{"id":2166,"date":"2019-05-28T14:26:57","date_gmt":"2019-05-28T12:26:57","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/?p=2166"},"modified":"2019-05-28T14:27:01","modified_gmt":"2019-05-28T12:27:01","slug":"outside-the-bible-commentary-26","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/2019\/05\/28\/outside-the-bible-commentary-26\/","title":{"rendered":"Outside the Bible Commentary – 26"},"content":{"rendered":"

15:2. see, I have heard all of the words of your confession The angel speaks in the first person, but in several manuscripts, the angel uses the third person to speak on behalf of God (\u201cthe LORD has heard\u201d). Similar differences appear in 15:3, 4 (\u201cfinger of God\u201d instead of \u201cmy finger\u201d), 6; and 19:5, but not all manuscripts provide all of these verses. In general, there appears to be two traditions of the angel\u2019s speech.
\nparthenos See comment on 1:4.
\n15:3\u20134. I also have seen the humble state \u2026 Have courage, Aseneth In Dan. 10:12, Gabriel consoles Daniel, telling him not to be afraid: his humble state (tapein\u014dsis, the same Greek word used in Aseneth) has been recognized by God, and his words have been heard.
\n15:4. parthenos See comment on 1:4.
\nthe book of the living In ancient Israelite literature, the \u201cbook of life\/the living\u201d refers to an enrolled list of the righteous members of the community (Exod. 32:32\u201334; Ps. 69:29; Mal. 3:16\u201318), and in Second Temple literature, this concept continues to be used in some circles (1 En. 47). In Dan. 10:12\u201319, after Gabriel consoles and strengthens Daniel, he explains the course of historical events that lie ahead of Daniel (in particular, the imperial rise of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties and how the archangel Michael will combat these forces and deliver the righteous of Israel) (10:20\u201311:45). At the time of Michael\u2019s victory, \u201ceveryone who is found written in the book\u201d will be delivered. Daniel is presumably on this list, and Aseneth is notably written first in a similar book.
\n15:5. you shall be renewed, refashioned, and revived This repeats Joseph\u2019s prayer request in 8:9, although not all manuscripts provide this triad.
\n15:5\u20136. you will eat the blessed bread of life \u2026 and he will be your bridegroom forever What restrained Joseph from kissing Aseneth is no longer an obstacle. God has accepted her complete rejection of her former religious practices and her extensive period of repentance, and for this reason, she has received divine approval to marry Joseph.
\n15:6. parthenos See comment on 1:4.
\n15:7. no longer will your name be called \u201cAseneth,\u201d but your name will be \u201cCity of Refuge\u201d \u2026 will be protected Repentance Only Arm and L2 (436) appear to preserve this entire passage. Most manuscripts preserve an equivalent form of this verse, but only Arm, L2, B, and D attest to the final phase: \u201cthrough [or: in the name of] repentance.\u201d
\nCity of Refuge Most scholars interpret this new name to imply that Aseneth becomes a city for converts to Judaism. Certainly Aseneth, as a convert, could have signified for converts their legitimate status within the community, but this does not mean that Aseneth models for converts what they should do. For example, converts are not meant to expect an angelic visitation and then experience some sort of ritual meal (Aseneth 16). Even the manuscripts that add how Aseneth is a city for \u201cthose who are devoted to God through [or: in the name of] repentance\u201d do not mention conversion; in fact, Aseneth never explicitly associates repentance with conversion. The renaming of Aseneth, then, has more do to with her status in comparison with Joseph\u2019s position. As Joseph \u201csaved\u201d the people from destruction (Gen. 41\u201347), she too \u201csaves\u201d by becoming a city of refuge for those who repent (not convert; see Aseneth 28). Aseneth also redefines what \u201ccity of refuge\u201d implies in light of Num. 35, where cities of refuge are chosen only for those who commit involuntary manslaughter; in Aseneth 28, Aseneth protects those who commit premeditated attempted murder. Finally, the symbolic significance of Aseneth embodying a city echoes the personification of Zion as a female and the protection that Zion provides (cf. Isa. 49\u201357).
\n15:7\u20138. Repentance is in the heavens \u2026 and because she loves you, parthenoi, I also love you The manuscripts vary a great deal in this portion, and therefore it is difficult to discern the initial description of the angel Repentance. Two interesting variations: (1) D and L2 (436) attest to Repentance as a mother, and (2) in B and D, a bridal chamber (and not a place of rest) is prepared for the penitent (in B, God seems to prepare it; in D, it is Repentance as mother who does). As Joseph appears to be a copy of the heavenly male messenger, Aseneth appears to become the earthly version of the heavenly Repentance. For parthenoi, see comment on 1:4.
\n15:8. Repentance is very beautiful, a pure parthenos Parthenos, here, is akin to what it means when it is attributed to goddesses in Greek literature. For a woman, the liminal stage of her parthenia was considered a dangerous time in her life, for if she did not engage in sexual activity through marriage, it was believed that she would suffer physical ailments. In general, parthenoi harnessed a certain power that if not socially controlled (e.g., through marriage or ritual practice) could unleash harm on society. When the term parthenos is applied to female forms of the divine realm, it communicates a similar kind of harnessed power (e.g., that of Athena), and so in kind, Repentance, as a servant of God, is perceived also to be powerful. See also the comment at 1:4.
\n15:10. parthenos See comment on 1:4.
\na good bride The term \u201cgood\u201d (agathos) implies that Aseneth be (and look) socially acceptable and worthy to become Joseph\u2019s bride.
\n15:11. very glad Literally, \u201crejoiced with great rejoicing.\u201d See comment on 3:3.
\n15:12. to rescue me from the darkness and to bring me up from the foundations of the abyss Psalmic references to God as deliverer (Ps. 89:49).
\n15:12x. what is your name, lord?\u2026 because those names are exceedingly great, astonishing, and praiseworthy This scene is similar to that of Manoah and his wife in Judg. 13, and it appears to match Aseneth\u2019s encounter with the angel more closely to this passage. The translation is slightly misleading, however, because no manuscript provides the verse in its entirety. Only G provides the angel\u2019s response, \u201cWhy do you ask for my name, Aseneth?\u201d (cf. Judg. 13:18), but several manuscripts appear to provide much of this verse.
\nthe book of the Most High This appears to be a book of the righteous angels in heaven. Lawless angels show up in certain Second Temple writings (1 En. 1\u201336; Rule of the Community).
\n16:8. that honey was like dew of heaven and its aroma was like breath of life The first of several indications in Aseneth that this honeycomb is divine food from a heavenly garden. The phrase \u201cdew of heaven\u201d recalls the image of the manna that God delivers to the Israelites in the wilderness (Exod. 16), and the divine origin of the honey is bolstered by its association with \u201cbreath of life,\u201d which alludes to God\u2019s creation of the first human who is placed in the Garden of Eden (Gen. 2). The association of honey and the divine world is also expressed in the LXX, in which honey often refers to God\u2019s teaching (nomos) or wisdom.
\n16:9. Did this comb, then, come \u2026 the breath of mouth? Burchard\u2019s Greek text does not make this sentence a question, but he suggests that the manuscript evidence better supports a question here, and Burchard translates the line as such in his own English translation.
\n16:14. because the secret mysteries of the Most High have been revealed to you The manuscript tradition varies here, and \u201csecret mysteries of the Most High\u201d is a conflation of the evidence (no manuscript evidence exactly attests to this phrase). \u201cMysteries\u201d (ta myst\u0113ria) or \u201csecret matters\u201d (ta aporr\u0113ta) refer to divine knowledge that cannot be attained solely by human means.
\ngarden of delight The name for the Garden of Eden in Gen. 3:23\u201324 LXX. The perception here is that Eden is in an otherworldly place, outside the realm of human existence (cf. 1 En. 24\u201325, 28\u201332).
\nall the angels \u2026 eat from it In Greek tradition, honey was associated with the gods (Hymn to Hermes 562) and was even equated with the more typical food of the gods (i.e., nectar and ambrosia). In recounting the events of the Israelites\u2019 wandering in the wilderness, Ps. 77:25 LXX refers to the manna from heaven as \u201cthe bread of angels\u201d (the Hebrew has \u201cthe bread of heroes\u201d [MT Ps. 78:25]), which corresponds well with the depiction of Aseneth\u2019s honeycomb in that it is like manna and nourishes both angels and the elect (16:18).
\nchildren of the Most High Literally \u201csons of the Most High,\u201d but it is clear that the angelic figure refers to women and men in this category. In ancient Israelite literature (and thus in the LXX), the term \u201csons\u201d often refers to a collective group consisting of males and females (Exod. 3:9\u201310; Deut. 14:1; Isa. 17:3, 9).
\n16:16. see then, you ate the bread of life, you drank a cup of immortality, and you have been anointed with oil of incorruption The honeycomb serves as the source of all three elements (as food, drink, and oil), and it nourishes in everlasting ways. This image of honey as the conduit of divine knowledge builds on ancient Israelite and Jewish traditions that associate honey with God\u2019s blessings upon the devout. The luxurious pleasure of honey is likened to the joy of following God\u2019s Law and\/or seeking wisdom, and in Ezek. 3:3, the prophet consumes divine knowledge (the oracles he will soon deliver), and it tastes \u201cas sweet as honey.\u201d The honey that Aseneth and the heavenly beings consume is more like Ezekiel\u2019s, whereby they are enriched by what is humanly inaccessible.
\nyour bones shall be enriched like the cedars of God\u2019s garden of delight \u201cYour bones shall be enriched\u201d is an exact copy of Isa. 58:11. For the manuscripts that provide this line, Isaiah\u2019s image for how God sustains the devout is combined with the dominant image of Eden in this chapter and how the devout have access to this heavenly garden.
\nuntiring powers will surround you Primarily a military image (of flanking forces), this phrase conveys God\u2019s military protection by means of angelic forces (cf. Exod. 14:19; Isa. 37:36 = 2 Kings 19:35).
\n16:18. their wings were like purple, violet, scarlet, and fine linen cloths , gold diadems were on their heads Several manuscripts refer to the wings as purple and violet (porphyra, hyakinthos), and some add that the wings are also like scarlet (kokkos), fine linens (byssina himatia), or gold-spun garments (n\u0113mata chrysou). There is more manuscript agreement that these bees wear golden crowns upon their heads (diad\u0113mata chrysa). Burchard\u2019s reconstruction of this scene presents four materials (purple, violet, scarlet, and fine linen), which are also required in the production of Aaronide garments in Exodus LXX, and based on this correlation, Gideon Bohak argues that these bees represent Jewish priests and that the miraculous honeycomb signifies the Jewish Temple in Heliopolis. Only Syr attests to all four elements, and although these materials refer to the Tabernacle\/Temple or to Aaronide priesthood in the LXX, they also describe wealth or royalty (Isa. 3:21\u201324). Most importantly, the more commonly attested adjectives, porphyra and hyakinthos (and their respective cognates), often signify wealth and\/or regal status in the LXX\/Old Greek. Since the bees also wear golden crowns, it makes most sense that they are depicted in the likeness of royalty. Such an image would not be surprising for a Jewish audience in Egypt, where a predominant hieroglyph for a pharaonic title was the bee (nswt-bity, literally \u201cthe one of the sedge plant and of the bee\u201d and meaning \u201cthe king of Upper and Lower Egypt\u201d). Ptolemaic and early Roman rulers perpetuated this symbol to communicate their inclusion in the pharaonic line and the Egyptian divine realm. In Aseneth, this symbol (and what it signifies) remains part of the divine realm but is relegated to servant status. The bees work for God (producing the food of angels and the elect) and are subservient to the ruler of God\u2019s house and commander of God\u2019s military force (the angel who visits Aseneth).
\n16:19\u201320. wrapped around Aseneth\u2019s face, \u2026 on Aseneth\u2019s mouth In several examples in Greek tradition, individuals receive the gift of eloquent speech from bees that swarm around the person and feed him honey (e.g., Pindar, Plato, and Sophocles), and in the Hymn to Hermes 552\u201356, divine parthenoi mediate divine knowledge that they receive from the consumption of special honey. For the manuscripts that narrate the extra comb that the bees produce upon Aseneth\u2019s mouth, there is a similar transaction whereby the bees of paradise give Aseneth a life\u2019s supply of divine wisdom.
\n16:20\u201323. \u201cgo now to your place!\u201d \u2026 in the fruit-bearing trees In B and D, the man commands the bees to \u201cgo away to your place!,\u201d all of them fall and die, and then they are all raised by the man and sent to the courtyard. In G, the bees surround Aseneth, the man then commands them to go to their place, and the bees all fly away to heaven. All manuscripts that provide the scene from 16:19\u201320, however, provide some form of the verses in this translation. The bees are clearly subservient to the angel, and all manuscripts (even family d) narrate a certain hostility from at least some of the bees. In most cases, the hostile ones are relegated to Aseneth\u2019s courtyard, while the friendly ones go to the divine realm.
\n17:4. parthenoi See comment on 1:4.
\n17:6. you will be seven pillars \u2026 will find rest upon you forever This line does not show up in family d, FW, and G, but some form does appear in several key manuscript groups. For those that provide this line, the seven parthenoi not only assist Aseneth in providing refuge for penitents, but they are specifically to serve the female elect. Overtones to Greek religious practice are again pronounced here. \u201cPillars\u201d are usually associated with exquisite buildings, some of which are temples, and in the ancient world, temple complexes were often sanctioned places for asylum. As a \u201ccity of refuge,\u201d Aseneth ensures similar protection, and these women are to focus on other women who repent in God\u2019s name. For parthenoi see comment on 1:4.
\n17:8. something like a chariot \u2026 standing on that chariot As the heavenly version of Joseph, the angel also has Helios-like qualities (cf. Aseneth 5), but he shares more affinities with the god. His chariot flares like fire and his horses flash like lightning (images of both the chariot\u2019s speed and splendor), and he rides the sky (cf. Hymn to Helios). This image also hints of Ezekiel\u2019s encounter with the Glory of the LORD in which four extraordinary beasts and wheels help steer the Holy of Holies across the sky, what appears to be flares of fire and flashes of lightning shoot forth from it, and something like a human being is above the chariot (Ezek. 1).
\n17:9. I am foolish \u2026 to his place None of this appears in family d or E, and Aseneth\u2019s realization about her visitor is not quite the same in the manuscripts that attest to this verse. In all these versions, however, Aseneth finally understands the extent of her extraordinary encounter, and she voices amazement about surviving it (cf. Judg. 13:20\u201323; Gen. 32:30).
\na god Gk. theos, usually translated \u201cgod\u201d or in reference to the Hebrew deity. Cf. Gen. 32:25\u201331, where the angel and Jacob refer to the angel as a theos (Heb. elohim). The point is that the angel comes from the divine realm, not that he is a deity like the Hebrew God. Aseneth has the same kind of self-revelation as Jacob did after his encounter (see also Hagar\u2019s reaction in Gen. 16).
\n18:3. her face had fallen In other words, Aseneth looked downcast. The same expression describes Cain\u2019s response to God\u2019s favor of Abel (Gen. 4:5\u20136). God\u2019s question to Cain resembles the attendant\u2019s question to Aseneth in this verse.
\n18:5. Aseneth remembered the man and his commands Referring to 15:2\u201310.
\nlike lightning in appearance Aseneth\u2019s robe is reminiscent of the presence of the angel (14:9) and other appearances of divine beings (cf. Dan. 10; Ezek. 1).
\n18:6. she girded herself with a golden and royal girdle \u2026 took a scepter in her hand Aseneth\u2019s social status remains unchanged, and her attire is not very different from what she wore when she welcomed her parents (Aseneth 3) except for the fact that she wears nothing that bears the images of Egyptian gods. She also wears a different headpiece, a golden crown (stephanos) embedded with jewels. Her royal appearance is unquestionable, and several manuscripts include that she also carried a royal staff, which solidifies this impression.
\n18:7. woe to me, the lowly one \u2026 Joseph will see me and scorn me A driving force in ancient Greek novels is the passionate love shared by the protagonists. In Aseneth, Joseph\u2019s reciprocation has yet to happen, and Aseneth (and an ancient audience familiar with this literary genre) is anxious about his response.
\n18:8. foster-sister Syntrophos most likely refers to one of the parthenoi who live with Aseneth and serve her. The manuscript tradition varies on this word: several read \u201cfoster-sister\u201d (FW, Amm., L2); but some have one or moreof parthenoi (Syr, G) and others provide \u201cfemale slave\u201d (BD, AP).
\n18:9. it was like the sun, her eyes were like a morning star when it rises This description not only conveys how stunning Aseneth\u2019s face is, but it is reminiscent of both Joseph\u2019s and the angel\u2019s appearance (cf. Aseneth 5 and 14, including the association of the morning star with the angel\u2019s visitation).
