have heard long ago This formula could have introduced a biblical quotation or reference, now lost (cf. 1QM 10:2; 11:5\u20136, 11).
\n17:2. the bloodshed [of Nadab and] Ab[i]hu This reference to the tragic fate of the two sons of Aaron who had offered an \u201calien fire\u201d to the LORD underscores that strict holiness is required from priests or, by extension, from anyone who approaches God (Lev. 10:1\u20133).
\n3. the pact [of priesthood(?)] for all times According to other biblical and Second Temple texts, this everlasting covenant was granted not to Eleazar and his brother Ithamar, who took over the priestly office after the death of Nadab and Abihu, but to Phinehas, Eleazar\u2019s son (Num. 3:3\u20134;
\n25:13; 1 Macc. 2:54; Sir. 45:23\u201324). At Qumran, the words of blessings for the priests, included a wish for the renewal of this pact (1QS 3:26).
\n4. nothingness and \u2026 voidness In its initial stage, before its separation from water by God, the earth was \u201cunformed and void\u201d; similarly, the existence, actions, and goals of the wicked are meaningless and worthless (Gen. 1:2; cf. Jer. 4:23; 4Q303 Meditation on Creation A 1:5).
\n6. He has sent an everlasting help In the Psalms, this help is God\u2019s \u201cright arm,\u201d which provides victory better than chariots and horses (Ps. 20:3, 7\u20138). The archangel Michael appears in aid of Israel in the book of Daniel.
\n8. everlasting knowledge Also promised to the members of the Qumran yahad, who already shared revealed knowledge about the interpretation of the Torah, the dualistic structure of the universe, and the course of history (1QS 2:3; cf. 4Q286 Bera frag. 7 1:5\u20137).
\nsons of his covenant In a sectarian context, this phrase could imply a claim to be the true faithful, urged to stand fast in the midst of affliction, until the final victory of the \u201clot of God\u201d (cf. 1QM 10:10; 13:8; 14:4, 8\u201310).
\n10. the priests shall blow for them, etc. The description of the second engagement against the Kittim follows loosely the instructions found in 1QM 7:9\u20139:9 (cf. 8:5\u20139:3).
\n17:end\u201319:8 The defeat of Belial and his army is inevitable when God raises his hand against them (17:end\u201318:3a). At the sound of the trumpets of memorial, the whole army prepares for the final encounter and for the annihilation of the Kittim (18:3b\u20135a). The priestly speech takes the form of a blessing of God, who has performed wonders to keep his covenant (18:5b\u20139). A following prayer underscores the unique character of this day, which will mark the final redemption of the Sons of Light and the irreversible destruction of their enemy (18:10\u2013bottom). The prayer urging the glorious King to seize his plunder, already found in 1QM 12:7\u201310 is repeated here with slight variations, ending with an invitation to Zion to rejoice and with a vision of the everlasting reign of Israel (18:end\u201319:8).
\n18:1. the great hand of God Its manifestation characterizes the seventh lot. As in the Psalms, God raises to strike the wicked, to vindicate the lowly, and to establish his reign forever (Ps. 10:12).
\n2. Asshur \u2026 Japheth \u2026 Kittim The same groups whose defeat was predicted in 1:6; the image of falling down without rising anymore may have been influenced by Isa. 24:20.
\n5. When] the sun hastens to set Cf. 18:12. The pursuit will start by the end of the day, as was the case at the battle of Gibeon (Josh. 10:13\u201314).
\n7. the gates of deliverances A poetic image of victory, like the \u201cdoors of hope,\u201d as opposed to the \u201cgates of death\u201d from which God rescues the righteous (Ps. 9:14; cf. Isa. 60:18; Hosea 2:17).
\n8. and [you have see]n(?) our affliction Israel\u2019s liberation from Egypt was initiated by God\u2019s vision of its plight; therefore the afflicted ones asked for salvation by drawing his attention to their misery (Exod. 3:7; Deut. 26:7; 1 Sam. 1:11; Ps. 9:14).
\nYou, God of righteousness, have acted for the sake of your name Combination of biblical phrases suggesting that God reveals himself as righteous by vindicating the oppressed of his people (cf. Ezek. 20:9; Ps. 4:2; 106:8).
\n10. You have performed for us wonder In Isaiah, God\u2019s extraordinary actions are to baffle his people (Isa. 29:14). Here, they are probably interpreted as totally positive mighty deeds that ultimately benefit the current generation of faithful with whom a sectarian group can easily identify (note the insistent repetition of \u201cfor us\u201d in this passage).
\nSince long ago, there has been nothing similar A way to underscore the unique character of the final engagement, by analogy with the time of tribulation that led to it and with the past victory of Joshua at Gibeon (1QM 1:12; cf. Josh. 10:14).
\n12. Now the day is hastening Another allusion to the Gibeon episode is likely, but there is no clear indication that God was asked to make the sun stand still up to the annihilation of the enemy, as suggested by Yadin (Josh. 10:13).
\n13. Yours is the might, in your hand is the battle These declarations, based on biblical precedents, are variations on the prayer at the camp (cf. 1 Sam. 17:47; 1 Chron. 29:11; 1QM 11:1\u20134).
\n15. the d]ay(?) of all da[ys(?) This phrase, which would fit the topic of this section, is reconstructed on the basis of frag. 3, tentatively inserted here by Puech, who also suggests the reconstruction of the end of the previous line.
\n19:1\u20138 See the notes on 1QM 12:7\u201316 for the explanation of the biblical intertextuality of this passage.
\n1. our majestic one Heb. \u2019adirenu is close to \u201cthe LORD\u201d (\u2018adonai) found in 12:8. If it is not a mistake, this could be an allusion to the psalmist\u2019s portrayal of God as \u201cresplendent, glorious (\u2018adir), on the mountains of prey\u201d (Ps. 76:5).
\n19:9\u201320:? After their victory, the troops rest at night within the camp. In the morning, they gather for a prayer of praise on the battlefield, where their enemies were slain. The instructions for this gathering are partially preserved (19:9\u201313). The prayer itself is lost, as is the remainder of the text. The conclusion of the scroll is unknown, but it extended at least until col. 20, from which a few letters have been recovered. It may have described the return of the victorious troops to Jerusalem for a joyful celebration of thanksgiving (cf. 3:11) or other episodes such as the trial and execution of the king of the Kittim by the Prince of the Congregation, mentioned in another war text, the Sefer ha-Milhamah (4Q285 frag. 7).
\n19:9 The beginning of the text is restored after 4Q492 Mb frag. 1:8b: \u201cThen they shall gather (to) the camp, on night [\u2026].\u201d
\n13 A few words of the prayer are found in 4Q492 Mb frag. 1:13: \u201c[\u2026] to God (the) Most High [\u2026].\u201d<\/p>\n
New Jerusalem<\/p>\n
Joseph L. Angel<\/p>\n
New Jerusalem is a partially preserved visionary work from the Dead Sea Scrolls collection that describes the architectural plans for an eschatological Jerusalem of enormous size and awesome beauty. The textual remains of the document are mostly concerned with the precise measurements of the city\u2019s structures, including its walls, towers, and gates\u2014and within, its blocks of houses and rows of streets. Some of the fragments mention a new Temple in the midst of the city, as well as the Temple\u2019s vessels, offerings, and rituals. In addition, one mysterious portion of the document mentions a series of powerful kingdoms, as well as Israel\u2019s traditionally hostile neighbors\u2014Edom, Moab, and the children of Ammon\u2014the \u201cland of Babylon,\u201d and the maltreatment of \u201cyour descendants.\u201d This section may speak of Israel\u2019s final battle against the nations and appears to underscore the eschatological framework of the entire composition. From the full collection of fragments it is clear that the original document contained much additional material relating to the plans of the city, but the remains are too sparse to reconstruct the original contents and length of the text with certainty.
\nModeled on the literary scheme of Ezek. 40\u201348, the composition is conceived as a sort of tour, in which an anonymous, presumably otherworldly guide leads a (probably) human seer through the utopian city and temple. Most of the text is presented as the seer\u2019s first-person account of his visions. The presence in the composition of a revelation of a transcendent end-time reality via an otherworldly mediator, as well as the repeated use of visionary terminology (\u201che led me,\u201d \u201che showed me,\u201d \u201cI saw,\u201d etc.), suggests that New Jerusalem may be classified as an apocalypse.<\/p>\n
Authorship and History<\/p>\n
Although nothing in the preserved portions of New Jerusalem rules out the possibility of sectarian authorship, several pieces of evidence suggest that it is not a literary product of the Qumran community. First, New Jerusalem does not contain any of the specifically sectarian terminology or doctrine of the Qumran community. Second, it is written in Aramaic, not Hebrew. In general, Aramaic texts in the Scrolls collection do not contain distinctly sectarian ideas and are often considered by scholars as originating outside of Qumran. Third, certain passages seem to display a pan-Israel rather than a narrowly sectarian perspective (4Q554 2 iii; 11Q18 23 ii 7; 27 1).
\nNew Jerusalem was unknown prior to its discovery in the Dead Sea region several decades ago. Seven extremely fragmentary copies, all in Aramaic, were recovered from 5 of the 11 caves at Qumran (1Q32, 2Q24, 4Q554, 4Q554a, 4Q555, 5Q15, and 11Q18). According to paleographic analysis, all of these manuscripts were copied in the Herodian period (ca. 50 BCE\u201450 CE). However, the date of composition cannot be determined with precision. According to some scholars, analysis of the language used and the absence of pro- or anti-Maccabean ideology supports a date before the middle of the 2nd century BCE. The mention of specific Hellenistic architectural features, such as towers with spiral staircases, implies a date no earlier than the 3rd century BCE. The composition of New Jerusalem in Palestinian Aramaic points to its provenance in the Land of Israel.
\nIt is generally held that New Jerusalem\u2019s ideal vision implies a certain dissatisfaction with the historic Jerusalem Temple establishment. However, the extent and nature of this dissatisfaction is difficult to determine. The document\u2019s focus on the Temple and its rituals, as well as the location of the gate of Levi in the center of the eastern wall of the city, may be seen as indications of the text\u2019s provenance in levitical-priestly circles.
\nAlthough the work shares themes and details with the Temple Scroll (11QTa), the two works display no literary or programmatic relationship. The apparent similarity in the two works between the names of the city and Temple gates may stem from dependence on a common tradition (see comment on 1:11\u20132:10 below).<\/p>\n
Significance<\/p>\n
Time and again, the Hebrew Bible and other ancient Jewish writings depict the restored holy city of the future. The origins of this theme are largely rooted in the deep-seated desire for restoration of the Jewish people\u2019s fortunes after the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BCE. The theme persisted in the Second Temple period due to widespread frustration with the less than ideal realities of the Second Temple establishment. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Jewish apocalypses continued to use the motif, as did Rabbinic literature (e.g., B. BB 75b; Eikhah Rab. 1:2). It appears in Christian tradition as well, where anticipation of the new city becomes the pinnacle of a popular strand of eschatological speculation (Rev. 21\u201322). New Jerusalem should be understood within the framework of this complex of traditions.
\nThere are many variations in the expectations for a new Jerusalem, and no tidy line of development links them in a thematic or chronological chain. Literary depictions differ with respect to the anticipated city\u2019s size, shape, and contents; its heavenly or earthly location; and the nature of the time, events, and figures associated with its appearance. Moreover, while some texts expect a restored new Jerusalem bearing some resemblance to the topography and physical features of the historical city, others portray a radically new ideal city of gigantic proportions. The vision of New Jerusalem stands closest to the expectations found in the latter group of texts, which themselves vary widely in detail.
\nAlthough the author closely followed Ezek. 40\u201348, he also modified this material extensively. For example, the utopian city of Ezekiel is a perfect square of 4500 cubits (about 2.3 km) on each side. According to New Jerusalem it is a rectangle measuring 100 by 140 stadia (ca. 21 \u00d7 30 km). While in Ezekiel the measuring rod is six cubits, in New Jerusalem it is seven. Moreover, the location of Ezekiel\u2019s city gates named after the 12 tribes of Israel (48:31\u201334) is adjusted in New Jerusalem, as are the order of the names and the starting point of the description. Since the author wrote in Aramaic, it is clear that he was not attempting to rewrite or replace his Hebrew biblical source. The motives behind such modifications are not entirely clear and continue to provoke scholarly speculation and debate.<\/p>\n
GUIDE TO READING<\/p>\n
The tour depicted in New Jerusalem proceeds from the outside in. It moves from the city walls and its gates to the city blocks, streets, and houses. This conclusion follows from the lengthy text that may be reconstructed by the overlapping fragments of 2Q24, 4Q554, 4Q554a, and 5Q15. From the remains of 11Q18, it appears that the tour continues with the exterior, and finally, the interior of the Temple. However, the fragments of this manuscript cannot be arranged in precise order.
\nThe placement of the eschatological material preserved in 4Q554 2 iii has been the subject of controversy. If the join suggested in Palestine Archaeological Museum photograph 43.589, which appears to be correct, is accepted, the eschatological material would appear in the narrative awkwardly wedged between the description of the new city and the portrayal of the Temple. However, it should be born in mind that the join may be incorrect, and it is possible that the eschatological material belongs elsewhere, like in the introduction or at the very end of the composition.
\nThe following presentation of New Jerusalem does not include many of the smaller and less significant fragments. In cases of overlaps, the text and line numbers of the Cave 4 manuscripts take precedence over those of the other material, and the text and line numbers of 2Q24 4 take precedence over those of 11Q18 20. The inconsistent use of Arabic numerals and spelled-out numbers reflects the respective appearance of ciphers and spelled-out numbers as they appear in the manuscripts.<\/p>\n
SUGGESTED READING<\/p>\n
Antonissen, Hugo. \u201cSome Aspects of New Jerusalem.\u201d In Flores Florentino: Dead Sea Scrolls and Other Early Jewish Studies in Honour of Florentino Garc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez, edited by A. Hilhorst, E. Puech, and E. J. C. Tigchelaar, 239\u201355. Journal for the Study of Judaism Supplement Series 122. Leiden: Brill, 2007.
\nBroshi, Magen. \u201cVisionary Architecture and Town Planning in the Dead Sea Scrolls.\u201d In Time to Prepare the Way in the Wilderness, edited by D. Dimant and L. Schiffman, 9\u201322. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 16. Leiden: Brill, 1995.
\nChyutin, Michael. The New Jerusalem Scroll: A Comprehensive Reconstruction. Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha: Supplement Series 25. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997.
\nDiTommaso, Lorenzo. The Dead Sea New Jerusalem Text: Contents and Contexts. Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 110. T\u00fcbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005.
\nFrey, J\u00f6rg. \u201cThe New Jerusalem Text in Its Historical and Traditio-Historical Context.\u201d In The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years after Their Discovery: Proceedings of the Jerusalem Congress, July 1997, edited by L. Schiffman, E. Tov, and J. VanderKam, 800\u201316. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, Israel Museum, 2000.
\nGarc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez, Florentino. \u201cThe Temple Scroll and the New Jerusalem.\u201d In The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, edited by J. VanderKam and P. Flint, 2:431\u201360. Leiden: Brill, 1999.
\nGarc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez, Florentino, E. J. C. Tigchelaar, and A. S. van der Woude. \u201c11QNew Jerusalem ar.\u201d In Manuscripts from Qumran Cave 11.II: 11Q2\u201318, 11Q20\u201330, 305\u201355. Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 23. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
\nPuech, \u00c9mile. \u201cThe Names of the Gates of the New Jerusalem (4Q554).\u201d In Emanuel: Studies in the Hebrew Bible, Septuagint and Dead Sea Scrolls in Honor of Emanuel Tov, edited by S. Paul et al., 379\u201392. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 94. Leiden: Brill, 2003.
\nSchiffman, Lawrence. \u201cJerusalem in the Dead Sea Scrolls.\u201d In The Centrality of Jerusalem: Historical Perspectives, edited by M. Poorthuis and Ch. Safrai, 73\u201388. Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1996.
\nTigchelaar, Eibert. \u201cThe Imaginal Context of the Visionary of the Aramaic New Jerusalem.\u201d In Flores Florentino: Dead Sea Scrolls and Other Early Jewish Studies in Honour of Florentino Garc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez, edited by A. Hilhorst, E. Puech, and E. J. C. Tigchelaar, 257\u201370. Journal for the Study of Judaism: Supplement Series 122. Leiden: Brill, 2007.<\/p>\n
COMMENTARY<\/p>\n
4Q554 1:9\u2013ii 10<\/p>\n
1:9\u201310 The referent in these lacunal lines is lost. Given the description of the city walls and gates in the following lines, one might surmise that these words allude to those or associated structures.
\n1:11\u20132:10 This section likely derives from the first columns of the composition and describes the city walls and its 12 gates. While only 5 of the 12 gate names are preserved in the fragment, parallel lists of gates, as well as the repetitive and formulaic nature of the text, allow for fairly confident reconstruction. As in Ezek. 48:31\u201334, there are three gates facing each direction, and each gate is named for one of the 12 children of Jacob. However, New Jerusalem presents a modified sequence of names. The number and names of the gates symbolize the future ingathering of God\u2019s Chosen People. This theme of national restoration is a fundamental concern in Jewish eschatological expectation, and it finds expression in a wide array of ancient Jewish writings. Here, the restored nation is apparently envisioned as dwelling peacefully and securely within the new city, which is seen as the nerve center of the country. The motif of the 12-gate plan of the utopian new Jerusalem appears in later Jewish tradition as well.
\n1:11. from] the East [corner] that is to the North By beginning its description from the north side of the east wall, New Jerusalem coincides with 11QT and 4Q365a. However, it differs from Ezek. 48:31, which commences with the gates of the north wall. New Jerusalem, like these other three texts, proceeds in a clockwise direction.
\n1:12. stadia Aramaic resin, singular res; a metrological term of Persian origin. The word never occurs in the Bible. It appears only rarely in the Dead Sea Scrolls, but frequently in Rabbinic literature (as sing. ris, plur. risin). The measure of a ris is clarified in M. Yoma 6:4, which expresses the equivalence 30 ris = 4 miles, corresponding to one Persian parasang. However, the precise measurement of a res in New Jerusalem is never explicitly stated. A reasonable estimate has been offered by Florentino Garc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez. Based on internal evidence, he calculates that 1 res = 63 rods = 441 cubits (about 214 meters).
\n1:12\u20132:10. thirty-five stadia \u2026 25 stadia The new city\u2019s shape and dimensions may be determined by these figures. Each wall is divided into four equidistant segments. On the east and west sides, these segments are 35 stadia, while on the south and north sides they measure 25 stadia. This yields a rectangle of 140 by 100 stadia (ca. 630 square km). The area of this city would be fantastically enormous, and\u2014according to Magen Broshi\u2019s calculations\u2014larger than the entire West Bank. The gigantic dimensions of New Jerusalem\u2019s city accord with parallel utopian expectations in ancient Jewish literature. However, the city\u2019s precise size and shape are not matched in any known text.
\n1:16. he measured In the Prophets, the act of measuring appears several times in connection with portraits of a reconstructed Jerusalem (Ezek. 40\u201348; Jer. 31:37\u201339; Zech. 1:16; 2:5\u20136). In Ezekiel 40\u201348, a \u201cman\u201d with an otherworldly appearance measures Temple and city architecture in front of Ezekiel (cf. Rev. 21:15\u201317). Considering New Jerusalem\u2019s dependence on this text, many scholars maintain that the surveyor here is likely an angelic being. The revelation of architectural dimensions by a supernatural figure serves as a guarantee of accuracy, authenticity, and perhaps most important, the eventual fulfillment of the vision on earth.
\n1:22. from this corner he measured up to The last words of column 1. The preserved text picks up again at the end of line 5 of column 2.<\/p>\n
4Q554 1 ii 11\u201322 (2Q24 i; 5Q15 1 i 1\u20137)<\/p>\n
2:11. And he led me to the interior of the city Cf. for example, Ezek. 40:28, where Ezekiel reports of his heavenly guide, \u201cHe now took me into the inner forecourt.\u201d Some scholars accordingly identify the seer here with Ezekiel, but this stretches the evidence beyond its capacity.
\n2:12. rods Aramaic qanin, singular qaneh. In the biblical system of measurement, including Ezek. 40\u201348, one qaneh is equal to six cubits. New Jerusalem departs from this pattern, making one rod equal to seven cubits.
\ncubits Aramaic amin, singular amah. A frequently used metrological term in the Bible, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Rabbinic literature. Apparently, ancient Judaism employed two different types of cubit, the long (or royal) cubit (.52 m) and the short (or common) cubit (.45 m). Unlike Ezekiel (40:5), the author does not indicate which of these he uses. Averaging the lengths of the short and long cubits, a 7-cubit rod would measure about 3.4 meters.
\n2:12\u201313. 350 cubits (plus) 7 on each side That is, 357 square cubits (about 173 square meters).
\n2:13. peristyle Aramaic shebiq, literally, a space \u201cleft open\u201d; that is, a wide gallery, or sidewalk separating the house blocks from the street.
\n2:14\u201315. between one block and another, (ran) a street This arrangement divides the city into a grid of identical squares, much like a chessboard. The pattern of the city appears to be influenced by the orthogonal Hellenistic town planning introduced by Hippodamus of Miletus. It may also have been deduced from the square shape and regularly spaced gates of Ezekiel\u2019s new city.
\n2:15\u201321. the great streets \u2026 9]2 [cubits] In addition to the smaller streets encompassing the blocks, the city has a network of six main thoroughfares. Three run east-west and three run north-south.
\n2:22\u20133:1. paved with white stone [\u2026 marble and jasper] The image of beautiful and expensive stones as the building material for the new Jerusalem appears later on in the document (4Q554 2 ii 15; cf. 2Q24), as well as elsewhere in Jewish and Christian tradition (Tob. 13:16; Rev. 21:11, 18\u201321; cf. 1 En. 90:28\u201329; B. BB 75a). It derives from Isa. 54:11\u201312, \u201cI will lay carbuncles as your building stones \/ And make your foundations of sapphires. \/ I will make your battlements of rubies, \/ Your gates of precious stones, \/ The whole encircling wall of gems.\u201d Apparently, the function of such imagery is to communicate the glorious, blissful, and prosperous nature of the city.<\/p>\n
4Q554 1 iii; 4Q554 a 1\u20132 (5Q15 1 i\u2013ii)<\/p>\n
3:2. posterns Small gates carved into the walls of the city at the points where the city streets come to an end. The reconstruction of the number of posterns ([4]80) is justified by the dimensions of the city (140 + 140 + 100 + 100 = 480 stadia) and, as noted below, by the number of towers mentioned in 4Q554 2 ii 15\u201316.