\nher \u2026 < mountains of God the Most High> The manuscript tradition varies a great deal in this portion, which shows that ancient scribes felt free to expand or alter the description of Aseneth\u2019s beauty. Since Aseneth is preparing to meet Joseph in hopes that what the angel promised will come true (e.g., that she will marry Joseph), she is described in praising ways that are similar to the description of the loved other in Song of Sol. 4, 5, 7, and some manuscript traditions expanded on this correlation.
\nher were like fields of the Most High This line is fairly convoluted in the manuscript tradition, and Burchard provides \u201ccheeks\u201d (pareiai) in parentheses for this reason.
\nher neck was like an all-variegated cypress Another difficult phrase in the manuscript tradition: MS A provides this line as is; Arm compares her neck to a \u201cbeautiful tower\u201d; L2 (436) compares it to a hill of heaven; P to a \u201cmuch variegated vine [Q: angel]\u201d; and Syr to \u201cislands of repose of angels that (are) in heaven.\u201d For this reason, \u201call-variegated cypress\u201d should also be in parentheses.
\n18:10. and she was very glad Literally, \u201cand she rejoiced a great rejoicing.\u201d See comment on 3:3.
\n18:11. his firstborn son For the manuscripts that use this term (F, Syr, L2), this phrase reflects the intimate notion of God\u2019s chosen as the highly valued firstborn son (cf. Exod. 4:21\u201323).
\n19:2 parthenoi See comment on 1:4.
\n19:4. Joseph saw her and was amazed at her beauty Now Joseph responds as one would expect from an ancient Greek novel; he is overwhelmed by Aseneth\u2019s beauty.
\n19:8. the children of the living God Literally \u201cthe sons of the living God.\u201d See last comment at 16:14.
\n19:9. parthenos See comment on 1:4.
\n20:2. water to wash his feet A gesture of hospitality that appears in several ancient narratives, not just Israelite.
\n20:3. parthenoi See comment on 1:4.
\n20:4. because you are my lord from now on, and I am your servant This metaphorical language not only expresses Aseneth\u2019s humbled attitude toward Joseph (cf. Aseneth 4), but also implies the change of status she has undergone. As a servant is connected to a master\u2019s household and therefore receives certain benefits of that household, so too Aseneth has gained entrance into the house of Joseph with all the benefits that apply.
\nparthenos See comment on 1:4.
\n20:4\u20135. and Joseph watched her hands \u2026 Another example of the flexibility that scribes exercised in the transmission of this narrative. Most of this passage does not appear in E, W, G, families a and d; F provides up to \u201chands of life\u201d (as does L1 in an equivalent form); and Arm, Syr, L2, and Ngr (671) attest to much of this passage.
\n20:5. she urged him Meaning that she urged him to comply to her invitation of hospitality. The basic meaning of the Gk. biazomai is \u201cto constrain,\u201d but in cases like this scene, the implication is that of kind persistence in hopes that the guest\/receiver of the action accept the hospitable treatment (biazomai is used similarly in LXX Gen. 33:11 and Judg. 13:15).
\n20:7. they rejoiced and gave glory to God Confirms that Aseneth\u2019s worries were wrong about her parents\u2019 reaction to her rejection of Egyptian religious practices (cf. 11:4\u20135; 12:12).
\n20:9. because he is like my father In Gen. 45:8, Joseph explains to his brothers that God had made him a father to Pharaoh, but here in Aseneth, Pharaoh is an intimate, paternal figure for Joseph.
\n21:1. it is not fitting for a god-fearing man to sleep with his wife before marriage This is an extension of Joseph\u2019s words in 8:5\u20137, and it also supports cultural norms for upholding the honor of a parthenos before marriage (see comment on 1:4).
\n21:3. Pharaoh was very glad Aseneth is a fitting match for Joseph, Pharaoh\u2019s chief officer, but not for his son (cf. 1:8). In the Greek, the phrase \u201cwas very glad\u201d is literally, \u201crejoiced a great rejoicing,\u201d which is a typical way that strong emotions are described in the LXX; see comment 3:3.
\n21:5. placed golden crowns their heads, (crowns) that were in his household from the beginning Joseph and Aseneth each wear a golden stephanos, which could be seen as ceremonial in this scene. For the manuscripts that add the modifying phrase, however, the crowns implied are Egyptian and therefore allude to the next stage of Joseph and Aseneth\u2019s life.
\n21:6. bless you both, multiply you, and Pharaoh\u2019s blessing uses language that also appears in particular scenes in Genesis. In several places, God blesses humanity or particularly the house of Abraham \u201cto multiply\u201d (1:22; 17:2; 26:24; 35:11), and family a appears to expand Pharaoh\u2019s speech to correlate with God\u2019s blessing of Abraham (cf. \u201cI will make your name great\u201d in Gen. 12:2 and \u201cmagnify\u201d in Aseneth 21:6\u2014both using megalyn\u014d).
\n21:9. after these things, Joseph slept with Aseneth \u2026 and bore Manasseh and his brother, Ephraim, in the house of Joseph Linguistically and stylistically, the narrative returns to prose patterns found in Genesis. The sentence begins with the kai egeneto (\u201cafter these things\u201d) construction (see comment on 1:1), a phrase used to transition between scenes in Gen. 15:1 and 22:1. \u201cSlept with\u201d (literally \u201ccome in to\u201d), sometimes followed by conception and birth, is a common way for marking the birth of a child (all three references in Gen. 16:4 and 30:4\u20135; \u201cconceive and bear\u201d in 21:2; 29:31\u201335; 30:7, 23). Finally, this scene marks where Aseneth 1\u201321 is meant to be inserted into the biblical story; it replaces the narrative portion of Gen. 41:45\u201352.
\n21:10. then Aseneth began to confess to the LORD God \u2026 for all (the) good ways in which she was considered worthy by the LORD Burchard admits that this line is extremely problematic. His reconstructed text shows what is preserved in only E, which provides \u201che\/she bestowed favor\u201d for the parenthetical \u201cand giving thanks.\u201d The former phrase, however, does not make sense; the verb \u201cto bestow favor\u201d (charito\u014d) implies a superior party as the subject, so it makes more sense that God is the actor, but, the sudden switch of subject (from Aseneth to God) is difficult to reconcile in the Greek. Burchard tentatively recommends that charito\u014d is a misspelling of euchariste\u014d (\u201cto give thanks\u201d), the verb attested in F and W.
\n21:12. parthenos See comment on 1:4.
\n21:13. I worshiped strange gods that were without number \u201cStrange gods\u201d (theoi allotrioi) is a typical Septuagint description for the gods of other peoples and regions, usually associated with wor-ship. The phrase \u201cthat were without number\u201d linguistically connects Aseneth\u2019s reference here with the particular idols that she revered in her room (Aseneth 2:3; 10:12).
\n21:19. loosen the girdle of my parthenia A reference to the consummation of marriage (especially the initial stage of a parthenos becoming a gyn\u0113, \u201cwife\u201d) that appears in other Greek literature (Homer, Od. 11.245; Pindar, Isthm. 8[7].48). For parthenia, see comment on 2:4.
\n21:21. he brought me down from my power, he lowered me from my arrogant state When referring to actions by one party against another, the verbs used here often denote violent actions (kathaire\u014d in Gen. 27:40; Job 19:2; tapeino\u014d in Gen. 15:13; 34:2 [where \u201cto lower\/humble\u201d translates Hebrew \u2018innah, \u201cto lay by force\u201d]). This harsh description does not correspond well with Aseneth\u2019s interpretation of her experience in Aseneth 11\u201319.
\nbrought me to the God of the ages \u2026 a cup of wisdom Joseph prays to God on Aseneth\u2019s behalf (Aseneth 8), but he neither sends the angel nor gives her the miraculous meal (cf. Aseneth 10\u201317).
\n22:1. and after these things, the seven years of abundance passed, and the seven years of famine began to come Joining up with the plot of Gen. 41:53\u201356 again, suggesting that Aseneth 1\u201321 is a retelling of the sequence of events in Gen. 41:45\u201352.
\n22:2. Jacob heard about Joseph, his son, \u2026 and he dwelled in the land of Goshen Aseneth skips the family saga in which Joseph puts his brothers through trials because of what they had done to him (Gen. 42\u201345). This sentence refers to the course of events in Genesis when Jacob hears that Joseph is alive, travels with his family to Egypt, and settles in the land of Goshen (45:25\u201347:12).
\nJacob \u2026 Israel The interchange of Jacob\u2019s name occurs several times in the Joseph story in Genesis. The reference in Aseneth is a small detail that imitates the literary style of Genesis and thereby imbeds Aseneth into the Joseph narrative.
\n22:5. paid obeisance to them with (their) face(s) on the ground A subtle reference to the Genesis story in which Joseph dreams that his family bows down to him (37:5\u20139), and then later in Egypt, his dreams are fulfilled (42:6\u20139). The narrative adds that the brothers also bow down to Aseneth.
\n22:6. ripe old age In the Odyssey, this phrase refers to the hope of what a long life may bring (e.g., witnessing the success of progeny and therefore the prosperous continuation of the family line) (Od. 11.136; 19.368; 23.283). Josephus also uses this phrase when discussing the hopes of Solomon\u2019s reign (Ant. 8.2). Although the phrase does not appear in the Septuagint, the ideal that it communicates is nonetheless expressed (Gen. 25:7\u20138; Tob. 14).
\n22:7. very handsome in appearance, and his old age was like (the) youth of an attractive man Cf. Joseph\u2019s appearance in Gen. 39:6 and Aseneth 5.\n \t This phrase appears in only one manuscript and is best understood as a scribe\u2019s embellishment of the narrative.
\n \u201cSinews\u201d is Burchard\u2019s suggestion, but this Greek word is not attested in any manuscript.
\nshoulders, and arms like an angel\u2019s Some manuscripts describe Jacob\u2019s arm strength and compare it to that of a angel. See next comment.
\n If not original to the initial composition of Aseneth, at the very least, the previous line about Jacob\u2019s arm strength reminded some scribes about the wrestling scene between Jacob and the otherworldly figure in Gen. 32:24\u201333.
\n22:9. and Jacob called her to himself \u2026 hung upon the neck of father The narrative does not explain how it is that Jacob understood that Aseneth is not a \u201cstranger\u201d anymore (cf. 7:5). The physical affection that Aseneth shows Jacob is akin to the affection that Joseph\u2019s family shares in Gen. 45:14\u201315 and 46:29.
\n22:11. Simeon and Levi \u2026 alone joined in escorting them Simeon and Levi are two of six sons that Leah bears (Gen. 35:23; cf. Aseneth 27:6), and in Aseneth, they are perceived to be leaders among the brothers. In Genesis, however, Reuben is Jacob and Leah\u2019s firstborn son, and he plays a role in the Joseph narrative (37:22, 29\u201330; 42:37). Genesis 35:22 gives a brief account of Reuben having intercourse with Rachel\u2019s slave, Bilhah, who had become Jacob\u2019s concubine, so Reuben\u2019s status may have been diminished in Aseneth for this reason (cf. Gen. 49:3\u20134). Most notably, LXX Gen. 35:22 adds a critique of Reuben\u2019s actions (\u201cand it seemed evil in his [Israel\u2019s] sight\u201d) (cf. Jub. 33:1\u201320).
\nbut the sons of Zilpah and Bilhah \u2026 because they envied them and they were at enmity with them According to the Genesis account, the wives of Jacob (Leah and Rachel) and each woman\u2019s female slave (Zilpah and Bilhah, belonging to Leah and Rachel, respectively) bear children for Jacob\u2019s household (29:31\u201330:24; 35:16\u201326). Leah bears Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah; Rachel bears Joseph and Benjamin; Zilpah bears Gad and Asher; and Bilhah bears Dan and Naphtali. In the ancient Near East, it was not unusual for a female slave to be expected to assist in the continuation of the family line, and this practice is reflected in the actions of Zilpah and Bilhah (see also Hagar in Gen. 16). Zilpah and Bilhah, however, are legitimately Jacob\u2019s wives (albeit subordinate to Leah and Rachel); they become concubines, who in the ancient world typically had certain legal rights when they bore sons for a household. From an ancient Israelite perspective the sons of Zilpah and Bilhah are legitimate sons of Jacob. In contrast, Aseneth creates tension between these sons and the sons of Leah and Rachel by utilizing the impression that the former are inferior to the latter (Aseneth 24).
\n22:13. prophet of the Most High The Gk. word for \u201cprophet\u201d (proph\u0113t\u0113s) has several connotations, some of which may be assumed in this description of Levi. In the context of ancient religious practice, a proph\u0113t\u0113s was someone who explained or interpreted the will of a god, which is how LXX translators understood the biblical prophets (cf. the role of prophets at Delphi). Aseneth portrays Levi as having a similar skill, although biblical texts say little about this. Also, in Greek translations of Egyptian priestly titles, the chief cultic leader of a temple was called a proph\u0113t\u0113s (Egyptian \u1e25m-ntr, \u201cServant of God\u201d). A Jewish audience in Greco-Roman Egypt may have been familiar with this title and may have understood Levi\u2019s position to be a Hebrew equivalent of this Egyptian religious role (since his descendant becomes the first high priest; Exod. 28, 40; Lev. 8).
\nhe would see writings \u2026 and he revealed them to Aseneth In Jub. 30:18\u201320, Levi\u2019s actions at Shechem (Gen. 34) are deemed righteous, and as a result, his righteousness is recorded in the \u201cheavenly tablets,\u201d but here in Aseneth, Levi seems to have more access to divine knowledge than Aseneth does. She has received divine knowledge by consuming divine food (Aseneth 16), but she does not read divine writings. It would make sense to an ancient audience that Levi is literate (because many cultic leaders were), but in Aseneth, his understanding exceeds that of regular people.
\n Some form of this phrase appears in only Syr, L2 (436), and Arm, but Arm refers to three levels of heaven (and not seven). Several Second Temple texts portray heaven in more established ways (e.g., the heavenly sanctuary in 1 En. 14; cf. Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice), and by late antiquity (2nd\u20136th centuries CE), this picture became more developed (e.g., in Hekhalot literature).
\n23:1. and it happened (one day) when Joseph and Aseneth were passing by This sentence begins with Gk. kai egeneto. See comment on 1:1.
\nand he Aseneth \u2026 and said, \u201cThus it will not be!\u201d The behavior of Pharaoh\u2019s son is a mixture of the bandit and the impassioned nobleman of ancient Greek novels. According to Alain Billault, the stock character of the bandit \u201cis prone to use violence, he falls passionately in love, and he has a tremendous ability to cope with new situations, and frequently one cannot predict how he will behave.\u201d Pharaoh\u2019s son fits this description but he also exercises the authority of the nobleman who falls hopelessly in love with the female protagonist. The actions of Pharaoh\u2019s son also threaten the permanent union of Joseph and Aseneth, and so he serves as an essential character in the unfolding of the plot (see \u201cIntroduction: Authorship\u201d).
\n23:2. with these right hands \u2026 30,000 warriors were cut down Pharaoh\u2019s son refers to Gen. 34, in which Simeon and Levi kill every Shechemite male (the Genesis account does not provide an exact number) because they had believed that the prince, Shechem, violated their sister Dinah. In the overarching narrative of Genesis, the Shechem disaster occurred fairly close to the time before Jacob\u2019s household arrived in Egypt, so the fact that Pharaoh\u2019s son heard of this event makes sense in the Aseneth narrative.
\n23:3. large inheritances Most likely refers to agricultural estates (like that owned by Pentephres and his kindred; 3:5; 4:2; 10:1). In Hellenistic Egypt, several rulers bestowed land in payment for service and loyalty to the empire, and several Jews were recipients of such gifts (e.g., Corpus papyrorum judaicorum 1.147).
\nbecause he took my wife Aseneth, who was betrothed to me from the beginning The audience knows that Pharaoh\u2019s son is at best fibbing (cf. 1:7\u20139), which enriches the characterization of Pharaoh\u2019s son as a bandit.
\n23:4. trustworthy friends Referring to political alliance and the benefits of partaking in such a relationship. See second comment on 13:1.
\n23:7. Simeon was a brash and audacious man \u2026 and striking the son of Pharaoh Simeon\u2019s behavior corresponds to Jacob\u2019s description in Gen. 49:5\u20137, which negatively interprets Simeon and Levi\u2019s actions in Gen. 34. The characterization of Levi in Aseneth, however, departs from what Genesis recounts.
\n23:9. we are god-fearing men, and it is not fitting for us to repay evil for evil This teaching is repeated later (28:5, 14; 29:3), but its application shifts in the narrative (see \u201cIntroduction: Significance\u201d). Given that Pharaoh\u2019s son had mentioned Levi and Simeon\u2019s actions in Gen. 34, Aseneth begs the question, \u201cWhy did they not \u2018repay evil for evil\u2019 in Shechem?\u201d Aseneth 23:13 supplies an answer; Levi\u2019s application is not to precipitate or incite violence, but if an egregious act is committed against the household, then they can legitimately respond with force (cf. Aseneth 28\u201329).
\n23:10. a disciplined calmness Usually translated \u201cgentleness,\u201d Gk. praos is best understood in the sense of \u201cdisciplined calmness\u201d in which a male leader exercises self-control of his emotions.
\nfriend of God the Most High The concept of friendship between royalty and subjects is transferred to Jacob and God to explain the close relationship that Jacob\u2019s household has with Joseph\u2019s deity.
\nlike a firstborn son of God In the TANAKH\/LXX (and ancient Israelite literature), the image of the firstborn son is sometimes used to express the irreplaceable value of Israel (or a particular group of Israelites) to God (Exod. 4:22; Jer. 31:9; Ps. 89:28), and here the image is used to suggest a similar indispensable position of Joseph.
\n23:14. with these two swords, the LORD God avenged the insult of the Shechemites An interpretation of Gen. 34, which never provides God\u2019s opinion about the matter.
\n(by) which they insulted the sons of Israel, because of our sister Dinah whom Shechem the son of Hamor defiled In Gen. 34:5, 7, 13, the narrator and sons of Jacob clearly interpret Shechem\u2019s actions as defilement. \u201cDefile\u201d refers to the devaluation of Dinah\u2019s social position in the household and ancient Israelite society. If a woman was unmarried but her virginity was questioned, her family likely felt gravely dishonored by her situation (thus, the insult that Levi mentions), and sometimes the woman then would not be able to marry. Even in cases of sexual violence, the woman may be required to marry the perpetrator in order to restore honor to her household. In Gen. 34:4, 8\u201312, Hamor and Shechem offer this solution, but Jacob\u2019s sons refuse. In both ancient Israelite and Second Temple settings, Gen. 34 conveys the importance of endogamy, that is, marriage within a particularly self-ascribed group (cf. Jub. 30:1\u201317).
\n24:1. the son of Pharaoh was full of fear \u2026 overwhelmed with tremendous grief Characters experiencing a surplus of emotions is a typical feature in ancient Greek novels (cf. Aseneth 9:1). The phrase, \u201coverwhelmed with tremendous grief,\u201d literally in the Greek reads, \u201che grieved an immensely great grief.\u201d For this style of expression, see comment to 3:3.
\n24:2. his servants said to him The portrayal of subordinates as more intelligent and\/or cunning than noble figures is a literary topos in ancient Greek novels (as well as in New Comedy). An ancient Jewish audience would have anticipated Pharaoh\u2019s son\u2019s failure to recruit Levi and Simeon because they would have understood the endogamy issue of Gen. 34 (see second comment on 23:14). For this reason, Pharaoh\u2019s son\u2019s intelligence is placed into question, but the servants offer an idea that echoes what the narrator had established earlier (22:11), and so they appear to be more knowledgeable than Pharaoh\u2019s son.
\nthe servants of Leah and Rachel, Jacob\u2019s wives In the Greek, it is unclear whether \u201cJacob\u2019s wives\u201d modifies Leah and Rachel or Bilhah and Zilpah (\u201cthe slaves\u201d), but given Aseneth\u2019s simple compositional style, \u201cJacob\u2019s wives\u201d most likely refers to the former pair. This reading bolsters the dichotomy that the narrative sets up between the two sets of women, whereby Bilhah and Zilpah (as \u201cnot wives of Jacob\u201d) bear inferior sons. However, in the ancient Israelite context of Genesis, Bilhah and Zilpah would be considered legitimate wives (in particular, concubines) of Jacob (see second comment on 22:11).
\n24:5. extremely glad Literally \u201crejoiced a great rejoicing.\u201d See comment on 3:3.
\n24:7. Pharaoh\u2019s son lied The narrator provides a clue that the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah do not know the motives of Pharaoh\u2019s son. This detail reflects the bandit characterization of Pharaoh\u2019s son but also shows how Pharaoh\u2019s son preys on the insecurities of the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah.
\nbecause you are powerful men and you will not die like women The feminization of the male warrior as a form of ridicule is evident in ancient Near Eastern and Hellenistic literature, including ancient Israelite texts (Isa. 19:16; Jer. 50:37; 51:30; Nah. 3:13).
\n24:8. children of my father\u2019s servants, and they are not my brothers Because the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah do not question Pharaoh\u2019s son\u2019s account, it appears that this statement is at the heart of their insecurities. The implication is that the rank of one\u2019s mother in the household determines the ranking of the son, and the Genesis narratives certainly imply this (e.g., Isaac preferred over Ishmael because Sarah was superior to Hagar [Gen. 16, 21]; Joseph and Benjamin preferred over the other sons because Rachel was superior to Jacob\u2019s other wives [Gen. 37; 44:27\u201331]). It is not clear how much this logic was applied in ancient Near Eastern households (but see Deut. 21:15\u201317).
\n24:9. these men have sold me to the Ishmaelites Cf. Gen. 37:25\u201328; 39:1. The confusing addition of the Midianite traders (Gen. 37:28, 36) is ignored in Aseneth, and Pharaoh\u2019s son lies that Joseph blames the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah for selling him into slavery (and not the Midianites).
\nI, on my part, will pay them back in accordance with (the) entire insult of theirs According to Gen. 49\u201350, Jacob dies soon after he arrives in Egypt, and after Jacob\u2019s burial, all the brothers fear Joseph\u2019s retaliation for their actions against him (50:15\u201317). Since a Jewish audience would know this detail, they would identify how Pharaoh\u2019s son incorporates this real fear felt by the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah into a false tale of how Joseph blames only them (and not all the brothers). For this reason, the audience would find it convincing that the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah believe Pharaoh\u2019s son (cf. Aseneth 24:11).
\n24:14. because my father Pharaoh is like a father to Joseph and he told him (that he would) help him against you Since Pharaoh\u2019s son is lying about Joseph\u2019s supposed motive, the reason why the son wants to kill Pharaoh is also suspect. Most likely it is because Pharaoh opposed the son\u2019s marriage to Aseneth (1:7\u20139).
\n24:15\u201319. 600 men powerful in battle and 50 forerunners \u2026 500 men each \u2026 50 archers Exaggerated numbers that add to the drama of the plot. Notable is the discrepancy of force\u2014the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah have 2,000 soldiers, but Aseneth has about 650 men, and then after Aseneth\u2019s men are supposedly killed, Aseneth alone would face Pharoah\u2019s son and 50 archers.
\n24:19. then you will do to her just as your soul desires The implication is that Pharaoh\u2019s son fulfill his sexual desires (cf. similar expressions of sexual attraction in Song of Sol. 2:3; Ps. 45:12; Jdt. 16:22), but with no regard for Aseneth\u2019s wishes (cf. Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18; 21:11\u2014where the consent of the woman is not at issue).
\nand we will kill his children before his eyes Pharaoh\u2019s son did not mention Manasseh and Ephraim, but the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah plan to eradicate Joseph\u2019s lineage from Jacob\u2019s household. The patrilineal structure of households was prominent in ancient Near Eastern societies and well reflected in ancient Israelite literature, which include stories about wiping out inheritance rights by murdering the sons of a household (Judg. 9:5; 2 Kings 10:6\u201317).
\n25:4\u201327:11. just as Dan and Gad had told them \u2026 burned to ashes In place of these verses, all Arm manuscripts except MS 332 apparently provide a pastiche of rewritten portions of the following verses: 25:4; 26:5, 8; 28:10; 27:3, 6; 26:6.
\n25.5. have you sold him once A reference to the joint action of the brothers in Gen. 37:26\u201328. In 37:22, 29\u201330, it seems that Reuben did not participate in this act, but he is implicated with the rest of the brothers later on (45:4\u20135).
\nand today he is king of the entire land of Egypt, savior, and grain provider This statement echoes Pentephres\u2019s depiction of Joseph (see first comment on 4:7). Here, \u201cking\u201d (basileus) is more attested in the manuscript tradition than in 4:7, so it appears to be authentic to the initial composition of Aseneth. Naphtali and Asher embellish Joseph\u2019s role, however, because he clearly is not the supreme ruler of Egypt. Genesis 45:8 and 45:26 come close to depicting Joseph in a similar way, but the LXX tones down the more explicit suggestions in the Hebrew. Most likely, the brothers are depicting Joseph as king in a symbolic way; he clearly is the chief administrator of Egypt (Gen. 41:53\u201357; 42:6; 47:13\u201326), and therefore he wielded significant authority.
\nsavior S\u014dt\u0113r is a common LXX epithet referring to God, but there are occasions when it refers to a person that God raises up to \u201csave\u201d Israel (Neh. 9:27; Judg. 3:9, 15). There is no superhuman or messianic overtone inherent in the use of the word for Joseph here. See first comment on 4:7.
\n25:6. he will send fire from heaven, and it will consume you A common image used to depict the judgment of God toward humans in ancient Israelite literature (Amos 1\u20132; Ezek. 38:22; 39:6; Zeph. 3:8). This image is also used in later Jewish writings for similar purposes.
\nthe angels of God will wage war against you The word \u201cangel\u201d (Gk. angelos, Hebrew mal\u2019ak) can be an ambiguous term for modern audiences because of the layers of connotations the word has assumed in several religious traditions. In ancient Israelite and Second Temple literature (in both Hebrew and Greek), an angel of God is best understood as a supernatural official analogous to imperial officials on earth. Sometimes, angels are soldiers or commanders of God\u2019s military force (or \u201chost\u201d), and this function is what is recalled here (cf. Ezek. 8\u201310; Isa. 37:36; Dan. 10:20\u201321; and Aseneth 14:8).
\n25:7. shall we die like women? That is, uncourageously, the opposite of andreia (\u201cmanliness, courage\u201d) in Greek culture. However, andreia also describes women at times (Sophocles, El. 983; Aristotle Pol. 1260a22; 4 Macc. 14\u201317). A Jewish audience would also detect Dan and Gad\u2019s foolishness in their reasoning. Naphtali and Asher had just made reference to the divine powers of destruction that God had wielded in the past (according to ancient Israelite traditions), but Dan and Gad disregard God\u2019s might and claim that their behavior is brave.
\n26:6. perceived all these matters in (his) spirit like a prophet This line appears in only B, D, and family a (BD do not have \u201cin the spirit\u201d). For manuscripts that provide this phrase, Levi experiences some form of divine inspiration akin to ancient Israelite prophetic activity, but instead of foreseeing immanent consequences, he has insight into actions that were occurring there and then. This additional phrase also helps to explain how Levi knew about the ambush, and it complements his portrayal in Aseneth 22.
\n27:1. strong and \u2026 feared the LORD greatly Although Genesis hints at Benjamin\u2019s special status (because he is Rachel\u2019s son), he is portrayed as a static character in the Joseph narrative (Gen. 43\u201345). Jacob describes Benjamin as a 0 (\u201cravenous\u201d in MT Gen. 49:27), but Genesis provides nothing else about him. Aseneth fills in this gap with descriptions applied to Joseph (strong, commanding, handsome), but adds that he has the power of young lion.
\n27:2\u20133. took a round stone \u2026 struck his left temple \u2026 and Pharaoh\u2019s son fell Benjamin\u2019s actions are reminiscent of David\u2019s battle with Goliath (1 Sam. 17). Both use a stone (\u201cfrom the wadi\u201d; cf. 1 Sam. 17:40) to strike (patass\u014d; cf. 1 Sam. 17:49) the enemy in the head, and the enemy falls (pipt\u014d) to the ground (cf. 1 Sam. 17:49). Unlike Goliath, Pharaoh\u2019s son is incapacitated but not dead (Aseneth 29:1), but following this verse Benjamin kills the 50 archers that had accompanied Pharaoh\u2019s son\u2019s. With \u201cstones from the wadi,\u201d he strikes each man with one stone that \u201csinks through\u201d (dy\u014d dia) each man\u2019s temple (cf. David\u2019s stone \u201cpenetrates through\u201d [diadyomai dia] Goliath\u2019s helmet into his forehead in 1 Sam. 17:49).
\n27:6. the sons of Leah \u2026 and killed 2,000 men Levi\u2019s warning to Pharaoh\u2019s son has become a reality (23:13). For Levi, the prescription that god-fearing men should refrain from repaying evil for evil (23:9, 12) does not apply to retaliatory violence when it concerns the household (cf. 23:14).
\n27:7. the boy, Benjamin The Gk. for boy (paidarion) also describes David in the Goliath story (1 Sam. 17:33, 42). The emphasis on David\u2019s age contributes to the climax that he\u2014and not the experienced soldiers of Saul\u2019s army\u2014kills Goliath. Aseneth creates a similar impression, where Benjamin as a youth is able to slay single-handedly 50 men without the use of conventional weapons.
\nPharaoh\u2019s son has died The sons of Zilpah and Bilhah think that Pharaoh\u2019s son is dead, but the narrator informed the audience earlier that although Pharaoh\u2019s son is severely injured, he remains alive (\u201chalf-dead\u201d in 27:3).
\n27:8. let us kill Aseneth and Benjamin Because the sons believe that Pharaoh\u2019s son has died, they perceive that their protection has been lost (in terms of having legitimate social positions and other benefits). Because Aseneth and Benjamin witnessed their actions, they conclude that the two must die in order to save themselves.
\n27:10\u201311. Aseneth saw them \u2026 heard Aseneth\u2019s voice The majority of manuscripts preserve some form of this passage, but B and D read slightly differently: \u201cAseneth saw them and the swords fell from their hands and fell onto the ground, and dissolved into ashes.\u201d In these manuscripts, Aseneth does not appeal to God, nor does God actively intervene in the situation.
\n27:10. who restored me to life \u2026 destruction of death Only some family a manuscripts provide this entire phrase, and several primary manuscripts read, \u201cwho restored me to life [or: brought me to life] from death.\u201d
\n28:1. the LORD wages war against us What Naphtali and Asher feared about God\u2019s response to their attack on Joseph is precisely what has happened in their attempt to harm Aseneth (cf. 25:6), and as a result, the narrative conveys that Aseneth\u2019s status is equivalent to that of Joseph.
\n28:2. fell upon their faces on the ground and paid obeisance to Aseneth What all the brothers do before Joseph in Gen. 42:6; 43:26; 44:14, the sons of Zilpah and Bilhah now do before Aseneth alone (also Aseneth 22:5).
\nour lady and queen All manuscripts categories have some form of \u201clady\u201d (despoina, or a translated equivalent), but family d lacks \u201cqueen\u201d (basilissa). All these terms suggest Aseneth\u2019s royal nature, which the sons identify, and this recognition is akin to the royal qualities noticed in Joseph (cf. Aseneth 5, 25).
\n28:5\u20136. we know that our brothers are god-fearing men \u2026 your slaves before them These verses appear in only B (family d) and A, P, and Q (family a); and several manuscripts upon which Burchard relies heavily do not provide these verses. Furthermore, 28:5 makes little sense in the logic of the narrative; the sons have just explained to Aseneth their conviction that their brothers seek vengeance against them. The sons\u2019 request for Aseneth\u2019s protection is meaningless if they believe that their brothers will not harm them. In D (family d), 28:5 is part of Aseneth\u2019s speech: \u201cDo not be afraid because your brothers are god-fearing men, and they do not repay evil for evil\u201d (cf. 28:7).
\nthe LORD will judge between me and you The call for God \u201cto judge between\u201d (krin\u014d ana meson) two parties is an expression used in Gen. 16:5 and 31:53 when the ultimate determination of the more righteous party is delegated to God (cf. Judg. 11:27 and Jdt. 7:24).
\n28:9. they fell upon the ground and paid obeisance See first comment on 28:2.
\nand they began to search for their brothers \u2026 in order to destroy them Many manuscripts provide the former phrase, but fewer the latter phrase. The latter phrase clarifies the intention of Leah\u2019s sons but is not essential to the narrative; Leah\u2019s sons are clearly in pursuit of their brothers (see also 28:12\u201313, which are well attested in the manuscript tradition).
\n28:13. they first planned evil things against us \u2026 and against you Although Simeon showed less restraint than Levi did when dealing with Pharaoh\u2019s son (23:7\u20138), he applies a logic similar to Levi\u2019s (cf. Aseneth 27); for both, retaliatory violence is justified in this case (see comment on 27:6).
\n28:14. by no means will you commit evil for evil \u2026 To the LORD will you give (the power) Aseneth extends the prescription that Levi cited to Pharaoh\u2019s son (23:9, 12), and she protects those who repented and sought refuge through her. She lives out what her new name signifies (\u201cCity of Refuge\u201d; cf. Aseneth 15).
\n28:15. from their brothers\u2019 anger so that they not kill them Appears in only B, D, and family a.
\n28:17. Levi realized (it) \u2026 in their anger B and D lack this and instead read: \u201cAnd [Levi] blessed her. So Aseneth saved the men from the wrath of their brothers so that they did not kill them.\u201d Aseneth\u2019s role seems highlighted more in BD than in the other manuscripts, but the latter emphasize how Aseneth changed Levi\u2019s mind about retaliatory violence (Aseneth 29).
\n29:2. Benjamin ran toward him \u2026 about to strike the chest of Pharaoh\u2019s son When David strikes Goliath in the head with the rock, he \u201cruns\u201d to the fallen Goliath and slays him with a sword (1 Sam. 17:51; both the LXX and Aseneth use the aorist form of \u201cto run,\u201d edramen, from trex\u014d). Because of the correlation between Benjamin and David in Aseneth 27, the audience would expect a similar sequence of events as evident in David\u2019s battle with Goliath; they would expect Benjamin to slay Pharaoh\u2019s son.
\n29:3. we are god-fearing men, and it is not fitting \u2026 to repay evil for evil Since Levi did not use this logic against Egyptian soldiers in 27:6, he has changed his perspective about retaliatory violence; Aseneth appears to have changed his mind on the matter.
\n29:8\u20139. left his diadem for Joseph, and Joseph reigned in Egypt for 48 years The diadem (diad\u0113ma) signified royalty and often was worn by kings (see sixth comment on 3:6), and the verb \u201cto reign\u201d (basileu\u014d) leaves little question as to Joseph\u2019s status. In Aseneth, Joseph becomes king of Egypt, a pharaoh. This does not mean that Joseph became a deity or that he was deified like Greco-Roman rulers in Egypt. Later Jewish writings also mention the memory of Joseph as \u201cking of Egypt\u201d (Pirke R. El. 11).
\nJoseph gave the diadem to the younger son Aseneth makes clear that Joseph was a king in a dynasty not his own. He stands in for the firstborn who had died from battle wounds (29:7), and he passes on the reign to Pharaoh\u2019s next son when he is of age.<\/her><\/commanding><\/not><\/saw><\/and><\/her><\/jacob><\/were><\/sinews><\/like><\/to><\/magnify><\/on><\/nimble><\/cheeks><\/cheeks><\/they><\/interwoven><\/this><\/in><\/p>\n