\n3:3. gate Since it is two rods in length, it must be a postern, and not one of the 12 large city gates, which measure three rods.
\n3:4\u201311 A description, from inside the city, of the 12 previously mentioned large city gates, their towers, and staircases.
\n3:11\u20134Q554a line 2 This section describes the gate complex allowing access to a typical block of houses.
\n3:20. spiral staircase A characteristically Hellenistic architectural feature, popular among the Nabataeans. Similar designs are described in 11QT (30:3\u201331:9; 42:7\u20139) and M. Mid. 4:5.<\/p>\n
4Q554a<\/p>\n
3\u20134. houses \u2026 gate This description of a quarter-perimeter of a city block indicates that an entire square block was comprised of sixty houses and four gates. From the present state of the text, it seems that the blocks had no other buildings and that the houses surrounded a large empty inner court.
\n4\u20136 In contrast with the incredible dimensions of the city, the size of the two-story houses is realistic.
\n7. houses for dining (?); a hall (?) The text is obscure. This room\u2019s purpose remains uncertain.
\n8. twenty-two beds The large number of beds per house reveals a city population in the hundreds of thousands. Were the houses and their dormitories intended for large families? Religious pilgrims? Troops of an eschatological army?
\nlattice windows Aramaic kavin \u2018atiman. Equivalent to the Hebrew expression used for the Temple windows in Ezek. 40:16 (and 41:16), halonot \u2018atumot. Their exact function is unclear.
\n9\u201310 The dimensions of the windows are mostly lost.
\n10. platforms May refer to the flat roofs of the houses.<\/p>\n
5Q15 Fragment 2<\/p>\n
Further lacunal description of the city\u2019s intramural structures.<\/p>\n
4Q554 Fragment 2<\/p>\n
2:13\u201314. its foundation \u2026 forty-nine The text returns to the dimensions of the city wall. The height (49 cubits) is identical to that of the Temple\u2019s outer courtyard wall in 11QT 40:9\u201310. But the thickness of the latter wall is only 7 cubits, not 14. Compared to the fantastic length of the wall, the numbers here are quite realistic.
\n2:15. electrum \u2026 gold For Jewish and Christian parallels, see the comment on 4Q554 1 2:22\u20133:1. Comparable descriptions are known from non-Jewish and-Christian sources as well. See, for example, Lucian\u2019s account of a utopian city built of gold, with emerald walls and seven cinnamon gates (Ver. hist. 2.11).
\n2:15\u201316. its towers (are) one thousand [four-hund]red and [th]irty-two The reconstruction of this number, accepted by most scholars, has been justified with the following argument. The city wall has a perimeter of 480 stadia; each stretch of 1 stadion is marked by a postern (see comment on 4Q554 1 iii 2 above). The words \u201cthree by three\u201d at 4Q554 2 ii 22 indicate that each postern possessed a 3- tower complex. Multiplying 480 posterns by 3 towers yields 1440 towers. Since the 12 main gates have 2 rather than 3 towers, 12 towers must be subtracted, yielding 1428 towers. Finally, 1 tower for each of the 4 corners of the city may be added, leading to a total of 1432 towers.<\/p>\n
4Q554 Fragment 4<\/p>\n
a spring Alternatively, a well. Only two whole words remain on this tiny fragment, and the context is unknown. However, the image of a water source flowing in the city is a common element in new Jerusalem speculation symbolizing life, healing, and abundance. The position of this fragment is uncertain. It might be placed next to 11Q18 10 i, which refers to \u201cliving water\u201d in the context of a description of the new Temple. But no other Cave 4 material discusses the Temple, so it might better be placed among other Cave 4 fragments describing the city.<\/p>\n
4Q554 Fragment 2<\/p>\n
3:15\u201318. after it \u2026 children of Ammon A roster of Israel\u2019s eschatological enemies, who will fight and ultimately be defeated in the great war of the end-time. In the first column of War Scroll (1QM), the Kittim, Edom, Moab, and Ammon, among others, are mentioned in a list of enemies who will participate in the eschatological battle. There, the army of the Sons of Light assembles and camps in the mysterious \u201cwilderness of Jerusalem.\u201d The present text does not define the relationship between the eschatological events and the existence of the new Jerusalem, but the vision of the city and its Temple should be understood in an eschatological context. The association of a great end-time war with a description of the new city appears also in Ezekiel, where the war of Gog and Magog (chapters 38\u201339) directly precedes the vision of chapters 40\u201348.
\n3:16. Kittim From the Phoenician kt or kty, referring to the ancient town of Citium in southeast Cyprus. In the Bible, the Hebrew term denotes one of the sons of Javan (Gen. 10:4; 1 Chron. 1:7), or the Mediterranean islands to the west (Jer. 2:10; Ezek. 27:6). In late Second Temple period literature, it often designates Greeks or Romans (see, e.g., Dan. 11:30; 1 Macc 1:1; 8:5; Jub. 24:28\u201329). In the works authored by the Dead Sea sect, it often refers to the Romans, who were considered the chief enemies of the Sons of Light.
\n3:18. Edom and Moab and the children of Ammon Traditional biblical enemies of Israel. The order and phrasing is paralleled in 1QM 1:1, where they appear as participants in the eschatological war, and in biblical verses such as Jer. 25:21 and Isa. 11:14. The latter verse predicts that the restored people of God will \u201cplunder the peoples of the east; \/ Edom and Moab shall be subject to them \/ And the children of Ammon shall obey them.\u201d Isaiah 11 served as a classic messianic text in Second Temple Judaism, and Rabbinic midrash views Isa. 11:14 as referring to the defeat of these three foes of Israel in the Messianic Age.
\n3:19. Babylon May be counted as another eschatological enemy; Babylon is a symbol of foreign and especially Roman oppression in ancient Jewish and Christian literature.
\n3:20. evil \u2026 until the time when A turning point in the eschatological conflict, when Israel would gain the upper hand against its oppressors. The notion of a reversal of Israel\u2019s fate after a predetermined period of suffering is a characteristic theme of Jewish apocalyptic literature.<\/p>\n
11Q18<\/p>\n
This manuscript contains some architectural description, but mostly deals with the new Temple and its religious rituals and accoutrements. The original sequence of the fragments cannot be determined.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 6<\/p>\n
1. two hundred and eighty cub[its This figure is unparalleled in any of the other New Jerusalem manuscripts, but it corresponds to Yigael Yadin\u2019s calculation of the inner Temple court\u2019s interior dimension in 11QT col. 36 and 4Q365a.
\n2. blocks That is, the city blocks of houses.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 7<\/p>\n
1\u20132. on all \u2026 who will eat If the context is the new Temple, this fragment may refer to the descendants of Aaron and their portions of sanctified food (cf. 11Q18 20; 2Q24 4).<\/p>\n
2Q24 Fragment 3<\/p>\n
2. door of sapph[ire Sapphire is mentioned above as one of the materials of the city wall. See the comment above on 4Q554 2 ii 15, electrum \u2026 gold.
\n3. the t[able] which is before [the LORD Ezekiel 41:22 uses the same language (but in Hebrew) to refer to the table for the presentation of showbread (NJPS \u201cbread of display\u201d; cf. Exod. 25:23\u201330; Lev. 24:5\u20139). The reconstruction is supported by the concern for the table and showbread elsewhere in the text (11Q18 8; 20 = 2Q24 4 9\u201316).
\n4. the wall May refer to the table of the showbread. See Ezek. 41:22, which notes that this table has wooden \u201cwalls\u201d (cf. Tg. Ps.-J. to Ezek. 41:22, which also uses the Aramaic root k-t-l).<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 8<\/p>\n
1\u20133 A description of the table for the showbread. Cf. Exod. 25:23\u201330; Ezek. 41:22.
\n2. one cubit If referring to the width of the table, the measurement follows that of Exod. 25:23.
\nthe twel[ve Likely the number of loaves of bread, which symbolize the 12 tribes of Israel. See Lev. 24:5.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 9<\/p>\n
A description of a pillared structure, probably associated with the inner court of the Temple.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 10<\/p>\n
1:1\u20137 The mention of water in this context brings to mind the laver of Exod. 30:18, which is to be made of copper (cf. 1 Kings 7:38). In 11QT, the words \u201cwater\u201d and \u201cgold\u201d appear in a description of the house of the laver located in the inner court of the Temple (32:10\u201314).
\n1:1. living water This phrase appears in connection with the new city in Zech. 14:8 and Rev. 21:6; 22:1. Cf. the comment on 4Q554 frag. 4 above.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 12<\/p>\n
1:1. sieves For separating grain from excess debris. Cf. M. Men. 6:7, 10:4, where sieves are used to sift the grains for the flour of the Omer.<\/p>\n
2Q24 Fragment 8<\/p>\n
2. fou[rth] row Of a sacrificial altar? Cf. the altar of Ezek. 43:13\u201317, which apparently consists of four tiers.
\n3. walls, whi[te] stone See above, 4Q554 1 ii 22, and the comment on 2:22\u20133:1.
\n5. they Refers to the priests.
\nwith it upon [it That is, with (the application of) sacrificial blood upon the altar. In Ezek. 43:20, the altar itself is purified through the application of blood (cf. Exod. 29:36\u201337; Lev. 16:18\u201319).
\n6. Every day Cf. the instructions for the weeklong consecration of the altar given in Ezek. 43:25: \u201cEvery day, for seven days, you shall present a goat of sin offering, as well as a bull of the herd and a ram of the flock.\u201d<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 13<\/p>\n
1. by its four legs Perhaps referring to the binding of the bull prior to its slaughter. Such a practice is alluded to in 2 En. 59:4, where its purpose is clearly to minimize the suffering of the animal by preventing movement.
\n2. wa]shed its legs and its intestines For this procedure, see Lev. 1:9, 13.
\nsalted all of it Referring to the grain offering, Lev. 2:13 commands that \u201cwith all your offerings you must offer salt.\u201d Rabbinic tradition applies the requirement to animal sacrifices as well.
\n3. fine sifted flour A meal offering to accompany the animal sacrifice. See Ezek. 46:14\u201315; Lev. 1\u20133; Num. 15:4\u201313. Cf. 2Q24 4 4 below.
\n5. seah A unit of capacity, approximately 12 liters. Here, it measures the quantity of the wine libation.
\npoured it into [the] troughs The wine libation. The pouring of the wine into troughs accords with Rabbinic halakhah (T. Suk. 3.14; cf. M. Suk. 4:9) and differs from that of 11QT and Jubilees, according to which the wine is poured directly over the fire of the altar.<\/p>\n
11Q18 14 ii<\/p>\n
An account of seven decorated crowns modeled after plants that form part of the high priest\u2019s garments. Cf. Josephus\u2019s detailed botanical description of the high priest\u2019s crown (Ant. 3.172\u201377).<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 15<\/p>\n
2\u20133 An account of the changing of the priestly courses (mishmarot), the rotation of priestly families that worked in the Temple on a weekly basis. See 1 Chron. 24:7\u201319.
\n4. twenty-six Perhaps the number of annual priestly rotations. This figure deviates from the 24 family rotation list mentioned in 1 Chron. 24:7\u201319 and Josephus (Ant. 7.365). The number 26 in New Jerusalem might coincide with the sectarian calendar, which divided a year into a perfect 52 weeks. Dividing 52 by 26 yields 2 weeks per priestly family per year (cf. 1QM 2:2).<\/p>\n
11Q18 16 ii + 17 i<\/p>\n
3\u20134. n[o] per[son] shall enter it Perhaps a prohibition against entering the Temple. Cf. Deut. 23:3\u20134; 2 Sam. 5:8; 11QT 45:7\u201318.<\/p>\n
11Q18 17 ii<\/p>\n
Description of an unidentifiable structure. The figure of at least 100 rods mentioned in line 5 indicates that the referent is too large to be part of the Temple complex.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 18<\/p>\n
1\u20132. cups \u2026 bowls \u2026 cauldrons These may be utensils for the kitchen area of the Temple complex. Cf. Ezek. 46:19\u201324; 11QT 37:13\u201314.
\n3. thirty-two thousand and nine hundred [\u2026] Could refer to the total number of vessels; cf. 1 Kings 7:47; Ezra 1:11.
\n6. rooms of joy Garc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez, Tigchelaar, and van der Woude note that Aram. \u201croom of joy\u201d is a designation for a part of the Hellenistic-period temple in Hatra. They also mention Milik\u2019s suggestion that the obscure phrase refers to an area used for communal religious feasts. Cf. the \u201csitting places\u201d in 11QT 37:8.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 19<\/p>\n
2. on the seventh day, and on the first of the m[onth Perhaps alluding to rituals to be performed on the Sabbath and Rosh Hodesh.
\n3. [the] great glory Likely an epithet for God. Cf. the Greek equivalent in 1 En. 14:20, 104:1; T. Levi 3:4. See also Mek. d\u2019Rashbi on Exod. 20:15 (Tractate Bahodesh).
\n4. for all ages Perhaps an allusion to God\u2019s permanent presence in the new Temple.
\n5\u20136. writ[ing \u2026 writing Writings containing apocalyptic revelations and a concern for their transmission are commonly mentioned in works of the period.<\/p>\n
2Q24 Fragment 4 (11Q18 Fragment 20)<\/p>\n
1. their flesh Perhaps a reference to cleansing the flesh with water. A state of ritual purity was required in order to partake in sanctified foods (see Lev. 22:1\u20139; 1 Sam. 21:5\u20136; cf. 1QS 5:13\u201314).
\n3. they [shall] go into the Temple Perhaps referring to the priests; cf. Ezek. 42:14; 44:16.
\n4. eight seahs The approximate amount of flour necessary to make the 12 loaves of showbread.
\n5. the bread The showbread (NJPS \u201cbread of display\u201d).
\n6. [the] alt[ar May refer to the table for the showbread; in Ezek. 41:21\u201322, this piece of furniture is called \u201csomething resembling a wooden altar.\u201d
\n8. two rows Cf. Lev. 24:6; Josephus, Ant. 3.255\u201356.
\nevery seventh day Each Sabbath the showbread was to be changed. See Lev. 24:8; Josephus, Ant. 3.255\u201356; M. Men. 11:7.
\nbefore God Cf. Exod. 25:30; Ezek. 41:22; M. Men. 11:7.
\na memor[ial offering Arc., dukhrana. Cf. Lev. 24:7, where the Hebrew word for memorial offering, azkara, is associated with the showbread.
\n9. to the right That is, to the south.
\n10\u201311. it shall be divided \u2026 distributed Cf. the sharing of the loaves by the priests in Josephus, Ant. 3.255\u201356 and M. Men. 11:7.
\n11. eighty-four pr[iests If they shared 12 loaves, each loaf was divided into seven parts. In talmudic tradition, the loaves are divided between the incoming and outgoing priestly courses (B. Suk. 56a\u2013b).
\n13. fourteen priests This might refer to a group of 12 priests in addition to the high priest and his deputy that are mentioned below in lines 15\u201316. Cf. 1QM 2:1\u20132. Alternatively, perhaps the number derives from the addition of 7 outgoing priests (one for each day of the week; cf. T. Ta\u2019an. 2:2) to 7 incoming priests, who are to share the loaves.
\n14\u201315. two (pieces) of bread \u2026 two (pieces) of bread Refers to showbread, not the two loaves associated with the Festival of Firstfruits, or Shavuot (Lev. 23:17; cf. M. Men. 11:1).
\n14. incense Cf. Lev. 24:7.
\n16. deputy Aram., tinyaneh, literally \u201chis (the high priest\u2019s) second (in command).\u201d For second ranking priestly figures, cf. Jer. 52:24; 2 Kings 23:4; 1QM 2:2; 19:11.
\n18. ram of the flock Cf. the meal of the priestly ordination ceremony, where both ram\u2019s meat and bread are served (Exod. 29:32; Lev. 8:31).
\n19. sat down To eat. Cf. Ezek. 44:3. See also the \u201csitting places\u201d of 11QT 37:8\u201312.<\/p>\n
4Q555 Fragment 3<\/p>\n
3. on the table. And on the seventh day Possibly another reference to the weekly ritual of the showbread.<\/p>\n
4Q555 Fragment 2<\/p>\n
2. with anointing oil Cf. Exod 29:7; Lev. 8:2.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 22<\/p>\n
1\u20133 Perhaps an account of the sin offering described in Lev. 4 or Exod. 29:10\u201314.
\n5. a smell Probably a part of the common biblical phrase \u201cpleasing odor,\u201d referring to the smell given off by the sacrifices. See, for example, Num. 15.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 24<\/p>\n
1. the [su]nset Perhaps pertaining to the time of ritual purity. See Lev. 22:7; Num. 19:7; 11QT 45:9\u201310; 49:19\u201329; 51:2\u20135; 4QMMT B 11, 15. This may be the case in 11Q18 26 3; 27 4; and 28 3 as well.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 28<\/p>\n
2. seven Could refer to the number of days in the Feast of Unleavened Bread, or the number of lambs offered on each day of the festival. Cf. Num. 28:17, 19, 21.
\n5. tw[o] bulls Perhaps meaning those to be offered on the Feast of Unleavened Bread. Cf. Num. 28:19; 11QT 17:13.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 30<\/p>\n
2. the Levites sacrifice Cf. 11QT 22:4, where the Levites are to slaughter the sacrifices of the New Oil festival. The attribution of this function to the Levites may be viewed as a polemic against contemporary Temple practice, according to which only priests performed the slaughtering.<\/p>\n
11Q18 Fragment 31<\/p>\n
2:2\u20136. throne \u2026 throne Possibly the throne of God, located in the innermost sanctuary (devir). Accounts of the divine throne occur frequently in apocalyptic literature, often at the climax of the vision. In later Jewish tradition, speculation about God\u2019s throne becomes an important aspect of Merkabah mysticism (see, e.g., Ma\u2019aseh Merkabah, Hekhalot Rabbati).<\/p>\n
Appendix 1<\/p>\n
Books of the Bible: The Traditional Hebrew (Masoretic Text) and the Septuagint<\/p>\n
HEBREW BIBLE<\/p>\n
Genesis
\nExodus
\nLeviticus
\nNumbers
\nDeuteronomy
\nJoshua
\nJudges
\n1 Samuel
\n2 Samuel
\n1 Kings
\n2 Kings
\nIsaiah
\nJeremiah
\nEzekiel
\nHosea
\nJoel
\nAmos
\nObadiah
\nJonah
\nMicah
\nNahum
\nHabakkuk
\nZephaniah
\nHaggai
\nZechariah
\nMalachi
\nPsalms
\nProverbs
\nJob
\nSong of Songs
\nRuth
\nLamentations
\nEcclesiastes
\nEsther
\nDaniel
\nEzra
\nNehemiah
\n1 Chronicles
\n2 Chronicles<\/p>\n
SEPTUAGINT<\/p>\n
Genesis
\nExodus
\nLeviticus
\nNumbers
\nDeuteronomy
\nJoshua
\nJudges
\nRuth
\n1 Kings
\n2 Kings
\n3 Kings
\n4 Kings
\n1 Chronicles
\n2 Chronicles
\n1 Esdras
\n2 Esdras
\nEsther, with Additions
\nJudith
\nTobit
\n1 Maccabees
\n2 Maccabees
\n3 Maccabees
\n4 Maccabees
\nPsalms
\nPrayer of Manasseh
\nProverbs
\nEcclesiastes
\nSong of Songs
\nJob
\nWisdom of Solomon
\nSirach (Ecclesiasticus)
\nPsalms of Solomon
\nHosea
\nAmos
\nMicah
\nJoel
\nObadiah
\nJonah
\nNahum
\nHabakkuk
\nZephaniah
\nHaggai
\nZachariah
\nMalachi
\nIsaiah
\nJeremiah
\nBaruch
\nLamentations
\nLetter of Jeremiah
\nEzekiel
\nSusanna
\nAdditions to Daniel
\nBel and the Dragon<\/p>\n
Appendix 2<\/p>\n
Second Temple Literature<\/p>\n
WRITINGS OF PHILO<\/p>\n
On the Life of Abraham (De Abrahamo)
\nOn the Life of Joseph (De Iosepho)
\nOn the Life of Moses (De vita Mosis)
\nAgainst Flaccus (In Flaccum)
\nAllegorical Interpretation (Legum allegoriae)
\nHypothetica (Hypothetica)
\nOn Agriculture (De agricultura)
\nOn Curses (De exsecrationibus)
\nOn Dreams (De somniis)
\nOn Drunkenness (De ebrietate)
\nOn Flight and Finding (De fuga et inventione)
\nOn Giants (De gigantibus)
\nOn God (De Deo)
\nOn Planting (De platatione)
\nOn Providence (De providentia)
\nOn Rewards and Punishment (De praemiis et poenis)
\nOn Sobriety (De sobrietate)
\nOn the Change of Names (De mutatione nominum)
\nOn the Cherubim (De cherubim)
\nOn the Confusion of Tongues (De confusione lingarum)
\nOn the Contemplative Life (De vita contemplativa)
\nOn the Creation of the World (De opficio mundi)
\nOn the Decalogue (De decalogo)
\nOn the Embassy to Gaius (Legatio ad Gaium)
\nOn the Eternity of the World (De aeternutate mundi)
\nOn the Migration of Abraham (De migratione Abrahami)
\nOn the Posterity of Cain (De posteritate Caini)
\nOn the Preliminary Studies (De congressu eruditionis)
\nOn the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel (De sacrificiis Abelis et Caini)
\nOn the Special Laws (De specialibus legibus)
\nOn the Virtues (De viritibus)
\nQuestions and Answers on Exodus (Quaestiones et solutiones in Exodum)
\nQuestions and Answers on Genesis (Quaestiones et solutiones in Genesin)
\nThat Every Good Person Is Free (Quod omnis probus liber sit)
\nThat God Is Unchangeable (Quod Deus sit immutabilis) That the Worse Attacks the Better (Quod deterius potiori insidari)
\nWhether Animals Have Reason? (De animalibus)
\nWho Is the Heir? (Quis rerum divinarum heres)<\/p>\n
WRITINGS OF JOSEPHUS<\/p>\n
Jewish Antiquities (Antiquitates judaicae)
\nJewish War (Bellum judaicum)
\nAgainst Apion (Contro Apionem)
\nLife (Vita)<\/p>\n
APOCRYPHA<\/p>\n
1 Esdras
\n2 Esdras
\n1 Maccabees
\n2 Maccabees
\n3 Maccabees
\n4 Maccabees
\nAdditions to Daniel
\nPrayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Jews
\nThe Story of Susanna and the Elders
\nBel and the Dragon
\nAdditions to Esther
\n1 Baruch
\nWisdom of Ben Sira
\nJudith
\nLetter of Jeremiah
\nPrayer of Manasseh
\nPsalm 151
\nTobit
\nWisdom of Solomon<\/p>\n
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA<\/p>\n
1 Enoch
\n2 Baruch
\n2 Enoch
\n3 Baruch
\n3 Enoch
\n4 Baruch 4 Ezra
\n5 Maccabees
\nAhiqar
\nApocalypse of Abraham
\nApocalypse of Adam
\nApocalypse of Daniel
\nCoptic Apocalypse of Elijah
\nApocalypse of Ezekiel
\nApocalypse of Moses
\nApocalypse of Sedrach
\nApocalypse of Zephaniah
\nApocalypse of Zosimus
\nApocryphon of Ezekiel
\nAristeas Exegete
\nAristobulus
\nArtapanus
\nAscension of Isaiah
\nAssumption of Moses
\nBook of Noah
\nCave of Treasures
\nCleodeus Malchus
\nDemetrius the Chronographer
\nEldad and Modad
\nEupolemus
\nEzekiel the Tragedian
\nApocryphal Psalms
\nGreek Apocalypse of Ezra
\nHebrew Apocalypse of Elijah
\nHecataeus of Abdera
\nGreek Synagogal Prayers
\nHistory of Joseph
\nHistory of the Rechabites
\nJannes and Jambres
\nJoseph and Aseneth
\nJubilees
\nLadder of Jacob
\nThe Letter of Aristeas
\nLife of Adam and Eve
\nLives of the Prophets
\nMartyrdom of Isiah
\nSongs of Solomon
\nPhilo the Epic Poet
\nPrayer of Jacob
\nPrayer of Joseph
\nPrayer of Manasseh
\nPrayer of Moses
\nPsalms of Solomon
\nPseudo-Hecataeus
\nPseudo-Orpheus
\nPseudo-Philo, Book of Biblical Antiquities (Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum)
\nPseudo-Phocylides
\nPseudo-Eupolemus
\nQuestions of Ezra
\nRevelation of Ezra
\nSibylline Oracles
\nSyriac Menander
\nTestament of Abraham
\nTestament of Adam
\nTestament of Hezekiah
\nTestament of Isaac
\nTestament of Jacob
\nTestament of Job
\nTestament of Moses
\nTestament of Solomon
\nTestament of the Twelve Patriarchs
\nThe Lost Tribes
\nTheodotus
\nTreatise of Shem
\nVision of Ezra
\nVision of Isaiah<\/p>\n
PRIMARY DOCUMENTS OF THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS<\/p>\n
1QH Thanksgiving Hymns (Hodayot)
\n1QI Isaiah
\n1QpHab Pesher Habakkuk