Judith<\/p>\n

Betsy Halpern-Amaru<\/p>\n

The book of Judith is an artfully crafted tale of victory \u201cby the hand of a woman\u201d over a threatening world power. Casting the adversary as an amalgam of Israel\u2019s enemies from earlier eras and the heroine as a widow empowered only by piety and beauty, the author advances a political theology of zealous activism rooted in faith in the God of Israel. At least one scholar has suggested that Judith was written \u201cto neutralize the book of Esther,\u201d which does not include prayers, divine intervention, Jerusalem, or the Temple, and whose heroine, in contrast to Judith, is no model of religious piety.
\nThe book is symmetrically structured, with each part presenting one particular theological perspective and rejecting another. The first half presents the stance of the enemy\u2014military might conveys universal sovereignty and divinity on its bearer. That a different type of force operates with Israel\u2019s destiny is heard and quite literally cast off by Holofernes, the enemy commander. The second half sets forth the position that the only true god is the God of Israel who rules all and protects His people. The possibility that God\u2019s protection is not always certain is voiced and silenced by Judith\u2019s words and deeds.<\/p>\n

Authorship and History<\/p>\n

Most contemporary scholars identify Judith as a work of fiction composed in Hebrew by an unknown author during the Maccabean era. More precise dating remains elusive; some favor a pre-Maccabean date (before 180 BCE); some a Maccabean one (160s BCE); and others, a date in the post-Maccabean Hasmonean era (150\u2013100 BCE). Modern scholars have variously identified the religious ideas of the author as Pharisaic, pre-Pharisaic, Sadducean, and as the \u201claw-piety\u201d associated with the Maccabean hasidim.
\nNo ancient Hebrew text of Judith has been preserved. Evidence for its existence rests upon the Hebraisms (phrases that reflect an underlying Hebrew text) in the Septuagint (LXX). In addition to an Old Latin translation (OL) there also may have been an Aramaic one, for Jerome mentions using a \u201cChaldean\u201d version in his Vulgate Latin translation. There are several medieval Hebrew manuscripts of Judith; but most scholars view them as translations from the Latin. A. M. Dubarle, however, has argued that they are copies of very early Hebrew versions and represent a Judith tradition\u2014separate from the one used in the LXX\u2014that entered the Vulgate through an Aramaic translation.<\/p>\n

Significance<\/p>\n

As part of the LXX, Judith entered the Catholic canon and attained the quasi-sacred status attributed to apocryphal books by Protestants. The story and the heroine became prominent subjects in European music, literature, and art, where Judith was variously portrayed as a symbol for the Church, as the personification of civic virtue, as a licentious female sinner, and most recently by some feminist interpreters as a failed example of female leadership.
\nThe reception of Judith in Jewish tradition and culture is quite different. Although featuring a heroine far more pious in her ways than the biblical Queen Esther, the book of Judith was not included in the Hebrew Bible. Scholars attribute its omission to a number of factors, among them the positive treatment of conversion (Judith 14) and the date of its composition. Judith influenced Pseudo-Philo\u2019s treatment of the story of Jael and Sisera (Judg. 4:17\u201324; L.A.B. 31), but there are no explicit references to it in Second Temple or early Rabbinic literature. It is only in the 10th\u201311th centuries that Judith reemerges in a midrashic form.
\nExtant are a long version of Ma\u2019aseh Yehudit (The Judith Story) found in the collection of legends Hemdat Yamim (Livorno, 1793); a shorter one in Hibbur me-ha-Yeshu\u2019ah of R. Nissim b. Jacob ben Nissim ibn Shahin (990\u20131062); and a number of other short versions preserved in scattered manuscripts. Many of the names and identities of characters have been changed or omitted in these midrashim, all of which set the story in Jerusalem, begin with the attack on the Israelites, and usually portray the conflict as between the Jews and the Greeks.
\nIn some of the midrashim, in synagogue liturgy, in Talmud commentaries, and in Jewish art, the Judith legend became a religious symbol for the Jewish nation, specifically associated with Hanukkah. Adaptations of the story in 11th-century piyyutim (liturgical poems) were recited in the yotzer (the first blessing of the morning Shema prayer) for the first Sabbath of Hanukkah and in the zulat (after the morning Shema prayer) for the second Sabbath of Hanukkah. The talmudist Rashbam (1085\u20131184) credited the miracle of Hanukkah to the actions of Judith much as he ascribes the miracle of Purim to the actions of Esther (Tosafot on B. Meg. 4a). Commenting on R. Joshua b. Levi\u2019s position that women were obliged to light Hanukkah lamps \u201csince they too were involved in that miracle\u201d (B. Shab. 23a), R. Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi (RaN) (ca. 1310\u20131375) related that obligation and the custom of eating dairy products on Hanukkah to \u201cYehudit the daughter of Yochanan, the High Priest\u201d who \u201cfed the Greek general cheese [to increase his thirst], got him drunk, and cut off his head, causing the enemy to flee.\u201d Depictions of Judith frequently appeared in illustrated manuscripts, Hanukkah birkhonim (booklets containing the Grace after Meals), and prayer books. From the 16th century onward, her image was a standard feature on European Hanukkah menorahs. Although no longer so prominent, Judith has remained a model of faithfulness and courage in the modern Jewish imagination.<\/p>\n

GUIDE TO READING<\/p>\n

To appreciate the artistry of the book of Judith, the reader is encouraged to access its wealth of biblical allusions by referring to the biblical sources noted in the commentary.<\/p>\n

SUGGESTED READING<\/p>\n

Craven, Toni. Artistry and Faith in the Book of Judith. Chico CA: Scholars Press, 1983.
\nFriedman, Mira. \u201cThe Metamorphoses of Judith.\u201d Jewish Art 12\u201313 (1986): 225\u201346.
\nMehlman, Bernard, and Daniel Polish. \u201cMa\u2019aseh Yehudit: A Chanukah Midrash.\u201d Journal of Reform Judaism 26:1 (1979): 73\u201391.
\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cA Midrash for Hanukkah.\u201d Conservative Judaism 36:2 (1982\u201383): 26\u201335.
\nMoore, Carey A. Judith: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Bible 40. Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1985.
\nNewman, Judith. \u201cThe Past as Blueprint for Present: Salvation by Typology in Judith 9.\u201d Chap. 3 in Praying By the Book: The Scripturalization of Prayer in Second Temple Judaism. SBL Early Judaism and Its Literature 14. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999.
\nOtzen, Benedikt. Tobit and Judith. Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002.
\nSkehan, Patrick. W. \u201cThe Hand of Judith.\u201d Catholic Biblical Quarterly 25 (1963): 94\u2013110.
\nStocker, Margarita. Judith: Sexual Warrior; Women and Power in Western Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.
\nVanderKam, James, ed. \u201cNo One Spoke Ill of Her\u201d: Essays on Judith. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992.<\/p>\n

COMMENTARY<\/p>\n

Chapter 1<\/p>\n

1:1\u20136 The writer creates a dramatic setting within the world of imperial, international politics, specifically, the ambitions of an overwhelmingly powerful monarch named Nebuchadnezzar. The presentation imitates an historical style, but the chronological, historical, and topographical information is patently flawed. This suggests that the author adopted the literary strategy of conflating historical characters and dates in order to incorporate events that happened over centuries into a single storyline that is blatantly fictitious.
\nIt was the twelfth year What occurs in that year is described in Jdt. 1:5\u201312.
\ntwelfth year \u2026 Nebuchadnezzar The 12th year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar (593 BCE) sets the beginning of the narrative before Nebuchadnezzar II (605\u2013562 BCE) destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple and exiled the Jews to Babylon (586 BCE) However, references to return from exile in Jdt. 4:3; 5:19 indicate a different setting, not long after the return from Babylonian exile (538 BCE).
\nAssyrians \u2026 Nineveh Places the narrative more than 100 years earlier when the Assyrians, whose capital was Nineveh, destroyed the Northern Kingdom of Israel (722 BCE) and, under Sennacherib, laid siege to Jerusalem (701 BCE). Nebuchadnezzar, the Assyrians, and the return from exile are not mentioned in the medieval Judith midrashim. In these versions, the tale begins with a siege of Jerusalem set in the time of the Greeks and frequently related to the Hanukkah festival.
\nArphaxad The name may be taken from the Genesis genealogies where Arphachshad is the third son of Shem and head of the line from which Abram descends (Gen. 10:22, 24; 11:10\u201326). Genesis makes no connection between him and the Medes. However, in Jubilees, Arpachshad\u2019s son marries the daughter of Madai, the ancestor of the Medes, who himself is married to the sister of Arpachshad and settles near him (Jub. 8:5; 10:35).
\nEcbatana The capital city of the Medes, approximately 300 miles northeast of Babylon.
\n2\u20134 A parenthetical aside emphasizing the invincibility of the city.
\n2. He Arphaxad.
\n5 From the perspective of plotline, the account of the war against Arphaxad (vv. 5\u20136 and 13\u201316) explains the circumstances under which Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s army subsequently attacked Judea. The literary purpose of the elaboration is to impress the reader with the enormous military strength of the power that will threaten Jerusalem and Judea. In the Vulgate, the account of the war is abbreviated to two verses (Vulg. 1:5\u20136).
\nRagau A plain, northeast of Ecbatana, which extends to a mountain range south of the Caspian Sea.
\n6. Hydaspes A tributary of the Indus River, located in India, indicating the eastern border of the Median Empire. The Syriac has Ulai, a river near Susa, which flows into the Tigris-Euphrates.
\nArioch Perhaps adopted from the name of one of four kings defeated by Abram (Gen. 14:1, 9).
\nElymeans Perhaps an adaptation of Elam in Gen. 14:1, 9, but it also may refer to the inhabitants of the Persian district named Elyma.
\nChaldeans A reference to Assyrians.
\n7\u201310 The route of Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s envoys goes from Anatolia (the Asian portion of modern Turkey) and the territories west of the Euphrates to Ethiopia in the south.
\n7. all who lived in Persia \u2026 Cilicia \u2026 Antilebanon Anachronistic terminology that reflects the Hellenistic era of the author. Persia would have been called Media in the time of the Assyrians; Cilicia and Antilebanon were administrative districts in the Hellenistic period, one on the southeast coast of Anatolia, the other northeast of the Galilee between Lebanon and Damascus.
\n8. Carmel Lower Galilee, called \u201cGalilee of the Nations\u201d (Isa. 9:1).
\nGilead Area of the Golan east of the Jordan.
\nEsdraelon Greek term for the western part of the Jezreel valley between the Galilee and Samaria.
\n9. Samaria Identified with the Northern Kingdom, Samaria was conquered by the Assyrians in 721 BCE, rebuilt and repopulated in the Babylonian and Persian eras, and subsequently annexed to Judea by John Hyrcanus (135\u2013104 BCE).
\nBethany Either Hebron or Beth-anoth, a town north of Hebron.
\nChelous Either Halhul or Chalutsa, a town southeast of Beersheba.
\nKadesh The biblical oasis, Kadesh-barnea, in northern Sinai where the Israelites camped before entering Canaan (Num. 34:3\u20135).
\nriver of Egypt The biblical \u201cWadi of Egypt\u201d (Josh. 15:4; present-day Wadi el-Arish).
\nTahpanhes An outpost in northern Egypt bordering the Sinai (Jer. 43:7\u20139).
\nRaamses Located in northeastern Egypt, one of the store cities built by the Hebrew slaves and the starting point for the Exodus out of Egypt (Exod. 1:11; 12:27).
\nGoshen Territory within the region of Raamses, where the Israelites settled when they came to Egypt (Gen. 47:6, 11).
\n10. Tanis and Memphis Ancient cities in Lower Egypt, south of Cairo. Tanis is the Greek name of the biblical Zoan (Num. 13:22). Memphis appears in the Bible as Moph or Noph (Hos. 9:6; Isa. 19:13).
\n11. only one man Or only a man. The peoples of the region feel safe in refusing the summons either because they view Nebuchadnezzar as being alone and without allies or as an equal.
\n12. the whole territory of Cilicia and Damascus and Syria All those who rejected his envoys (Jdt. 1:7\u201310). Damascus refers not just to the city, but also to the surrounding region. Syria (Heb. Aram) is a general term used for the territory between Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean.
\nMoab \u2026 Ammon \u2026 Judea That the peoples of Moab, Ammon, and Judea are particularly singled out foreshadows Holofernes\u2019s campaign against Judea, in which the Ammonites and Moabites play a significant part (cf. Jdt. 5:2; 7:8). The mention of these two ancient biblical peoples alongside the Judeans is not historical, for by the beginning of the 3rd century BCE their territory (east of the Jordan) was occupied by Arabs (1 Macc. 11:5; 2 Macc. 4:26). Their role in the narrative mirrors the complex relationship between the Moabites, Ammonites, and Israelites in the Bible. That they are introduced in association with the Judeans suggests the family connection between their progenitor, Lot, and his uncle, Abraham (Gen. 19:36\u201338). However, as the narrative progresses (Jdt. 5:2; 6:2, 7, 8), they are no more the natural allies of the Judeans than were their biblical counterparts allies of the Israelites (Num. 22:1\u20136).
\n14 Cyrus the Great, not Nebuchadnezzar, conquered Ecbatana in 554 BCE.
\ninto disgrace Syriac, \u201cinto a reproach.\u201d A recurrent theme in Judith (Jdt. 4:12; 5:21; 8:22; 9:2), becoming a mockery or disgrace in defeat is a frequent motif in biblical literature generally.
\n15. in the mountains of Ragau The author sets a number of events on high ground (Jdt. 2:21\u201322; 4:5; 6:4), imagery that suggests the biblical encounter between Elijah and the prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel (1 Kings 18:20\u201346).
\n16. he and all his combined forces Better translated as \u201che and his entire motley army,\u201d to reflect the parallel biblical concept of \u201cmixed multitude.\u201d<\/p>\n

Chapter 2<\/p>\n

2:1. eighteenth year The eighteenth year of the reign of the historical Nebuchadnezzar II would be 587 B.C.E. (Jer. 32:1). Nebuchadnezzar II began the siege of Jerusalem the previous year (2 Kings 25:1). The author of Judith adopts \u201cthe eighteenth year of Nebuchadnezzar\u201d from Jer. 32:1 with no concern for the chronological discrepancy.
\ntwenty-second day of the first month The month of Nissan. Although Babylonian names were given to the Hebrew months during the Babylonian exile, the author uses biblical terminology. The campaign begins in the spring, the \u201cseason when kings go out [to battle]\u201d (2 Sam. 11:1) in the Middle East. Forecasting the outcome, the author has Nebuchadnezzar present his plan on the seventh day of Passover, which\u2014according to tradition\u2014was the date Pharaoh and his forces drowned in the sea and the Israelites safely reached the shore.
\n2\u201313 The account is ironic, if not comic, for Nebuchadnezzar is king of the wrong people, rules from an already destroyed capital, discloses a \u201csecret plan,\u201d and, proclaiming himself \u201clord of the whole earth\u201d (Jdt. 2:5), gives orders that are to be \u201cexactly\u201d obeyed (v. 13), but which his chief general immediately disregards (Jdt. 2:23\u20133:8). Ironic ridicule of pagans and their beliefs is a biblical convention.
\n4. Holofernes Persian name, found among the Cappadocian kings. A Persian general by this name served under Artaxerxes III, who invaded Asia Minor and Egypt around 341 BCE. The name Holofernes appears in Ma\u2019aseh Yehudit (Hemdat Yamim) as \u201cthe King of Greece,\u201d who laid siege to Jerusalem.
\nsecond only to himself On the head of the army as second in authority to the king, see 2 Kings 4:13. Cast as the counterpart to the heroine, Holofernes speaks and acts for Nebuchadnezzar much as the Judith character will speak and act for God.
\n5\u201313 These verses introduce the central question of the book: Who is the true god? Nebuchadnezzar with his highly visible and fear-inspiring military might, or the invisible God of Israel? Dominating the first half of the work, the case for Nebuchadnezzar opens with a portrayal that draws upon the biblical characterization of Sennacherib, the Assyrian king who laid siege to Jerusalem in 701 BCE (2 Kings 18:19\u201325).
\n5. the Great King A common royal title for Assyrian, and later, Persian and Babylonian kings (2 Kings 18:19).
\nlord of the whole earth Purposeful borrowing of a biblical designation for God.
\n7. prepare earth and water A token of submission in Persian custom.
\ncover the whole face of the earth The words echo those ascribed to Egypt in Jer. 46:8. The reader is to recognize the irony of the allusion, for in Jeremiah, Egypt\u2019s arrogance is set against a divine forecast of its defeat.
\n9. captive to the ends of the whole earth Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s threat echoes that spoken by God in Deut. 28:64.
\n12. For as I live The oath formula employed by God in Deut. 32:40 and elsewhere. Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s certainty that all he has said will come to pass reflects God\u2019s words in Isa. 14:24\u201327.
\n20. mixed crowd See comment on Jdt. 1:16.
\nlike a swarm of locusts A simile for a destructive force.
\nlike the dust of the earth Literally, \u201clike the sand of the earth.\u201d A common biblical expression for great numbers (Gen. 13:16; 28:14) that also appears as \u201cthe sands on the seashore\u201d or \u201cthe sands of the sea\u201d (Gen. 22:17; 32:13).
\n2:21\u201328 The account of Holofernes\u2019s campaign is filled with geographical problems. The time frame is impossible; site names are enigmatic; and the route is incomprehensible.
\n2:21. marched for three days The journey from Nineveh to Cilicia, on the southeastern coast of Anatolia, would involve 300 miles, too long for three days. Either the verses are out of sequence or humor is intended.
\nBectileth Unknown site.
\n22\u201328 The stream of violent verbs in the account of Holofernes\u2019s campaign dramatizes the fear he spreads among the nations.
\n23 None of the place-names here and in the next verses, 24\u201325, are known to be in the area of Cilicia.
\nPut and Lud Put is a son of Ham, and Lud a son of Shem in the Genesis table of nations (Gen 10:6, 22). Put is often associated with Libya in Africa, and Lud with Lydia in Asia Minor. Neither could be reached in a three-day march from Nineveh.
\nRassisites Unknown.
\nIshmaelites Nomads living east of the Jordan in the Syrian desert.
\ncountry of the Chelleans An unknown area north of the territory of the Ishmaelites, sometimes associated with Cholle (present-day el-Khalle) between Palmyra and the Euphrates.
\n24\u201325 The account of Holofernes\u2019s march would have him crossing the Euphrates to get from Nineveh to the hill country of Cilicia (Jdt. 2:21), recrossing it to pass through Mesopotamia (v. 24) and, if the sea in verse 24 is the Mediterranean, crossing the Euphrates yet again. It has been suggested that verse 24 originally preceded verse 21.
\nAbron Identified as a tributary of the Euphrates in the middle of Mesopotamia or as a stream near Cilicia.
\n25 Holofernes is again in Cilicia. The verse may be out of place; it should come after verse 23.
\nsouthern borders of Japheth The borders that separate the descendants of Japheth living in the north and west from the descendants of Shem in the east and south.
\nfacing Arabia The Syrian Desert near Damascus.
\n26. Midianites Bedouin marauders.
\n28. fear and dread At this point, the forces of Nebuchadnezzar and Holofernes evoke the fear, but subsequently, fear and trembling falls upon those same Assyrian forces (Jdt. 15:2).
\nSidon and Tyre Cities on the northern Mediterranean coast.
\nSur and Ocina Sur is frequently identified with Dor, south of Mt. Carmel, and Ocina with Acco, north of the Carmel. However, the identifications are problematic, for the list otherwise goes from north to south.
\nJamnia Philistine city north of Ashdod, called Jabneel in the Bible (Josh. 15:11).
\nAzotus The biblical Philistine city Ashdod.
\nAscalon The biblical Philistine city Ashkelon, south of Ashdod.<\/p>\n

Chapter 3<\/p>\n

3:2\u20134 The nations who had initially had denied Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s claim to universal sovereignty (Jdt. 1:11) now totally submit to him.
\n2. the Great King Cf. Jdt. 2:5.
\n6. as auxiliaries The use of forces from conquered peoples was not unusual (cf. Josephus, Ant. 11.321, 330).
\n8 Holofernes not only goes beyond the directives he received (Jdt. 2:10\u201311), but also adopts a colonization policy that elevates his monarch-sponsor to the status of a god. One of a number of instances where the author develops a motif through parallel opposites, the characterization reveals a zealous dedication to the promotion of Nebuchadnezzar, for which the antithetical counterpart\u2014Judith\u2019s zealous commitment to the God of Israel\u2014is developed in the second half of the story.
\nworship Nebuchadnezzar alone \u2026 call upon him as a god Historically, no Assyrian, Babylonian, or Persian king was worshipped as a god. The author, as in Dan. 3:4; 6:8, ascribes a Hellenistic practice to an earlier period and culture.
\nall their dialects and tribes Emphasizing the far-flung, imperial nature of his conquests.
\n9. Esdraelon Jezreel (cf. Jdt. 1:8).
\nDothan Ancient city in southern Galilee (Jdt. 4:6; 7:3, 18; 8:2).
\nthe great ridge Unidentified.
\n10. Geba Uncertain.
\nScythopolis Greek for Beth-shan, a town at the junction of the Jezreel and Jordan valleys. A number of battles were fought in the area, among them the Israelite confrontation with the Philistines when Jael killed Sisera (Judg. 5:19) and several engagements during the Maccabean war (1 Macc. 5:52; 12:40\u201342; 2 Macc. 12:29\u201331).<\/p>\n

Chapter 4<\/p>\n

4:1. Israelites living in Judea A purposely anachronistic term for Judeans.
\n2 From the outset the safety of Jerusalem and the Temple is of primary concern. A central motif throughout the work, this concern is expressed in Judith\u2019s admonishment of the elders (Jdt. 8:21, 24), in her prayer before leaving Bethuliah (Jdt. 9:8, 13), in the parting words of the elders (Jdt. 10:8), in the prayer Judith utters as she kills Holofernes (Jdt. 13:4), and in the people\u2019s praise of Judith on her return (Jdt. 15:9).
\n3 A conflation of the return from exile (538 BCE) and the rededication of the Temple (515 BCE).
\n4. Samaria Cf. Jdt. 1:9.
\nKona Perhaps a term for villages (Gk. k\u014dmas) rather than a place-name.
\nBeth-horon A twin city (Upper and Lower) located in the Judean hills, 11 miles north-northwest of Jerusalem and the site of several revolts during the Maccabean wars.
\nBelmain Unknown; name may be a corrupt form of Balbaim (Jdt. 7:3) or Balamon (Jdt. 8:3).
\nChoba Unknown site, perhaps the same as that mentioned in Jdt. 15:4\u20135.
\nAesora May be a translation of the Hebrew Hazor or Jazer. If Hazor, it is either directly north of Jerusalem and south of Shechem or about 10 miles north of the Sea of Galilee (Neh. 11:33). If Jazer, it is a fortified city in Gilead, southwest of Philadelphia in Transjordan (Num. 21:32).
\nvalley of Salem Perhaps Salumias in the Jordan valley, south of Beth-shan.
\n6. The high priest, Joakim Cf. Jdt. 4:8, 14; 15:8. Joiakim, son of Jeshua (= Joshua) son of Jozadak, became high priest at the time of the return from exile (Neh. 12:13), but in the early postexilic period the high priest did not exercise the range of civil authority attributed to Joakim in Judith.
\nBethulia Despite significant interest among scholars, the name and location of Bethulia remain controversial. The name may be a symbol for the Temple and Jerusalem, or it may be a pseudonym for Shechem or Bethel.
\nBetomesthaim Probably the same as Betomasthaim in Jdt. 15:4.
\n7. wide enough for only two at a time to pass Dramatic exaggeration.
\n8. senate of the whole people Greek Gerousia; cf. Jdt. 11:14; 15:8. The term gerousia or council is first mentioned in the charter of Antiochis II (c.a. 200 B.C.E.) and continued in use until it was replaced in Roman times.
\n9. humbled themselves with much fasting \u201cHumbled themselves\u201d reflects the Hebrew \u201cpractice self-denial,\u201d a term used in association with the observance of Yom Kippur (Lev. 16:29; 23:27). The later Rabbinic understanding of self-denial as abstinence from food and drink (B. Yoma 74b) is anticipated in Judith.
\n10. their cattle Probably modeled on Jon. 3:8, where animals covered in sackcloth are brought to a prayer gathering.
\n12. draped the altar No comparable gesture appears in biblical or postbiblical literature.
\ntowns they had inherited Expresses the idea that they possessed the land not through force or merit, but because God had given it to them; cf. Jdt. 8:22; 9:12; 13:5; 16:21.
\n13 God responding to the cries of the people is a common formula for the announcement of a new leader in Judges. Here, however, the divine response long precedes the appearance of the heroine. Meanwhile, the narrator has given the reader information\u2014divine deliverance is assured\u2014that is not known to the characters in the story, that is, the Judeans whose faith is to be tested (Jdt. 8:25). A similar literary strategy is employed before the introduction of Moses in Exod. 2:23\u201325, which also provides the phrase, \u201cGod took notice of them.\u201d
\n14 Cf. Joel 1:13\u201314.
\ndaily burnt \u2026 votive \u2026 freewill offerings Regular offerings, which the priests here perform in special, penitential garb. The prescribed daily burnt offering (tamid) is the final sacrifice of the day and lies smoldering on the altar throughout the night. The votive offering, brought upon fulfillment of a vow, and the freewill offering, brought to commemorate the celebrant\u2019s happiness, are both voluntary types of well-being sacrifices.
\n15. turbans Head coverings worn by priests (cf. Ezek. 44:18).<\/p>\n