\n1QpPs Pesher Psalms
\n1QS Rule of the Community
\n1Q14 Pesher Micah
\n1Q17\u201318 Jubilees
\n1Q20 Genesis Apocryphon
\n1Q21 Aramaic Levi Document
\n1Q22 Words of Moses
\n1Q23 The Book of Giants
\n1Q26 Instruction
\n1Q27 Book of Mysteries
\n1Q28a Rule of the Congregation
\n1Q28b Rule of Benedictions
\n1Q32 New Jersusalem A
\n1Q33 The War Scroll
\n1Q34 Festival Prayers(4Q508)
\n2Q13 Jeremiah
\n2Q19\u201320 Jubilees
\n2Q24 New Jerusalem B
\n3Q5 Jubilees
\n3Q15 Copper Scroll
\n4Q22 Paleo-Exodus
\n4Q51\u201353 Samuel A\u2013C
\n4Q70, 71, 72, 71a, 71b Jeremiah A\u2013E
\n4Q 83, 84, 85, 88 Psalms A\u2013C, F
\n4Q119, 120 Septuagint Leviticus A\u2013B
\n4Q121 Septuagint Numbers
\n4Q122 Septuagint Deuteronomy
\n4Q128\u2013148 Tefillin A\u2013U
\n4Q149\u2013155 Mezuzot A\u2013G
\n4Q157 Leviticus Targum
\n4Q157 Job Targum
\n4Q159 Ordinances A
\n4Q161, 162, 163, 164 Pesher Isaiah A\u2013D
\n4Q166 Pesher Hosea A
\n4Q169 Pesher NahumShani
\n4Q171, 172 Pesher Psalms A\u2013B
\n4Q174 Florilegium
\n4Q175 Testimonia
\n4Q176 Consolations
\n4Q177 Catena A
\n4Q179 Lamentation
\n4Q184 Wiles of the Wicked Woman
\n4Q186 Horoscope
\n4Q196\u2013199 Tobit A\u2013D
\n4Q200 Tobit (Hebrew)
\n4Q 201, 202, 204 Enoch A\u2013C
\n4Q215 Testament of Naphtali
\n4Q216 Jubilees A
\n4Q225, 226, 227 Pseudo-Jubilees A\u2013C
\n4Q243\u2013245 Pseudo-Daniel A\u2013C
\n4Q246 Son of God
\n4Q252 Commentary on Genesis
\n4Q255\u2013264 Rule of the Community A\u2013J
\n4Q265 Damascus Document
\n4Q266\u2013273 Zadokite Fragments Da\u2013h
\n4Q285 War Rule
\n4Q298 Words of the Maskil to All Sons of Dawn
\n4Q299\u2013301 Mysteries A\u2013C
\n4Q318 Zodiac
\n4Q320\u2013330 Mishmarot A\u2013H
\n4Q364\u2013367 Rewritten Pentateuch
\n4Q370 Admonition Based on the Flood
\n4Q372 Joseph Apocryphon B
\n4Q373 David Apocryphon
\n4Q374 Moses Apocryphon A
\n4Q378, 379 Psalms of Joshua A\u2013B
\n4Q380\u2013381 Non-Canonical Psalms A\u2013B
\n4Q385 Pseudo-Ezekiel A
\n4Q394\u2013399 Halakhic Letter
\n4Q400\u2013407 Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice
\n4Q410m 412\u2013413, 415\u201321, 423\u2013426, 476 Sapiential Works
\n4Q424 Instruction-like Composition B
\n4Q427\u2013432 Thanksgiving Hymns A\u2013F
\n4Q448 Prayer for King Jonathan
\n4Q464 Exposition on the Patriarchs
\n4Q470 Fragment Mentioning Zedekiah
\n4Q477 Decrees of Reproof
\n4Q491\u2013496 War Scroll
\n4Q501 Lament
\n4Q502 Ritual of Marriage
\n4Q503 Daily Prayers
\n4Q504\u2013506 Words of the Luminaries A\u2013C
\n4Q507, 508 Festival Prayer A\u2013B
\n4Q510\u2013511 Songs of the Sage A\u2013B
\n4Q512 Purification Rituals
\n4Q513, 514 Ordinances B\u2013C
\n4Q525 Beatitudes
\n4Q542 Testament of Kohath
\n4Q530, 531, 532 Giants A\u2013C
\n4Q543\u2013547 Visions of Amram A\u2013E
\n4Q550 Proto-Esther
\n4Q554 New Jerusalem C
\n4Q534 Elect of God
\n4QMMT Some Precepts of the Torah (Miktzat Ma\u2019ase ha-Torah)
\n5Q12 Zadokite Fragments
\n5Q15 New Jerusalem D
\n6Q8 Giants
\n6Q15 Zadokite Fragments
\n7Q1 Septuagint Exodus
\n7Q2 Septuagint Letter to Jeremiah
\n11Q1 Paleo-Leviticus
\n11Q4 Ezekiel Scroll
\n11Q5 Psalms Scroll
\n11Q10 Job Targum
\n11Q12 Jubilees
\n11Q13 Melchizedek
\n11Q14 Blessings
\n11Q17 Song of the Sabbath Sacrifice
\n11Q18 New Jerusalem E
\n11Q19 Temple Scroll
\n11Q20 Temple Scroll B
\n8HevXIIgr Greek Twelve Prophets Scroll
\nXQPhyl 1\u20134 Tefillin<\/p>\n
Source Acknowledgments<\/p>\n
Septuagint Selections by Emanuel Tov<\/p>\n
Translation is by Robert J. V. Hiebert, in Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright, eds., A New English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS) (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), with slight alterations. Used with permission. Unless otherwise noted, MT translations are from the NJPS. The Samaritan Pentateuch is from the edition of A. Tal and M. Florentin, The Pentateuch: The Samaritan Version and the Masoretic Version (Tel Aviv: Haim Rubin Tel Aviv University Press, 2010).<\/p>\n
Additions to Esther by Michael V. Fox<\/p>\n
Translation is the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible (NRSV) available in The New Oxford Annotated Apocrypha, ed. Bruce M. Metzger and Roland E. Murphy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 41\u201356. The translation is the NRSV, copyright \u00a9 1989 the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved.<\/p>\n
The Story of Susanna and the Elders, The Prayer of Azariah, The Song of the Three Jews, and Bel and the Dragon by Matthias Henze<\/p>\n
Translations are from the NRSV, taken from A New English Translation of the Septuagint, ed. A. Pietersma and Benjamine G. Wright (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). Used by permission. Verse numbers from the book of Daniel are based on the New Jewish Publication Society (NJPS) translation, which differs slightly in versification from the NRSV.<\/p>\n
1 Esdras by Sara Japhet<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, based on R. Hanhart, Esdras liber I, G\u00f6ttingen Septuaginta 8\/1 (G\u00f6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1974 [2nd ed. 1991]).<\/p>\n
Commentary on Genesis A by George J. Brooke<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, adapted from that in DJD 22: \u201c252. 4QCommentary on Genesis A\u201d in Qumran Cave 4.XVII: Parabiblical Texts, Part 3, edited by G. Brooke, et al. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996).<\/p>\n
Ages of Creation by Andrew D. Gross<\/p>\n
Translations have been slightly adapted from F. Garc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez and E. J. C. Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Leiden: Brill, 1997\u201398). Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV.<\/p>\n
The Book of Giants by Loren Theo Stuckenbruck<\/p>\n
Translation is from Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader, vol. 3: Parabiblical Texts (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 472\u2013503, 506\u20137, and 510\u201314, unless otherwise noted. Biblical translations are from NRSV. Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV.<\/p>\n
The Genesis Apocryphon by Matthew J. Morgenstern and Michael Segal<\/p>\n
Translation is by the authors.<\/p>\n
Admonition Based on the Flood by Alex P. Jassen<\/p>\n
Translation is a modified version of Carol A. Newsom\u2019s \u201c370. 4QAdmonition Based on the Flood, from in Qumran Cave 4.XIV: Parabiblical Texts, Part 2, edited by M. Broshi et al., in consultation with J. C. VanderKam, 85\u201397. DJD 19 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995). Used by permission.<\/p>\n
Jubilees by James L. Kugel<\/p>\n
Translation, with minor alterations, is from O. S. Wintermute, \u201cJubilees: A New Translation and Introduction,\u201d in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, ed. James H. Charlesworth (New York: Doubleday, 1983\u201385). Copyright \u00a9 1985 by James H. Charlesworth. Used by permission of Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc.<\/p>\n
Pseudo-Jubilees by James L. Kugel<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author.<\/p>\n
Pseudo-Philo, Book of Biblical Antiquities by Howard Jacobson<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, from Howard Jacobson, A Commentary on Pseudo-Philo\u2019s Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum (Leiden: Brill, 1996). Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV.<\/p>\n
Pseudo-Daniel by John J. Collins<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, from J. J. Collins and P. W. Flint, \u201c243\u201345 4Qpseudo-Daniela\u2013c ar,\u201d in Qumran Cave 4.XVII: Parabiblical Texts, Part 3, by G. Brooke, et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert (DJD) 22 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996). Used by permission of Oxford.<\/p>\n
Son of God by John J. Collins<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author. All biblical translations are from the NRSV.<\/p>\n
Pesher Nahum by Shani Berrin Tzoref<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, from Shani L. Berrin, The Pesher Nahum Scroll from Qumran: An Exegetical Study of 4Q169, Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 53 (Leiden: Brill, 2004). Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV.<\/p>\n
Pesher Habakkuk by Bilhah Nitzan<\/p>\n
Translation is from Maurya P. Horgan, Pesharim: Qumran Interpretations of Biblical Books, Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 8 (Washington DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1979). Used with permission.<\/p>\n
Demetrius the Chronographer by Lorenzo DiTommaso<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author.<\/p>\n
Artapanus by Erich S. Gruen<\/p>\n
Translation is from C. R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors, 1.189\u2013243 (Chico CA: Scholars, 1983). Used with permission from the Society of Biblical Literature.<\/p>\n
Eupolemus and Pseudo-Eupolemus by Gregory E. Sterling<\/p>\n
Translations are by the author.<\/p>\n
Pseudo-Hecataeus, \u201cOn the Jews,\u201d by Bezalel Bar-Kochva<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, from B. Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus: \u201cOn the Jews\u201d (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996). Used with permission.<\/p>\n
Theodotus, \u201cOn the Jews,\u201d by Howard Jacobson<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, from Eusebius\u2019s Preparation for the Gospel.<\/p>\n
Philo, the Epic Poet, by Harold W. Attridge<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, from Harold W. Attridge, \u201cPhilo the Epic Poet,\u201d in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth, 2:782\u2013784 (Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1985). Copyright \u00a9 1985 by James H. Charlesworth, used by permission of Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc.<\/p>\n
Ezekiel, the Tragedian, by Howard Jacobson<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, from H. Jacobson, The Exagoge of Ezekiel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Reprinted with permission.<\/p>\n
Pseudo-Orpheus by David E. Aune<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, based on Eusebius, Preparation for the Gospel 13.12.5, in Mras, Eusebius Werke, Achter Band. Unless otherwise noted, Masoretic Text translations are from the NJPS.<\/p>\n
Pseudo-Philo, On Samson and On Jonah by Gohar Muradyan and Aram Topchyan<\/p>\n
Translation is by the authors. Unless otherwise noted, translations of the Masoretic Text are from Books of the Bible, A. Cohen, ed. (New York: Soncino, 1975).<\/p>\n
Questions and Answers on Genesis and Exodus by Aram Topchyan and Gohar Muradyan Translation is by the authors. Unless otherwise noted, biblical translations are from the NJPS.<\/p>\n
On the Creation of the World by David T. Runia Translation is by the author.<\/p>\n
Allegorical Interpretation 1.31\u201362 by Maren Niehoff Translation is by the author.<\/p>\n
On the Life of Abraham by Ellen Birnbaum<\/p>\n
Translation is from F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker, On the Life of Abraham, Loeb Classical Library 289 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1935). Reprinted by permission of the Publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library from Philo: Volume 6, Loeb Classical Library vol. 289, translated by F. H. Colson (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press). Copyright \u00a9 1935 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. The Loeb Classical Library \u00ae is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College.<\/p>\n
On the Migration of Abraham by Peder Borgen<\/p>\n