Chapter 5<\/p>\n

5:2. princes of Moab and the commanders of Ammon Now allies of Nebuchadnezzar, much as Moab and Ammon allied with the historical Nebuchadnezzar II in his war against Judea (2 Kings 24:2).
\n3 Cf. Moses\u2019s instructions to the spies in Num. 13:17\u201320.
\nCanaanites Although referring to peoples who inhabited Canaan during the early history of the Israelites, the term is also used in later periods.
\n5. Achior Does not appear in all the midrashim. Where there is an Achior-like character, he is usually unnamed and variously identified as one of the conquered kings, an astrologer, or an officer of the king.
\n6. descended from The historical review begins with an identification of ethnic origins, imitating Hellenistic histories that incorporated ethnographic information.
\nChaldeans Treating the biblical story of Abraham as the historical root of the entire nation, Achior presents Chaldea as the ancestral homeland.
\n7. Mesopotamia The region around biblical Haran in northern Syria. That Abraham\u2019s father moved with his family from Ur of Chaldees to Haran is stated in Gen. 11:31. The reason for the move\u2014rejection of idolatry\u2014is an extrabiblical interpretation, perhaps derived from Josh. 24:2\u20133, that appears elsewhere as well.
\n8. God of heaven A common designation for God from the Persian period. Cf. Jdt. 6:19; 11:17.
\ndrove them out In the biblical sources, the departure is voluntary (Gen. 11:31), but Josephus offers a similar reason for Abram\u2019s move from Haran to Canaan (Ant. 1.157).
\n9 Achior omits the biblical narrative of Abraham\u2019s sojourn in Egypt (Gen. 12:10\u201313:1), has the patriarch prosper in Canaan rather than in Egypt (Gen. 12:6; 13:2), and skips over all the Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph material (Gen. 13:3\u201346:4).
\n10\u201312 Selectively drawn from Gen. 46\u201347:27; Exod. 1:7, 8\u201313; 5:6\u201317; 2:23\u201325; 7:19\u201311:10; 12:29\u201336.
\n13\u201315 Summarizes Exod. 14:15\u201331; 17:8\u201316; 19:1\u20132; Num. 32:8.
\n14. drove out \u2026 desert Reference to the victory over Amalek (Exod. 17:8\u201316).
\n15 Reflects Num. 21:21\u201335; 28\u201330; Deut. 3:8; Josh. 9:10.
\nland of the Amorites Territory on the eastern side of the Jordan.
\nHeshbon Capital city of the Amorite king, Sihon, who was defeated by the Israelites (Num. 21:25\u201331).
\n16 The list of conquered nations is similar to biblical lists of the dispossessed nations (e.g., Exod. 3:8, 17; Deut. 7:1; Ezra 9:1). However, in place of Hivites, the author inserts the Shechemites, whose ancestor, Shechem son of Hamor the Hivite (Gen. 34:2), raped Dinah, daughter of Jacob (Gen. 34). The addition foreshadows Judith\u2019s recollection of her own ancestor\u2019s revenge against Shechem (Jdt. 9:2\u20134).
\n17\u201320 The theology presented here\u2014that the Israelites prosper when they adhere to God\u2019s laws and are punished when they violate them\u2014reflects the perspective of Deuteronomy.
\n18\u201319 Achior\u2019s account of the destruction of the Temple, the exile, and the return places the tale of Judith in a post-exilic setting (cf. Jdt. 4:3). At the same time, the identification of Assyria as the enemy power implies a setting in the Assyrian period, but the name of the ruler of that power suggests a Babylonian context!
\n20 Achior\u2019s awareness of the source of Israel\u2019s vulnerability suggests the awareness attributed to the Gentile prophet Balaam in Num. 31:16.
\nmy \u2026 lord \u2026 their God The deliberate phrasing, as well as the subsequent response to Achior (Jdt. 5:22\u201324), express a basic conflict between two different concepts of power. Holofernes and his followers measure power in military numbers and prowess, whereas Achior ascribes the power of the Jews to their faithfulness to God and his commandments.
\n24. swallow them up Literally, \u201cthey shall be food for all your army.\u201d Cf. Jdt. 10:12 where Judith introduces herself to the Assyrians as a \u201cdaughter of the Hebrews\u201d who \u201cis escaping their presence because they are going to be given to you to devour.\u201d<\/p>\n

Chapter 6<\/p>\n

6:2. mercenaries of Ephraim An expression of contempt alluding to the remnants of the Northern Kingdom of Israel destroyed by Sennacherib in 722 BCE. Alternatively, the correct reading may be \u201cAmmonite mercenaries.\u201d
\nto prophesy among us Suggesting an analogy between Achior and the Gentile prophet Balaam (Num. 20\u201322).
\nTheir God will not save them Imitative of the Assyrian king Sennacherib, who made a comparable claim when he laid siege to Jerusalem in 701 BCE (2 Kings 18:32\u201335; 19:10\u201313). Judah Maccabee recalls Sennacherib\u2019s arrogance before he engages the Syrian general Nicanor in battle (161 BCE) (1 Macc. 7:41\u201342).
\nWhat god is there except Nebuchadnezzar? Cf. Jdt. 3:8. The phrasing parallels the biblical \u201cWho is a god except the LORD?\u201d (Ps. 18:32; see also Isa. 45:18, 21).
\n4. lord of the whole earth Cf. Jdt. 2:5.
\n5. you shall not see my face again \u2026 revenge An adaptation of Pharaoh\u2019s words to Moses in Exod. 10:28 and also a touch of irony, for Achior next sees Holofernes\u2019s face when Judith brings the general\u2019s head to Bethulia (Jdt. 14:6)!
\nrace that came out of Egypt A disdainful reference rejecting Achior\u2019s account of Israel\u2019s origins and history.
\n7. take you back Either a sarcastic suggestion that Achior had earlier been in the enemy camp or a mistranslation of the original Hebrew (reading v\u2019hashivukha, \u201cwill take you back,\u201d instead of v\u2019hoshivukha, \u201cwill place you\u201d).
\n9. none of my words Cf. Jdt. 2:12.
\n15. Uzziah son of Micah Since Uzziah is shown to be a weak, wavering character later in the story, his name\u2014which means \u201cGod is my strength\u201d\u2014may have been chosen for its irony. The names of the town elders are common ones in postexilic biblical books. In the midrashim, Uzziah is either omitted or identified as an officer in the Israelite army.
\nChabris son of Gothoniel Chabris may be a form of the Hebrew Carmi, and Gothniel a form of the Hebrew Othniel.
\nCharmis son of Melchiel Charmis is a Hellenized name; Melchiel may be a form of Malchiah.
\n21. gave a banquet Given the nature of the setting, the banquet seems inappropriate. Its inclusion may reflect the interest in developing symmetrical structures; in this instance, between the banquet of Uzziah and that of Holofernes in Jdt. 12:10.<\/p>\n

Chapter 7<\/p>\n

7:2. one hundred seventy thousand infantry Cf. 120,000 in Jdt. 2:5, 15; 170,000 may include those who joined in the course of Holofernes\u2019s march.
\n3. Dothan Cf. Jdt. 3:9; 4:6.
\nBalbaim Unknown; probably the same town as Belmain (Jdt. 4:4) and Balamon (Jdt. 8:3).
\nCyamon Unknown; sometimes identified with present-day Tell Qeimon on the eastern slope of Mt. Carmel.
\n7 The Vulgate has: \u201cNow Holofernes, in going about, found that the fountain which supplied them with water ran through an aqueduct outside the city on the south side; and he commanded their aqueduct to be cut off. Nevertheless, there were springs not far from the walls, out of which they were seen secretly to draw water, to refresh themselves a little rather than to drink their fill\u201d (Vulg. 7:6\u20137).
\n8. Edomites The traditional enemy of Israel (Obad. 1:8; 1 Macc. 5:1\u20135); in biblical literature the progeny of Esau, who initially settled in the hill country of Seir, southeast of the Dead Sea (Gen. 36), and moved west in the postexilic period into the northern Negev. Known as Idumeans in the Second Temple era, they were defeated by Judah Maccabee and subsequently were forcibly converted by John Hyrcanus (134\u2013104 BCE).
\n18. Egrebeh Identified with Acraba, southeast of Shechem.
\nChusi \u2026 Wadi Mochmur Locations unknown.
\n19\u201328 That the initial Israelite response, prayer and repentance, gives way to despair in face of the Assyrian siege parallels a similar loss of courage on the part of the nations when confronting the full force of Holofernes\u2019s campaign of revenge (Jdt. 2:28).
\n20. thirty-four days The time frame may be constructed in deliberate parallel with the 4 days Judith was in the Assyrian camp and the 30 days the Israelites looted the camp (Jdt. 12:10; 15:11).
\n25. God has sold us In the metaphorical sense of Isa. 50:1; 52:3.
\n27. to be captured by them The blame laid by the Bethulians upon their leaders is similar to that laid by the Israelites against Moses when the Egyptian forces pursued them (Exod. 14:10\u201312).
\n28. our God, the LORD of our ancestors There is no such expression in Hebrew, which would commonly read: \u201cLORD, God of our ancestors.\u201d The translation follows the Greek LXX, where God and LORD (Kyrios) are frequently interchanged.
\nour sins and the sins of our ancestors The Bethulians view their dire situation as a punishment for their sins.
\n29. with a loud voice Judith will also pray in a loud voice (Jdt. 9:1; 13:14).
\n30\u201331 Uzziah is hoping for rains to replenish the water supply (Jdt. 8:31).<\/p>\n

Chapter 8<\/p>\n

8:1\u20138 A portrayal of the resources of Nebuchadnezzar, and by extension, of his agent, Holofernes, introduced the first part of the book; the second part opens with a rehearsal of Judith\u2019s resources, the foremost of which is her piety. That these resources also include beauty and wealth suggests a duality that is explicitly developed in the account of her dealings with Holofernes.
\nThe details of the introduction suggest that Judith symbolizes Israel. Her ancestor, Simeon, links her to the zeal of Israelite heroes; her 40 months of mourning recalls the 40 years the Israelites wandered in the desert; and her life on the roof suggests Israel\u2019s life in exile. This detail is omitted in most of the midrashim.<\/p>\n

1. Judith The feminine form of \u201cJew\u201d or \u201cJudean,\u201d the word can be a proper name or refer to any Jewish\/Judean female.
\nheard about these things The introduction of Judith interrupts the narrative, which continues in Jdt. 8:9.
\ndaughter of The extensive, impressive genealogy traces Judith back to her spiritual mentor, Simeon, son of Jacob.
\nMerari The third son of Levi.
\nOx Possible corruption of Uzi, a common name in the postexilic period.
\nAnanias Greek equivalent of Hananiah.
\nRaphain Possible corruption of Rephayah.
\nSalamiel son of Sarasadai Greek equivalent of Shelumiel son of Zurishaddai, chief of the Simeonites during the wilderness years.
\nIsrael The other name for the patriarch Jacob (Gen. 8:22).
\n3 The account of Manasseh\u2019s death in the field recalls the story of the son of the Shunamite woman in 2 Kings 4:18\u201320, perhaps signaling that the end of this tale, like that one, will demonstrate the workings of God\u2019s hand.
\nDothan Cf. Jdt. 3:9; 4:6; 7:3, 18.
\nBalamon Cf. Jdt. 4:4 (Belmain); Jdt. 7:3 (Balbaim).
\n4. widow Judith\u2019s widowhood, like her femininity, signifies vulnerability, and stands in sharp contrast to the power of the men who inhabit the first half of the story. At the same time it places her under the special protection of God and reinforces her standing as a symbol for Israel, which is pictured as a widow in Isa. 54:4; Lam. 1:1; 5:3\u20134.
\n5. on the roof The roof of a house was frequently used as a place for solitude, mourning, and private meetings.
\nsackcloth On the custom of widows to wear mourning clothes, see Gen. 38:14.
\n6. fasted all the days \u2026 except \u2026 rejoicing Personal fasting is an expression of Judith\u2019s piety. The practice appears in other Second Temple texts. In the later Rabbinic tradition, the custom was observed both by Rabbis (M. Ta\u2019an. 2:13; B. Git. 56a; B. Hag. 22b) and laypersons (J. Ta\u2019an. 2:13; J. Sot. 3:4; B. Sot. 22a).
\n7. beautiful in appearance \u2026 lovely to behold Language reflecting the description of Rachel (Gen. 29:17) and of Esther (Esther 2:7), each of whom captured the affections of a man through her beauty.
\n9 Continuation of the narrative from Jdt. 8:1.
\n10\u201334 In keeping with the symmetrical structure of the story, Judith calls together the elders of the city to present a plan that she will not reveal, much as Nebuchadnezzar called together his officers to present a secret plan (Jdt. 2:2).
\n12\u201330 The angry encounter with the community leaders is omitted in many of the midrashim. However, in Ma\u2019aseh Yehudit (Hemdat Yamim) Judith confronts Uzziah, the chief military officer, along with two priests.
\n12. Who are you Judith addresses the elders with the same angry words that Holofernes had earlier directed to Achior (Jdt. 6:2).
\nput God to the test The language in which Judith phrases her charge against the elders identifies their offense with that of the Israelites in the wilderness who lacked faith in God.
\n16. bind the purposes Literally, \u201ctake as a pledge,\u201d that is, to impose conditions on God, as when one requires collateral for a loan.
\nwon over by pleading The Hebrew equivalent was probably wayitnahem, as in Num. 23:19, and hence is better translated as \u201cto change his mind.\u201d
\n17. let us call upon him Whereas Holofernes attributes victory to military might (Jdt. 6:3\u20134), Judith argues that it comes through prayer and faith in God.
\n18. days gone by The generations before the Babylonian exile.
\n21\u201325 The siege is seen not as evidence of divine punishment, but as a test of the people\u2019s faithfulness. If they don\u2019t protect Jerusalem and prevent desecration of the Temple, they will indeed be punished.
\n22. our inheritance The land of Israel.
\n26 Abraham is explicitly presented here as being tested only in the context of the Akedah (Gen. 22:1), but in extrabiblical literature he is portrayed as being tested repeatedly.
\ntested Isaac A reference to the Akedah (Gen. 22).
\nJacob The test of Jacob involves his experiences when he sojourned with his uncle and father-in-law, Laban (Gen. 29\u201331).
\nSyrian Mesopotamia The Greek term for biblical Paddan-aram (Gen. 28:2), an area in what is today south-central Turkey.
\n27 The purpose of the testing is not to punish, but to discipline and refine them for their own betterment.
\n30. the people \u2026 compelled us The excuse Uzziah offers resembles that of Aaron regarding the Golden Calf (Exod. 32:21\u201324).
\noath that we cannot break Suggestive of the situation of the Israelite leaders who made an oath to the Gibeonites at the time of the conquest, regretted it, and sought a way to accommodate it (Josh. 9:19\u201321). The Bethulia elders demonstrate no comparable ingenuity.
\n31\u201332 Uzziah acknowledges the wisdom of Judith\u2019s advice, but ignores it and solicits her prayers for rain. In turn, Judith ignores his request and sharply indicates that she will be taking independent action.
\n33. within the days \u2026 promised Judith sets a time frame that accommodates the oath of the elders.
\n35. may the LORD God go before you An ironic echo of Deborah\u2019s words urging Barak to make war against the Philistines (Judg. 4:14).<\/p>\n

Chapter 9<\/p>\n

9:1 On praying before going out to encounter the enemy, cf. 1 Kings 8:44\u201345; 1 Macc. 3:18.
\nevening incense The fact that Judith offers her prayer at the time of the evening incense offering suggests a biblical association between this particular daily service and prayers of supplication.
\n2\u20138 Simeon and Levi deceived and then attacked the Shechemites to avenge the rape of their sister, Dinah (Gen. 34). Jacob condemned their actions (Gen. 34:30; 40:5), but Judith praises the deed as authorized by God. For a comparably positive portrayal of the actions of Simeon and Levi, see Jubilees 30.
\ngave a sword The sword that Simeon takes along to avenge Dinah (Gen. 34:25) is transformed into a sword from God.
\nstrangers In the biblical narrative, Dinah is violated only by Shechem. The idea that all the Shechemites were her violators justifies the killing of all the male Shechemites.
\nwho had torn off a virgin\u2019s clothing Dinah and the Shechemites become typological symbols for the Temple and for the enemies who would violate it.
\npolluted her womb Extending the biblical prohibition against intermarriage with Canaanites to a general proscription of mixed marriages, the author views sexual intercourse with a foreigner as defilement of Israelite blood.
\n\u201cIt shall not be done\u201d In Gen. 34:7, these words are articulated by the narrator, who is describing the outrage of Jacob\u2019s sons. Transformed here into a divine command, they make the vengeance an act of piety.
\n3. rulers to be killed In the context of the Dinah narrative, these are the rulers of Shechem; at the symbolic level, they represent the rulers of all the enemies of Israel. In anticipation of events in the Judith story, they are Holofernes and the Assyrians, who intend to violate Judith and the Temple.
\ntheir bed \u2026 blood Imagery that both recollects the Dinah story and anticipates Judith\u2019s encounter with Holofernes.
\n4. burned with zeal for you Ascribing the acts of Simeon and his brothers to zeal for God, an ascription not explicit in Gen. 34, Judith justifies their actions and attributes their victory, as she will her own, to God. For a similar treatment of Levi\u2019s actions, cf. T. Levi 6:3; Jub. 30:18.
\ncalled on you for help A theological perspective that is absent from the biblical account of Dinah, but one which directly relates to the situation of the Bethulians.
\nhear me also, a widow On God\u2019s special concern for widows, see Exod. 22:21\u201322; Deut. 10:17\u201318; Jer. 49:11; Ps. 68:5; 146:9; Sir. 35:15.
\n5\u20136 Judith\u2019s description of God\u2019s foreknowledge and control of history reflects a perspective expressed in Isa. 41:22\u201323; 42:9; 43:9, 12; 44:6\u20138; 46:9\u201310. A similar theology is found in the sectarian Rule of the Community (1QS iii, 15\u201316; xi, 11, 17\u201318).
\n\u201cHere we are!\u201d Personification of historical events.
\n7\u201314 The author presents Judith as seeking to become the zealous agent of God through whom he will demonstrate his power to the world, in direct counterpoint to Holofernes, the no-less-zealous agent for Nebuchadnezzar, who seeks comparable recognition for his patron (Jdt. 3:8).
\n7. horses and riders Allusion to Exod. 15:1, the song at the crossing of the Sea of Reeds (Red Sea).
\nwho crushes wars Cf. Jdt. 16:2. An allusion to Exod. 15:3, but one which renders the Hebrew equivalent of \u201cwarrior\u201d as \u201ccrushes wars\u201d (kyrios syntrib\u014dn polemous). The phrase is similarly treated in Isa. 42:13 LXX.
\n8. intend to defile your sanctuary Awareness of Assyrian intentions is drawn from their treatment of the sanctuaries of the other nations they conquered (Jdt. 4:1\u20132, 12). A parallel assumption is made, but not stated, in King Hezekiah\u2019s prayer that God intervene against the Assyrian forces laying siege to Jerusalem (701 BCE) (2 Kings 19:17\u201319).
\n9. Look at their pride An allusion to Sennacherib\u2019s response to Hezekiah\u2019s petition for withdrawal of the siege on Jerusalem (2 Kings 18:28\u201336).
\nsend your wrath Cf. Exod. 15:7.
\nstrong hand Within the context of the multiple allusions to the Song at the Sea (Exod. 15) in this prayer, the many references to the power of hands (nine times after Judith enters the narrative) evokes the motif of powerful hands (God\u2019s hand\/Moses\u2019s hand) in the story of the Exodus from Egypt (Exod. 3:19, 20; 4:2; 10:21\u201322; 14:21, 26\u201327, 31). The use of the image here develops the theme that God demonstrates his power through the agency of the weak, a motif that also appears in War Scroll (1QMxi; xiii, 13\u201314).
\n10. By the deceit Like Simeon, who pretended that he would accept intermarriage with the Shechemites if all the males were circumcised (Gen. 34:13\u201325), Judith is quite prepared to obtain her ends through subterfuge.
\nby the hand of a woman Literally, \u201cby the hand of a female (th\u0113leia).\u201d The phrase is taken from Deborah\u2019s words to Barak in Judg. 4:9, and indicates an ignominious death such as that of Sisera at the hand of Yael (Judg. 4:9, 21\u201322) or of Abimelech at the hand of the woman of Thebez (Judg. 9:53\u201354). The humiliation is heightened here in the Greek, where the Hebrew equivalent of \u201cwoman\u201d is translated \u201cfemale.\u201d
\n12. Creator of the waters A title for God not found in Scripture.
\n14. Let your whole nation The reading \u201cLet every nation,\u201d found in two versions of the LXX and in the Old Latin, more likely reflects the Hebrew original. Judith\u2019s aspirations for God parallel those Holofernes has for Nebuchadnezzar (cf. Jdt. 3:8). The request that God intervene against the enemy in order that all nations know that he alone is God is found in the prayer of Hezekiah (2 Kings 19:19), which provides the historical model for Judith\u2019s prayer, that is, prayer-in-the-face-of-Assyrian-siege. A comparable phrase, \u201cthat all the nations may know,\u201d also appears at the close of Judith\u2019s prayer in Ma\u2019aseh Yehudit (Hemdat Yamim).<\/p>\n

Chapter 10<\/p>\n

10:3. anointed herself Cf. Ruth 3:3. On practice of the custom in Rabbinic literature, see Avot R. Nat. 16:32; B. Mo\u2019ed Kat. 9b.
\n4. sandals Apparently she had previously gone barefoot as a sign of mourning.
\nmade herself very beautiful In Ma\u2019aseh Yehudit (Hemdat Yamim) and the Vulgate (10:4), her beauty is attributed to God.
\n5. wine \u2026 oil \u2026 grain \u2026 fig cakes \u2026 fine bread At the same time that Judith makes herself seductive, she also provides herself with food in order to avoid consuming the forbidden bread, oil, and wine of the Assyrians.
\nfine bread Better translated as \u201cpure bread\u201d to indicate that it is the opposite of \u201cunclean bread\u201d or \u201cunclean food,\u201d meaning bread or food of the Gentiles (Hos. 9:3; Ezek. 4:13). On the biblical roots of the prohibition of Gentile wine and oil, see Dan. 1:8. On the prohibition against eating Gentile bread, wine, and oil in Rabbinic literature, see B. Shab. 17b; B. Avod. Zar. 36a\u2013b; and J. Shab. 1, 4. In Ma\u2019aseh Yehudit (Hemdat Yamim) Judith also brings milk and cheese. The custom of eating dairy products on Hanukkah to celebrate the deeds of Judith developed from the motif in the midrash (see introductory comments).
\n7. astounded The astonishment of the elders is subsequently paralleled by that of the camp guards (Jdt. 10:14), of the soldiers in the camp (Jdt. 10:19), and of Holofernes and his servants (Jdt. 10:23; 11:21).
\n8. Jerusalem may be exalted At this point, the motif of concern for Jerusalem that runs throughout the first half of the work (see comment on Jdt. 4:2) shifts from anxiety to a more positive expression of hope that the attack will be prevented.
\nbowed down to God Perhaps an indication that Judith was praying as she passed through the gates.
\n9. ordered \u2026 the gate for her In several midrashim the guards are reluctant to open the gates because they believe she intends to betray the city or has a romantic interest in an enemy soldier.
\n12. Hebrews A term foreigners frequently used for Israelites (Gen. 40:15; 41:12; Exod. 1:15; 2:6). It also appears in Jdt. 12:11; 14:18, but elsewhere in Judith foreigners use the term Israelite (Jdt. 5:23; 6:2; 7:10).
\nhanded over to you to be devoured Literally, \u201cgiven to you for fodder.\u201d The literal wording plays on the prediction to Holofernes in Jdt. 5:24.
\n21. canopy A type of mosquito netting used for protection against insects.
\n23. prostrated \u2026 obeisance Judith\u2019s gestures of submission parallel those of Abigail before David (1 Sam. 25:23) and Ruth before Boaz (Ruth 2:10).<\/p>\n

Chapter 11<\/p>\n

11:1\u20138 The conversation between the two protagonists is a creative play with ironic speech. Presenting himself as the loyal agent of the monarch whose claims to dominion Judith intends to undermine, Holofernes offers protection to the person who has come to take his life. Judith responds in a double-talk of carefully stated misrepresentations and half-truths that encourages Holofernes\u2019s misperceptions, even as it articulates her belief in the sovereignty of the God of Israel. The artfulness disappears in the midrashim, all of which greatly abbreviate the dialogue.
\n5. to my lord Judith addresses Holofernes, but in fact she is referring to the God of Israel.
\n6. God \u2026 my lord Which god and which lord? Holofernes thinks it is the god he serves. The reader knows she is speaking of the God of Israel, who is using Holofernes to test Israel. That God uses Gentile nations and leaders to punish as well as to redeem Israel is a common biblical concept.
\n7 Swearing \u201ca false oath to a false god,\u201d Judith surreptitiously mocks Nebuchadnezzar by praising him with the words of Jeremiah, who saw Babylonia as a temporary power being used by God for his own purposes (Jer. 27:6; 28:14).
\n8 Judith\u2019s false flattery of Holofernes\u2019s wisdom and military skill is paralleled by his sincere praise of her beauty and words of wisdom (Jdt. 11:20\u201321, 23). The artful construction has each protagonist praising, albeit unknowingly in the case of Holofernes, the tools of combat employed by the other.
\n10. lord and master Cf. Jdt. 5:20.
\n11\u201319 Judith offers a series of half-truths: A sin has indeed overtaken the Bethulians (Jdt. 7:23\u201324), but not the one described; their food and water supplies have given out (Jdt. 7:21\u201322), but there is no plan to eat forbidden foods; a message had come from the Jerusalem council (Jdt. 4:8), but it had nothing to do with the consumption of firstfruits.
\n12. forbidden them The Vulgate includes \u201cand to drink their blood\u201d (Vulg. 11:11), which also appears in Ma\u2019aseh Yehudit (Hemdat Yamim).
\n13. firstfruits \u2026 tithes On the reservation of firstfruits and tithes for the priests, see Num. 18.
\nnot lawful \u2026 to touch Exaggeration of the biblical prohibition. The exaggeration could reflect the development of stringency in practice. Alternatively, it could be a literary strategy that alerts the reader, who is aware of the biblical proscription, to another facet of the deception of Holofernes.
\n16. with you Ironically ambiguous, the phrase can mean \u201cthrough\u201d you, as Holofernes is meant to understand, or \u201cagainst\u201d you, as Judith truly intends.
\n17 Ostensibly the purpose is to receive a divine communication while she is at prayer; in fact the purpose is to establish a pattern of behavior that will subsequently enable her to escape.
\n19 Judith adopts a prophetic first-person voice that ironically employs biblical allusions.
\nI will set your throne An echo of God\u2019s words to Solomon on the occasion of the dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem (1 Kings 9:5). Here, spoken by a woman to an Assyrian general, the phrase becomes comical.
\nlike sheep that have no shepherd A metaphor for a people without adequate leadership, used in reference to Israel by the prophets Micaiah (1 Kings 22:17) and Ezekiel (Ezek. 34:1\u201310).
\nno dog will \u2026 growl A metaphor for the absence of resistance in military contexts (Josh. 10:21); used more generally for security and well-being in the face of danger (Exod. 11:7).
\n23. your God \u2026 my God Cf. Ruth 1:16\u201317. Since Holofernes proclaimed Nebuchadnezzar to be the only god (cf. Jdt. 3:8; 6:2), the words clearly lack sincerity. Like his acceptance of the theological perspective Judith presents (one he had rejected when earlier voiced by Achior), this assurance is part of the seduction. Much as Judith\u2019s words are meant to entice and deceive Holofernes, so his are intended to entice and deceive her.<\/p>\n

Chapter 12<\/p>\n

12:2 The extent of Judith\u2019s concern with dietary regulations in the course of enticing Holofernes is a striking example of the duality in her character. Adherence to dietary laws as a signature of piety appears in a number of Second Temple writings. See Dan. 1:8; Tob. 1:10\u201311; 1 Macc. 1:62\u201363; 2 Macc. 5:27; 6:18\u20137:2; Add. Esth. C:28.
\n4. As surely as you live Words that express sincerity when Hannah addresses them to Eli in 1 Sam. 1:26; but given Judith\u2019s intentions, here spoken with great irony.
\ncarries out \u2026 determined Alluding to Isa. 14:24, Judith claims for God precisely the power that Nebuchadnezzar had earlier attributed to himself (Jdt. 2:12).
\n5. morning watch The night was divided into three watches until the 1st century CE, when the Roman fourfold division was adopted.
\n6 Hinted at in biblical sources (Lam. 2:19; Ps. 108:3; 119:62), the practice of predawn prayer later became customary among the Essenes and in certain pious Rabbinic circles.
\n9. purified The purification may simply involve washing before prayer, or Judith may be preparing for God\u2019s intervention.
\n11\u201312 Outside of Judith\u2019s presence, Holofernes reveals his true intentions.
\nBagoas A common Persian name.
\neunuch Cf. Esther 2:3 for another example of eunuchs being used to protect the women in royal harems.
\n13. one of the Assyrian women Bagoas presents a subtle, but clear, indication of the true nature of the invitation.
\n14. my lord Another double entendre. Bagoas believes Judith is referring to Holofernes; the reader knows that her only lord is the God of Israel.
\n18 Judith is, of course, thinking of the killing of Holofernes, but in his arrogance he interprets her double-talk as enthusiastic anticipation of their imminent sexual union.
\n19\u201320 A deliberate contrast is made between the care Judith gives to what she consumes and the recklessness with which Holofernes drinks his wine.<\/p>\n

Chapter 13<\/p>\n

13:3. outside the bedchamber In some of the most famous paintings of the beheading scene\u2014for example, those by Goya, Caravaggio, and Vasari (each titled Judith and Holofernes)\u2014the maid is portrayed inside with Judith. She is also in the chamber in Ma\u2019aseh Yehudit (Hemdat Yamim), and in this version actively participates in the decapitation!
\n4. said in her heart Judith, like Hannah (1 Sam. 1:13), prays silently.
\nexaltation of Jerusalem The same words used by the elders in Jdt. 10:8.
\n9. rolled his body \u2026 pulled down the canopy Rolling the body to the floor is an act of denigration. Subsequently presented as a valuable prize (Jdt. 13:15; 16:19), the canopy is taken as a trophy.
\n10. That the head is placed in the bag that contained the kosher food is a striking example of how the author treats the killing and the observance of dietary laws as parallel acts of piety.
\nwent out together as they were accustomed to do, to offer their prayer Preparing for the escape from the outset, Judith had indicated at her first meeting with Holofernes that she was obliged to go out at night to pray. Over the course of the next three nights she and her maid regularly went out and the camp guards, having been instructed not to interfere, were accustomed to seeing the two women moving about at night (Jdt. 12:6\u20137). Further ensuring the escape plan, on the night of the banquet, Judith makes a point of telling Bagoas that she will be going out to offer prayers as usual (Jdt. 13:3).
\n11. God \u2026 is with us Cf. Num. 14:9; Isa. 7:14; 8:10.
\n14\u201315. my hand \u2026 hand of a woman The repeated references to Judith\u2019s hand highlight the theological theme that God demonstrates his power through the agency of the unempowered.
\n15\u201316 In a vivid example of the duality of her character, Judith proudly displays Holofernes\u2019s head and immediately thereafter assures the townspeople that she has not been sexually violated. In the Vulgate, Judith is protected by an angel (Vulg. 13:20\u201321).
\n18 The blessing combines the wording of Melchizedek\u2019s blessing of Abraham (Gen. 14:19\u201320) with Deborah\u2019s tribute to Jael (\u201cmost blessed of women\u201d) (Judg. 5:24).
\n19. hearts On the heart as the organ that houses thought and memory, cf. Prov. 3:3; 16:9.<\/p>\n