Translation is from F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker, Loeb Classical Library vol. 261 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958). Reprinted by permission of the Publishers and Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library from Philo: Volume 6, Loeb Classical Library vol. 261, translated by F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press). Copyright \u00a9 1932 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. The Loeb Classical Library \u00ae is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College.<\/p>\n
On the Life of Moses by Maren R. Niehoff<\/p>\n
Translation is from F. H. Colson, Philo with an English Translation. Loeb Classical Library (London: Heinemann, 1939). Reprinted by permission of the Publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library from Philo: Volume 8, Loeb Classical Library vol. 341, translated by F. H. Colson (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press). Copyright \u00a9 1939 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. The Loeb Classical Library \u00ae is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College.<\/p>\n
On the Decalogue by Sarah Judith Pearce<\/p>\n
Translation is from Francis H. Colson, Philo in Ten Volumes (and Two Supplementary Volumes) (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press\/William Heinemann, 1934). Reprinted by permission of the publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library from Philo: Volume 7, Loeb Classical Library vol. 320 (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press). Copyright \u00a9 1937 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. The Loeb Classical Library \u00ae is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College.<\/p>\n
On the Special Laws 1\u20134 by Naomi G. Cohen<\/p>\n
The translation is from F. H. Colson, Philo with an English Translation Loeb Classical Library vols. 320 and 341 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1937, 1939). Reprinted by permission of the Publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library from Philo: Volumes 7 and 8, Loeb Classical Library vols. 320 and 341, translated by F. H. Colson (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press). Copyright \u00a9 1937 and 1939 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. The Loeb Classical Library \u00ae is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College.<\/p>\n
Preface to Jewish Antiquities; Creation; The Flood; Abraham Journeys to Canaan and Egypt; The Akedah; Joseph and Potiphar\u2019s Wife; The Rape of Dinah; Moses\u2019s Campaign against the Ethiopians; The Sending of the Spies; The Revolt of Korah; The Story of Balaam; and The Death of Moses by Louis H. Feldman<\/p>\n
The translations are from L. H. Feldman, Flavius Josephus: Judean Jewish Antiquities 1\u20134 (Leiden: Brill, 2000). Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV.<\/p>\n
Mosaic Constitution by David M. Goldenberg<\/p>\n
The translation is from Louis Feldman, Judaean Antiquities 1\u20134, vol. 3 of Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary, ed. Steve Mason (Leiden: Brill, 2000). Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV. Some phrasing taken from H. St. J. Thackeray, trans., Josephus: Jewish Antiquities 1\u20134, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1967).<\/p>\n
The Altar across the Jordan by Silvia Castelli<\/p>\n
Translation is adapted from that of Christopher Begg, Flavius Josephus: Judean Antiquities 5\u20137, in Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 4:25\u201328. Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV.<\/p>\n
The Levite and His Wife; Deborah; Jephthah\u2019s Vow; The Birth of Samson; The Marriage of Ruth and Boaz; Massacre at Nob; God Rejects Saul; The Witch of Endor; The Death of Saul; David Kills Goliath; David and Bathsheba; and The Death of Absalom by Silvia Castelli<\/p>\n
Translations are from Christopher Begg, Flavius Josephus: Judean Antiquities 5\u20137, in Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 4:33\u201337. Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV.<\/p>\n
Solomon\u2019s Wisdom in the Case of the Two Harlots; Phoenician Writings on Solomon\u2019s Wisdom; Solomon\u2019s Magical Powers; and Solomon\u2019s Prayer at the Temple Dedication by Pablo Torijano<\/p>\n
Translations are from H. St. J. Thackeray, Josephus with an English Translation (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1926\u201365). Reprinted by permission of the Publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library from Josephus: Volume 5, Loeb Classical Library vol. 281 (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press). Copyright \u00a9 1934 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. The Loeb Classical Library \u00ae is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College.<\/p>\n
The Return from Exile and Esther by Paul Spilsbury<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, from Paul Spilsbury, Judean Antiquities 11\u201313: Translation and Commentary. Vol. 6 of Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary, edited by S. Mason (Leiden: Brill, forthcoming). Used by permission of Koninklijke B NV.<\/p>\n
Life of Adam and Eve by Gary A. Anderson<\/p>\n
Translation from Gary A. Anderson and Michael Stone, A Synopsis of the Life of Adam and Eve rev. ed. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999). Used with permission from Society of Biblical Literature.<\/p>\n
1 Enoch by Miriam T. Brand<\/p>\n
Translation is from Miachel A. Knibb, The Ethiopic Book of Enoch: A New Edition in the Light of the Aramaic Dead Sea Fragments, 2 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979). Used by permission of Oxford.<\/p>\n
Apocalypse of Abraham by Alexander Kulik<\/p>\n
Translation is from Alexander Kulik, Retroverting Slavonic Pseudepigrapha: Toward the Original of the Apocalypse of Abraham (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2004; Leiden: Brill 2005). Used by permission of Society of Biblical Literature. All biblical translations are by the author.<\/p>\n
Melchizedek by Joseph L. Angel<\/p>\n
Translation by Florentino Garc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez, Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, and Adam S. van der Woude, \u201c11QMelchizedek,\u201d in Manuscripts from Qumran Cave 11 (11Q2\u201318, 11Q20\u201330), DJD 23 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1998).<\/p>\n
Aramaic Levi Document by Michael E. Stone and Esther Eshel<\/p>\n
Translation is from J. C. Greenfield, M. E. Stone, and E. Eshel, The ADL: Studia in Veteris Testamenti pseudepigrapha 19 (Leiden: Brill, 2004). Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV.<\/p>\n
Visions of Amram by Andrew D. Gross<\/p>\n
Translation is from Geza Vermes, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin, 2004). Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd.<\/p>\n
Song of Miriam by Sidnie White Crawford<\/p>\n
Translation is from Emanuel Tov and Sidnie White, \u201c365. 4QReworked Pentateuchc (Pls. 22\u201332),\u201d in Qumran Cave 4.VIII: Parabiblical Texts, Part 1, ed. H. W. Attridge, et al., in consultation with J. C. VanderKam, DJD 13 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994). Used by permission of Oxford.<\/p>\n
Apocryphon of Joshua by Miriam Zangi and Hanan Eshel<\/p>\n
The translation is by Hanan Eshel, based on Devorah Dimant, \u201cBetween Sectarian and Non-Sectarian: The Case of the Apocryphon of Joshua,\u201d in Reworking the Bible: Apocryphal and Related Texts at Qumran, ed. E. G. Chazon, D. Dimant, and R. A. Clements (Leiden: Brill, 2005).<\/p>\n
The Vision of Samuel by Andrew D. Gross<\/p>\n
Translation is slightly adapted from Alex P. Jassen, \u201cLiterary and Historical Studies in the Samuel Apocryphon (4Q160),\u201d JJS 59 (2008). Used by permission from the Journal of Jewish Studies.<\/p>\n
Pseudo-Ezekiel by Devorah Dimant<\/p>\n
Translation is from D. Dimant, Qumran Cave 4.XXI: Parabiblical Texts, Part 4: Pseudo-Prophetic Texts, DJD 30 (Oxford: Clarendon, 2001). Used by permission of Oxford.<\/p>\n
The Apocryphon of Ezekiel by Benjamin G. Wright III<\/p>\n
Translation is from Michael E. Stone, Benjamin G. Wright, and David Satran, The Apocryphal Ezekiel, Society of Biblical Literature\u2019s Early Judaism and Its Literature 18 (Atlanta: SBL, 2000). Used by permission.<\/p>\n
The Letter of Jeremiah and 1 Baruch by Steven D. Fraade<\/p>\n
Translation are from the NRSV, copyright \u00a9 1989 the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved.<\/p>\n
2 Baruch by Adam H. Becker<\/p>\n
Translation is an adaptation from R. H. Charles, \u201cII Baruch,\u201d in The Apocrypha and Pseudipigrapha of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1913). Used by permission.<\/p>\n
3 Baruch by Yevgeniy Y. Zingerman<\/p>\n
The translation is from H. E. Gaylord Jr., \u201c3 (Greek Apocalypse of) Baruch,\u201d in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, ed. J. H. Charlesworth (Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1983\u201385). Used by permission of Yale University Press.<\/p>\n
Prayer of Nabonidus by John J. Collins<\/p>\n
The translation is by the author, from J. J. Collins, \u201c242. 4QPrayer of Nabonidus ar,\u201d in Qumran Cave 4.XVII: Parabiblical Texts, Part 3, ed. G. Brooke, et al., in consultation with J. C. VanderKam, djd 22 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996). Used by permission of Oxford.<\/p>\n
4 Ezra by Karina Martin Hogan<\/p>\n
The translation is from the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) of 2 Esdras. See Michael D. Coogan and others, eds., New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).<\/p>\n
Testament of Abraham by Annette Yoshiko Reed<\/p>\n
Translation follows W. A. Craigie, trans., \u201cTestament of Abraham\u201d in Ante-Nicene Christian Library 9 (London: T&T Clark, 1897).<\/p>\n
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs by James L. Kugel<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, based on H. W. Hollander and M. de Jonge, The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs: A Commentary (Leiden: Brill, 1986).<\/p>\n
Testament of Moses by Kenneth Atkinson<\/p>\n
Translation is from John Priest, \u201cTestament of Moses (First Century A. D.): A New Translation and Introduction,\u201d in Old Testament Pseudepigrapha vol. 1, ed. James H. Charlesworth (Garden City: Doubleday, 1983). Used by permission of Yale University Press.<\/p>\n
Testament of Kohath by Andrew D. Gross<\/p>\n
Translation is from Edward M. Cook, \u201cRemarks on the Testament of Kohath from Qumran Cave 4,\u201d in Journal of Jewish Studies 44 (1993). Used with permission from the Journal of Jewish Studies.<\/p>\n
Testament of Job by Harold W. Attridge<\/p>\n
Translation is from R. Spittler, \u201cTestament of Job: A New Translation and Introduction,\u201d in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, ed. James Charlesworth (Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1985). Used by permission of Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc.<\/p>\n
Psalms of Solomon by Kenneth Atkinson<\/p>\n
The translation is by the author, taken with minor alterations from its published version in Kenneth Atkinson, \u201cPsalms of Salomon,\u201d in A New English Translation of the Septuagint, ed. Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). Used by permission of Oxford.<\/p>\n
Self-Glorification Hymn by Esther Eshel<\/p>\n
Translation is from E. Eshel, \u201c4Q71b. 4QSelf-Glorification Hymn (= 4QHe frg. 1?).\u201d In Qumran Cave 4.XX: Poetical and Liturgical Texts, Part 2, ed. E. Chazon, et al., in consultation with J. VanderKam and M. Brady, DJD 29 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1999). Used by permission of Oxford.<\/p>\n
Daily Prayers by Daniel K. Falk<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, based on the Hebrew from Maurice Baillet, \u201c503. Pri\u00e8res quotidiennes,\u201d in Qumr\u00e2n grotte 4.III (4Q482\u20134Q520), DJD 7 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982). Except where noted, Hebrew Bible translations are NJPS, and translations from the Apocrypha and New Testament are NRSV.<\/p>\n
Festival Prayers by Daniel K. Falk<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, based on Maurice Baillet, \u201c505. Paroles des Luminaires,\u201d and \u201c507\u2013509. Pri\u00e8res pour les f\u00eates,\u201d in Qumr\u00e2n grotte 4.III (4Q482\u20134Q520), DJD 7 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982); and J. T. Milik, \u201c34. Recueil de pri\u00e8res liturgiques\u201d and \u201c34bis. Recueil de pri\u00e8res liturgiques,\u201d In Qumran Cave I, ed. D. Barth\u00e9lemy and J. T. Milik, 136, 152\u201355, DJD 1 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1955).<\/p>\n
Words of the Luminaries by Daniel K. Falk<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, based on Maurice Baillet, \u201c504. Paroles des Luminaires (premier exemplaire: DibHama)\u201d and \u201c506. Paroles des Luminaires (troisi\u00e8me exemplaire: DibHamc),\u201d in Qumr\u00e2n grotte 4.III (4Q482\u20134Q520), DJD 7 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982); and Esther Chazon, \u201cA Liturgical Document from Qumran and its Implications: \u2018Words of the Luminaries\u2019 (4QDib-Ham)\u201d [Hebrew]. Unpublished PhD Dissertation (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1991).<\/p>\n
Angelic Liturgy by Michael D. Swartz<\/p>\n
Composite text and translation are from James H. Charlesworth and Carol A. Newsom, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations, vol. 4B, Angelic Liturgy: Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (T\u00fcbingen: Mohr Siebeck; Louisville KY: Westminster John Knox, 1999).<\/p>\n
Thanksgiving Hymns (Hodayot) by Angela Kim Harkins<\/p>\n
Translation is based on Martin Abegg, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (San Francisco: Harper, 1996, 2005). Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers.<\/p>\n
Apocryphal Psalms by Eileen Schuller<\/p>\n
Translations are from James A. Sanders, The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave 11, 11QPs, DJDJ 4 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1965). Used by permission of Oxford.<\/p>\n
Non-Canonical Psalms by Eileen Schuller<\/p>\n
The translation is from Esther Eshel, Hanan Eshel, Carol Newsom, Bilhah Nitzan, Eileen Schuller, and Ada Yardeni, Qumran Cave 4.VI: Poetical and Liturgical Texts, Part I, DJD 11 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1998). Used by permission of Oxford.<\/p>\n
Greek Synogogal Prayers by Pieter W. van der Horst<\/p>\n
Translations are by the author.<\/p>\n
Prayer of Enosh by James L. Kugel<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author.<\/p>\n
Prayer of Manasseh by Esther G. Chazon<\/p>\n
Translation is from Pieter W. van der Horst and Judith H. Newman, Early Jewish Prayers in Greek (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2008). Used by permission.<\/p>\n
Prayer for King Jonathan by Hanan Eshel<\/p>\n
Translation is from H. Eshel and E. Eshel, \u201c4Q448, Psalm 154 (Syriac), Sirach 48:20 and 4QpIsaa,\u201d in JBL 119 (2000). Used by permission.<\/p>\n
Wisdom of Solomon by Peter Enns<\/p>\n
Translation is the NRSV, copyright \u00a9 1989 the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Except where otherwise indicated, translations from the Hebrew Bible are from the NJPS.<\/p>\n
Wisdom of Ben Sira by Benjamin G. Wright III<\/p>\n
Translation is the NRSV, copyright \u00a9 1989 the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Hebrew Bible translations are NJPS, except where otherwise noted.<\/p>\n
Pseudo-Phocylides, Sentences, by Pieter w. van der Horst Translation is by the author. Used by permission of Brill.<\/p>\n
4 Maccabees by David A. deSilva<\/p>\n
Translation is the NRSV, copyright \u00a9 1989 the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved.<\/p>\n
Wiles of the Wicked Woman and Words of the Maskil to All Sons of Dawn by Armin Lange<\/p>\n
Translations are from Stephen J. Pfann and Menahem Kister, \u201cWords of the Maskil to All Sons of Dawn,\u201d In Qumran Cave 4.XV: Sapiential Texts, Part 1, DJD 20 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1997). Used by permission of Oxford.<\/p>\n
Beatitudes by Armin Lange<\/p>\n
Translation is adapted from M. Wise, M. Abegg, E. Cook, and N. Gordon, \u201c4Q525 (4QBeatitudes),\u201d in The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader, Part 4: Calendrical and Sapiential Texts, ed. Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov (Leiden: Brill, 2004). Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV.<\/p>\n
Instruction-like Composition B by Armin Lange<\/p>\n
Translation is by the author, with reference to Florentino Garc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, \u201c4Q424 4QSapiential Text,\u201d in The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Leiden: Brill, 1997\u201398).<\/p>\n
Musar leMevin by Armin Lange<\/p>\n
Translation is by the uathor, based on Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning for the Understanding Ones: Reading and Reconstructing the Fragmentary Early Jewish Sapiential Text 4QInstruction, Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 44 (Leiden: Brill, 2001).<\/p>\n
On the Virtues (51\u2013174) by Walter T. Wilson<\/p>\n
Translation is from F. H. Colson, Loeb Classical Library (London: Heinemann; Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1939). Reprinted by permission of the Publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library from Philo: Volume 8, Loeb Classical Library vol. 341 (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press). Copyright \u00a91939 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. The Loeb Classical Library \u00ae is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College.<\/p>\n
On the Contemplative Life by David M. Hay and David T. Runia<\/p>\n
Translation is from D. Winston, Philo of Alexandria: The Contemplative Life, the Giants, and Selections, Classics of Western Spirituality (New York: Paulist Press, 1981). Reprinted by permission of Paulist Press, Inc.<\/p>\n
Hypothetica by Gregory E. Sterling<\/p>\n
The translation is by the author, to be published in Brill\u2019s forthcoming Philo of Alexandria Commentary (2014).<\/p>\n
Joseph and Aseneth by Patricia Ahearne-Kroll<\/p>\n
Translation is based on Christoph Burchard, assisted by Carsten Burfeind and Uta Barbara Fink, Joseph und Aseneth, Pseudepigrapha Veteris Testamenti Graece 5 (Leiden: Brill, 2003). Used by permission of Koninklijke Brill NV.<\/p>\n
Judith by Betsy Halpern-Amaru<\/p>\n
Translation is the NRSV, copyright \u00a9 1989 the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved.<\/p>\n
Tobit by George W. E. Nickelsburg<\/p>\n
Translation is the NRSV, copyright \u00a9 1989 the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved.<\/p>\n
4 Baruch by Pablo Torijano<\/p>\n
Translation is by Robert A. Kraft and Ann-Elizabeth Purintun, Paraleipomena Jeremiou, SBL Texts and Translations 1 (Missoula MT: SBL, 1972). Except where otherwise noted, Hebrew Bible translations are NJPS. The translations of Apocryphal works and New Testament passages are NRSV. Translations of the Septuagint are from Bernard A. Taylor, found in Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright, eds., A New English Translation of the Septuagint (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).<\/p>\n
3 Maccabees by Sara Raup Johnson<\/p>\n
Translation is the NRSV, copyright \u00a9 1989 the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved.<\/p>\n
The Letter of Aristeas by Erich S. Gruen<\/p>\n
Translation is from M. Hadas, Aristeas to Philocrates (Letter of Aristeas) (New York: Harper Brothers, for the Dropsie College of Hebrew and Cognate Learning, 1951).<\/p>\n
1 Maccabees by Lawrence H. Schiffman<\/p>\n
Translation is from the RSV, copyright \u00a9 1946, 1952, and 1971, the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved.<\/p>\n
2 Maccabees by Daniel R. Schwartz<\/p>\n
Translation is from the RSV, copyright \u00a9 1946, 1952, and 1971, the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved.<\/p>\n
Jewish War: Excursus on Jewish Groups by Albert I. Baumgarten<\/p>\n
Translation is from H. St. J. Thackeray, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1927). Reprinted by permission of the Publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library from Josephus: Volume 2, Loeb Classical Library vol. 203, trans. H. St. J. Thackeray (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press). Copyright \u00a9 1927 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. The Loeb Classical Library \u00ae is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College.<\/p>\n
Against Apion by John M. G. Barclay<\/p>\n
Translation by the author, of the new version of the text, in F. Siegert, ed., Flavius Josephus, \u00dcber die Urspr\u00fcnglichkeit des Judentums. Contra Apionem, 2 vols. (G\u00f6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008). Except where otherwise noted, Bible passages are from NJPS.<\/p>\n
Rule of the Community by Alex P. Jassen<\/p>\n
Translation is from James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls in English: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations: Rule of the Community and Related Texts (T\u00fcbingen: Mohr Siebeck; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994).<\/p>\n
Damascus Document by Joseph L. Angel<\/p>\n
Translation are drawn and occasionally modified from Joseph Baumgarten and Daniel Schwartz, \u201cDamascus Document (CD),\u201d in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations: Damascus Document, War Scrolls and Related Documents, ed. J. Charlesworth, Princeton Theological Seminary Dead Sea Scrolls Project 2 (T\u00fcbingen: Mohr\/Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1995). Used by permission of Mohr Siebeck GmbH & Co. KG.<\/p>\n
Temple Scroll by Lawrence H. Schiffman<\/p>\n
Translation is based on an edition of the Hebrew manuscripts by Lawrence H. Schiffman, Andrew D. Gross, and Michael C. Rand, published in J. H. Charlesworth, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations, Vol. 7, Temple Scroll and Related Documents, ed. Lawrence H. Schiffman, with A. D. Gross and M. C. Rand, et al. (T\u00fcbingen: Mohr Siebeck; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2011). The commentary was compiled from L. Schiffman, The Courtyards of the House of the Lord: Studies on the Temple Scroll: Studies on the Temple Scroll, edited by Florentino Garc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez, STDJ 75 (Leiden: Brill, 2008).<\/p>\n
Some Precepts of the Torah by Lawrence H. Schiffman<\/p>\n
Translation is adapted from F. Garc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English (Leiden: Brill, 1994).<\/p>\n
War Scroll by Jean Duhaime<\/p>\n
The translation is by the author, from Jean Duhaime, in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations, vol. 2: Damascus Document, War Scroll, and Related Documents, ed. James H. Charlesworth (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1995).<\/p>\n
New Jerusalem by Joseph L. Angel<\/p>\n
The translation and placement of fragments follow Lorenzo DiTommaso, The Dead Sea New Jerusalem Text: Contents and Contexts. Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 110 (T\u00fcbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005). Used with permission from Mohr Siebeck.<\/p>\n
Contributors<\/p>\n
Patricia Ahearne-Kroll, assistant professor of Religion, Ohio Wesleyan University.
\nGary A. Anderson, Hesburgh Professor of Catholic Theology, University of Notre Dame.
\nJoseph L. Angel, assistant professor of Bible, Yeshiva University.
\nKenneth Atkinson, associate professor of History, University of Northern Iowa.
\nHarold W. Attridge, The Reverend Henry L. Slack Dean and Lillian Claus Professor of New Testament, Yale University Divinity School.
\nDavid E. Aune, Walter Professor of New Testament and Christian Origins, University of Notre Dame.
\nJohn M. G. Barclay, Lightfoot Professor of Divinity, Durham University.
\nBezalel Bar-Kochva, Jacob M. Alkow Professor of Jewish History in the Ancient World, Tel Aviv University.
\nAlbert I. Baumgarten, past professor of Jewish History, Bar Ilan University.
\nAdam H. Becker, associate professor of Classics and Religious Studies, New York University.
\nEllen Birnbaum, past lecturer, Boston University.
\nPeder Borgen, professor emeritus of Early Christianity and Judaism, Norwegian University of Science and Technology.
\nMiryam T. Brand, National Endowment for the Humanities Fellow, W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research.
\nGeorge J. Brooke, Rylands Professor of Biblical Criticism and Exegesis, University of Manchester.
\nSilvia Castelli, researcher in New Testament Studies, VU University, Amsterdam.
\nEsther G. Chazon, senior lecturer in Hebrew Literature, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
\nNaomi G. Cohen, senior research fellow, Haifa University.
\nJohn J. Collins, Holmes Professor of Old Testament, Yale Divinity School.
\nSidnie White Crawford, Willa Cather Professor of Classics and Religious Studies, University of Nebraska.
\nDavid A. deSilva, Trustees\u2019 Distinguished Professor of New Testament and Greek, Ashland Theological Seminary.
\nDevorah Dimant, professor emeritus of Ancient Jewish Literature, University of Haifa.
\nLorenzo DiTommaso, associate professor and chair of Religion, Concordia University.
\nJean Duhaime, professor of Biblical Interpretation, University of Montreal.
\nPeter Enns, affiliate professor of Biblical Studies, Eastern University.
\nEsther Eshel, acting head of the Jeselsohn Epigraphic Center of Jewish History, Bar Ilan University.
\nHanan Eshel, professor at The Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology, Bar Ilan University.
\nDaniel K. Falk, professor of Ancient Judaism and Biblical Studies, University of Oregon.
\nLouis H. Feldman, Abraham Wouk Family Professor of Classics and Literature, Yeshiva University.
\nMichael V. Fox, Halls-Bascom Professor Emeritus, University of Wisconsin.
\nSteven D. Fraade, Mark Taper Professor of the History of Judaism and chair of program in Judaic Studies, Yale University.
\nDavid M. Goldenberg, past professor in Jewish Religion and Thought, University of Cape Town; past president, Dropsie College; editor, Jewish Quarterly Review.
\nAndrew D. Gross, assistant professor of Semitic Languages, Catholic University of America.
\nErich S. Gruen, Gladys Rehard Wood Professor Emeritus of History and Classics, and chair of Jewish Studies program, University of California.
\nBetsy Halpern-Amaru, professor emeritus of Religion, Vassar College.
\nAngela Kim Harkins, associate professor of Religious Studies, Fairfield University.
\nDavid M. Hay, professor emeritus of Religion, Coe College.
\nMatthias Henze, associate professor of Religious Studies, Rice University.
\nKarina Martin Hogan, associate professor of Theology, Fordham University.
\nHoward Jacobson, professor emeritus of the Classics, University of Illinois.
\nSara Japhet, Yehezkel Kaufmann Professor Emeritus of Bible, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
\nAlex P. Jassen, assistant professor of Early Judaism, University of Minnesota.
\nSara Raup Johnson, associate professor of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies, University of Connecticut.
\nJames L. Kugel, Starr Professor of Hebrew Literature Emeritus, Harvard University; professor of Bible, Bar Ilan University.
\nAlexander Kulik, associate professor, Department of German, Russian, and East European Studies, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
\nArmin Lange, professor of Second Temple Judaism, Institute of Jewish Studies, Vienna University.
\nMatthew J. Morgenstern, senior lecturer in the Department of Hebrew Language, University of Haifa.
\nGohar Muradyan, senior researcher at the Institute of Ancient Manuscripts, Matenadaran.
\nMaren R. Niehoff, associate professor of Jewish Thought, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
\nGeorge W. E. Nickelsburg, professor of Christian Origins and Early Judaism, University of Iowa.
\nBilhah Nitzan, associate professor emeritus of Bible, Tel Aviv University.
\nSarah Judith Pearce, Ian Karten Professor of Jewish Studies, University of Southampton.
\nAnnette Yoshiko Reed, M. Mark and Esther K. Watkins assistant professor in the Humanities, University of Pennsylvania.
\nDavid T. Runia, Master of Queen\u2019s College and Professorial Fellow in the School of Historical and Philosophical Studies, University of Melbourne.
\nLawrence H. Schiffman, vice provost for Undergraduate Education, Yeshiva University.
\nEileen Schuller, professor of Religious Studies, McMaster University.
\nDaniel R. Schwartz, professor of Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
\nMichael Segal, senior lecturer in the Department of Bible; editor of the Hebrew University Bible Project, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
\nPaul Spilsbury, vice president for Academic Affairs and professor of New Testament and Christian Origins, Ambrose University College.
\nGregory E. Sterling, professor of New Testament and Christian Origins and Dean of the Graduate School, University of Notre Dame.
\nMichael E. Stone, Gail de Nur Professor of Comparative Religion and professor emeritus of Armenian Studies, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
\nLoren Theo Stuckenbruck, Richard Dearborn Professor of New Testament Studies, Princeton Theological Seminary.
\nMichael D. Swartz, professor of Hebrew and Religious Studies, Ohio State University.
\nAram Topchyan, senior researcher at the Institute of Ancient Manuscripts, Matenadaran.
\nPablo Torijano, associate professor of Hebrew and Aramaic Studies, The Complutense University.
\nEmanuel Tov, professor emeritus of Bible, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
\nShani Berrin Tzoref, researcher of the Dead Sea Scrolls Project, Israel Antiquities Authority.
\nPieter W. van der Horst, professor emeritus of Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity, Utrecht University.
\nWalter T. Wilson, associate professor of New Testament, Emory University.
\nBenjamin G. Wright III, University Distinguished Professor of Religion Studies, Lehigh University.
\nMiriam Zangi, independent scholar, Haifa.
\nYevgeniy Y. Zingerman, Independent scholar, Jerusalem.<\/p>\n
ADVISORY BOARD<\/p>\n
Ellen Birnbaum, past lecturer, Boston University.
\nRuth Clements, head of publications, Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and associated Literature, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
\nYaakov Elman, professor of Judaic Studies, Yeshiva University; associate of Center of Jewish Studies, Harvard University.
\nErich S. Gruen, Gladys Rehard Wood Professor Emeritus of History and Classics, and chair of Jewish Studies program, University of California.
\nRichard Hidary, assistant professor of Judaic Studies, Yeshiva University, Stern College for Women.
\nMartha Himmelfarb, William H. Danforth Professor of Religion, Princeton University.
\nGeorge W. E. Nickelsburg, professor of Christian Origins and Early Judaism, University of Iowa.
\nTessa Rajak, senior research fellow, Somerville College, University of Oxford.
\nEdward P. Sanders, past professor of Religion, Duke University.
\nPeter Schaefer, Perelman Professor of Jewish Studies and professor of Religion, and director of the Program in Judaic Studies, Princeton University.
\nDaniel R. Schwartz, professor of Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
\nJames C. VanderKam, John A. O\u2019Brien Professor of Hebrew Scriptures, University of Notre Dame.
\nBarry Scott Wimpfheimer, director of The Crown Family Center for Jewish and Israel Studies and assistant professor of Religious Studies and Law, Northwestern University.<\/p>\n
@book{Feldman_Kugel_Schiffman_2013,
\nplace={Philadelphia},
\ntitle={Outside the Bible: Ancient Jewish Writings Related to Scripture: Commentary},
\nvolume={1\u20133},
\npublisher={The Jewish Publication Society},
\nyear={2013}}<\/p>\n
Exportiert aus Verbum, 14:52 28. Mai 2019.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
2\u20133. exiles of the wilderness \u2026 wilderness of the peoples The \u201cwilderness of the peoples\u201d is where God brought a purified Israel \u201cinto the bond of the covenant\u201d (Ezek. 20:35\u201338). At the start of the Maccabean revolt, \u201cthose seeking righteousness and justice fled into the desert\u201d (1 Macc. 2:29). The group who moved to Qumran … <\/p>\n