Chapter 14<\/p>\n

14:1 The displaying of Holofernes\u2019s head is reminiscent of the display of the Nicanor\u2019s head in 1 Macc. 7:47; 2 Macc. 15:35 (cf. B. Ta\u2019an. 18b; J. Ta\u2019an. 2:13).
\n2 Whereas the scene with Holofernes suggests a parallel with Jael, here Judith is portrayed as a Deborah-like leader (Judg. 4:6\u20139).
\n3 Cf. the panic and flight of Sisera and his forces in Judg. 4:15.
\n5\u20139 Achior has been in Uzziah\u2019s house (Jdt. 6:21); his appearance to identify the head at this point is awkward, for Judith had already identified it. In the Vulgate, nothing is said of Achior making the identification; Judith simply shows Achior the head before presenting her battle plan (Vulg. 13:27, 31). The account of Achior\u2019s conversion then follows (Vulg. 14:6). In some of the midrashim, Judith earlier summons the Achior-character to identify the head in order that the suspicious guards will permit her reentry into Bethulia.
\n7. Blessed \u2026 Judah Reminiscent of Deborah\u2019s praise of Jael (Judg. 5:24).
\n10 Cf. the words of Jethro in Exod. 18:1 and of Rahab in Josh. 2. Neither Rahab nor any other biblical Gentile character undergoes a formal conversion comparable to that of Achior. Although some scholars see evidence of the acceptance of religious proselytes (as opposed to those who join through marriage) in postexilic biblical literature, Judith is the earliest work to explicitly present a formal conversion.
\ncircumcised, and joined Since there is no reference to ritual immersion (mikveh) or sacrifice, those rituals may not yet have been required of converts.
\njoined the house of Israel The conversion of Achior is problematic from the perspective of Deut. 23:4, which prohibits acceptance of an Ammonite. Various suggestions have been made to account for the acceptance of Achior: (a) it was an exception to the general rule and reflected an underlying ideology favoring proselytism, (b) the prohibition had ceased to be meaningful because by the Second Temple period it was impossible to distinguish Ammonites from other peoples, or (c) Achior was acceptable because he was beyond the 10 generations proscribed in the prohibition. Perhaps because the conversion was so problematic, it is omitted in almost all the midrashim.
\nto this day To lend historical authenticity to the conversion account, the author adopts a quasi-historical style that imitates comparable phrasing in biblical narratives, e.g., Gen. 47:26; Deut. 2:22; 3:14; 10:8
\n13 Recalling Esther\u2019s fear of initiating contact with Ahasuerus (Esther 14:11), the Vulgate has the officers making noise to awaken their general because they were forbidden to knock or enter his chamber without invitation (Vulg. 14:9\u201310).
\nslaves Like their general (Jdt. 6:5), the Assyrian officers believe the Israelites are the descendants of Egyptian slaves (see also Jdt. 14:18). Instead of slaves, the Vulgate and Ma\u2019aseh Yehudit (Hemdat Yamim) both describe the Judeans as \u201cmice coming out of their holes.\u201d
\n19. tore their tunics Ritual mourning is another motif developed in symmetrical parallels. As the Israelites had done earlier (Jdt. 4:9\u201312), the Assyrian officers now express their anxiety with a symbol of mourning.<\/p>\n

Chapter 15<\/p>\n

15:3. Those The Edomites and Ammonites (cf. Jdt. 7:13, 17\u201318).
\n4. Betomasthaim Unknown; cf. Jdt. 4:6.
\nKola Unknown.
\n5. Choba Not the Choba in verse 4, but a town north of Damascus.
\n6\u20137 An inflated account of the pursuit and looting, suggestive of the description of King Asa\u2019s victory over the Cushites (2 Chron. 14:12\u201314).
\n9. glory of Jerusalem Better translated as \u201cexaltation of Jerusalem,\u201d paralleling the words of the elders of Bethulia and Judith in Jdt. 10:8; 13:4.
\n10 In the Vulgate, the high priest associates Judith\u2019s strength and courage with her chastity (Vulg. 15:11).
\n12\u201313 Inverted parallel. The celebration of Judith has its counterpart in the welcoming of Holofernes in Jdt. 3:7, but whereas the Temple is saved from desecration, the sanctuaries of the peoples who welcome Holofernes are destroyed (Jdt. 3:8).
\nwomen \u2026 performed a dance Imitating the celebrations in the Song at the Sea (Exod. 15:20\u201321) and Deborah\u2019s victory song (Judg. 11:34).
\nivy-wreathed wands Possibly \u201cbranches of palm\u201d in Hebrew (cf. Josephus, Ant. 13:372), but thyrsos also appears in the account of the first Hanukkah in 2 Macc. 10:7.<\/p>\n

Chapter 16<\/p>\n

16:1 Judith\u2019s song refers back to the prose narrative that precedes it; cf. Exod. 15; Judg. 5.
\nmy In Jdt. 16:1\u20134, Judith speaks as Israel; cf. comment on Jdt. 8:1\u20138.
\n2. who crushes wars Cf. Jdt. 9:7.
\nsets up camp \u2026 people Reflecting the biblical image of God (or his angel) dwelling among his people as in Exod. 14:19\u201320.
\ndelivered me \u2026 pursuers Motif borrowed from the prose and poetic accounts of the Israelite flight from Egypt (cf. Exod. 14:9, 23; 15:9).
\n3\u20134 Poetic summary of Jdt. 2\u20133.
\n4. boasted \u2026 spoil Cf. the boasting of the enemies in Exod. 15:9 and Judg. 5:30.
\n5. foiled Echoing Bagoas\u2019s words in Jdt. 14:18.
\nhand of a woman Literally, \u201chand of a female.\u201d Cf. Jdt. 9:10 and comment there.
\n6\u201310 Like Deborah in her song (Judg. 5:7, 12, 16), Judith speaks of herself in the third person.
\n6. their mighty one Holofernes.
\nsons of the Titans Giants. The Titans were the divine children of Uranus and Ge in Greek mythology; the Greek titanes is used in the LXX to translate repa\u2019im in 2 Sam. 5:18, 22.
\nJudith \u2026 countenance undid him Paralleling the prose in Jdt. 13:16.
\n7\u20139 The sharp brevity of the description is similar to the portrait of Yael slaying Sisera in Deborah\u2019s song (Judg. 5:26).
\n9. sandal On the sensuality of sandals, cf. Song 7:2; Ezek. 16:10.
\n10. Persians \u2026 Medes Imitation of the terror struck into the hearts of neighboring people in the Song at the Sea (Exod. 15:14\u201315).
\n11\u201312 Poetic summary of Jdt. 15.
\n12. Sons of slave-girls \u2026 children of fugitives Metaphors for the very young and weak, contrasted to \u201csons of the Titans and tall giants\u201d (v. 6), and an ironic play on the Assyrian denigration of the Israelites as slaves (Jdt. 6:5; 14:13, 18).
\narmy of the LORD The Israelites.
\n13\u201317 Praise of God, appropriating language from Judges, Psalms, and Isaiah. According to some scholars, the poetic version of the Judith tale (vv. 5\u201312) is framed by two borrowed synagogue hymns (vv. 2\u20134; 13\u201317).
\n13 Cf. the Song of Miriam (Exod. 15:21).
\n14 Personification of God\u2019s word as a creative force; cf. Ps. 33:6; 104:30.
\n15. mountains \u2026 shaken \u2026 wax Images reflecting Ps. 18:8; 97:5; Mic. 1:4.
\n16 Echoes of Isa. 40:16; Ps. 51:16\u201317; 103:17.
\n17 Emulating the dramatic style of the final lines of Deborah\u2019s song (Judg. 5:30).
\nfire and worms Reflecting Isa. 66:15, 24; 2 Macc. 9:9.
\n18. purified Purification was necessary, since they presumably had come in contact with the dead.
\nfreewill offerings Paralleling the offerings brought in Jdt. 4:14.
\n19. dedicated She treated the objects as herem, that is, belonging to God. Among examples of items so proscribed in biblical accounts are the booty of Jericho (Josh. 6:17\u201319) and everything taken in the war against Agag (1 Sam. 15:2\u20133).
\nvotive offering An offering that accompanies a vow or oath (Lev. 7:16\u201317).
\n21. own inheritances Cf. Josh. 1:15.
\n22 Judith goes back to her husband\u2019s house, but not to the earlier ascetic life on the roof. That the author has her remain unmarried reinforces her symbolic representation of the Israelites who, like Judith in the house of her husband, safely return to the house of God.
\n23. one hundred five Indicating a long life.
\nset her maid free In biblical law, Hebrew slaves freed in the sabbatical year\u2014served no longer than six years, whereas alien slaves served in perpetuity (Deut. 15:12). In talmudic law, female Hebrew slaves were automatically released upon reaching puberty (M. Kid. 1:2); alien slaves, male and female, could be freed by a dead of release issued by the owner (M. Kid. 1:3).
\nburied her in the cave Reflecting the biblical accounts of the burials of the matriarchs.
\n24. seven days The seven-day mourning is first legislated in the Talmud (B. Mo\u2019ed Qat. 20a). There are several models in the Bible: Joseph mourning the death of Jacob (Gen. 50:10); the people of Jabesh-gilead mourning the deaths of Saul and his sons (1 Sam. 31:13; 1 Chron. 10:12).
\ndistributed her property Since Judith and her husband were from the same clan (Jdt. 8:2), the distribution follows the procedure prescribed in Num. 27:8\u201311.
\n25 Imitating the style of the closures to the epic of Deborah (Judg. 5:31b) and of the stories of other charismatic leaders in Judges (Judg. 3:11, 30; 8:28). The Vulgate (Vulg. 16:31), however, closes with the inauguration of a festival, similar to that of Purim in Esther 9:27\u201328 and of Hanukkah in 2 Macc. 2:16\u201318. There is no evidence of such a festival being observed, but some see a possible reference to the association between Judith and the festival of Hanukkah.
\nspread terror The fear motif developed throughout the book comes full circle. Initially, the western nations and, progressively narrowing, the Israelites and Bethulians fear the armies of Nebuchadnezzar. In the climactic encounter between the two protagonists, the fear begins its turn backward\u2014a deluded Holofernes thinks the God-fearing Judith fears him. Thereafter, the Assyrian forces fear the Israelites, who, by the end of the work, fear no human power.<\/p>\n

Tobit<\/p>\n

George W. E. Nickelsburg<\/p>\n

Tobit is a piece of historical fiction set in the Assyrian captivity that recounts the sufferings of a pious Israelite and his family and God\u2019s alleviation of these troubles. From a literary point of view Tobit is a rich and complex text that eludes simple analysis. Taken as a whole, however, the work is a sophisticated and carefully crafted narrative.
\nIn spite of his faithfulness to God and his many deeds of mercy to others, Tobit suffers greatly. When he can no longer believe that God will deliver him, he prays for death. In another city, his relative Sarah also sees death as the only likely solution to her suffering. But when all appears hopeless, God sends healing by means of the angel Raphael. Parallel to the story of Tobit is the uncompleted story of Israel. Tobit\u2019s situation is paradigmatic for the exiled nation. As God has chastised Tobit, so Israel, suffering in exile, is being chastised. But God\u2019s mercy on Tobit and his family guarantees that this mercy will bring the Israelites back to their land. Since this event, described only in predictions, awaits fulfillment, one level of the double story is incomplete.
\nThe author\u2019s mastery of narrative technique is evident at many points. The plot develops, is complicated, and is resolved in classic fashion. Parallel scenes advance the plot and develop characterization. Narrative tension is maintained by revealing to readers what the characters do not know and by moving in and out of alternating scenes with different subplots and characters. These characters are exemplary in their piety and believable in their human flaws. The protagonist, Tobit, is a complex figure. Although he epitomizes the right life and is articulate in his conviction that God rewards the righteous, he can vacillate between faith and doubt. His movement, however, from despair at the beginning to praise at the end offers a model and a promise for readers who can empathize with his predicament. Humor is an important component in Tobit, and one often senses the author\u2019s delight in entertaining readers. This factor notwithstanding, the book is a serious treatment of the religious problem of innocent suffering.
\nThe characters express sorrow and praise in prayers and hymns written in the diction and forms of contemporary Israelite liturgical usage. Twice Tobit instructs his son in a deathbed testament. First he speaks in proverbs. Later, his prediction of future events is reminiscent of historical apocalypses such as Dan. 11. God\u2019s resolution of Tobit\u2019s suffering, which dominates the narrative, is recounted in an extended angelic epiphany, or appearance.
\nIn addition to these clearly discernible forms are traces of folkloristic motifs and themes such as \u201cthe grateful dead\u201d and \u201cthe dangerous bride.\u201d Also reflected is the traditional tale of the persecuted and vindicated courtier (Dan. 1\u20136; Esther; and the nonbiblical story of Ahiqar). Finally, Tobit evinces striking parallels with the first three books of Homer\u2019s Odyssey and Gen. 27\u201329, two accounts of young men on a journey.<\/p>\n

Authorship and History<\/p>\n

Tobit is thoroughly exilic in its viewpoint, and return to the land of Israel and Jerusalem is a consummation devoutly to be awaited. These factors, inextricably woven into the narrative fabric, strongly suggest that the book was written in the Diaspora (i.e., among Jews living outside the land of Palestine). A date in the 3rd century BCE seems likely, although the oral and folkloric roots are older.<\/p>\n

Significance<\/p>\n

The literary complexity of Tobit mirrors the richness of the book\u2019s religious expression. Fundamentally, the work makes a multifaceted statement about the interrelationships of God, humanity, and the world, and it does so through many traditional religious themes. Basic is the assertion that a providential God orchestrates the events of life and history for the benefit of Israel and the Israelites. Faithfulness to God and love toward others are rewarded.
\nThe author\u2019s assertions about the sovereignty of God do not avoid the problematic aspects of human experience, which are explained in several ways. Evil spirits wreak havoc on the righteous and innocent. Since the righteous are not perfect, the merciful God must sometimes \u201cscourge\u201d or \u201cchastise\u201d them before providing their due rewards. The dispensing of such rewards is, moreover, no simple matter and involves a complex divine juggling act; final benefit for all requires temporary suffering for some. A central factor in the book is the inability of human beings to perceive divine activity. This failure to understand is, in an important sense, the point of the work. God\u2019s purpose moves on in spite of human ignorance of it. Heaven\u2019s decisions and actions are hidden from human knowledge. The healing angel is thought to be merely a friendly and helpful companion. A journey undertaken for one purpose has unimaginably beneficial consequences. People widely separated wrongly suppose that the worst is happening. The resolution of the plot involves a revelation\u2014not simply of the angel\u2019s identity, but of the triumph of God\u2019s purpose and the frailty of human faith. Tobit is not an apocalyptic work. Nonetheless, in its two-storied universe, with angels and demons, its claim that God\u2019s hidden purposes are operative, and its assertion that God\u2019s triumph will be revealed, the book owes a debt to apocalyptic texts like 1 Enoch.
\nAlthough the author\u2019s eye is on the workings of the heavenly court, God intervenes on earth in human life and history. God and the angels are \u201cwith\u201d the righteous as they live their lives and \u201cwith\u201d Israel in its exile. Human beings are healed now, and final healing will restore the people to their land and again give them access to the sanctuary from which they apostasized.
\nConstitutive of the book\u2019s portrayal of God\u2019s activity on earth is its own version of the cross-cultural myth of the disguised heavenly helper. Another example occurs in the Gospel of Mark, where Jesus, the hidden Son of God comes to heal and combat Satan, and whose unique saving death reveals his identity.
\nFor the author of Tobit, God\u2019s merciful, saving activity is cause for praise, and the book is replete with hymns and hymnic language. Tobit\u2019s progress from doubt to affirmation is marked by his successive use of a prayer of lament and a hymn of praise. It is not accidental that the book itself is said to be an expression of God\u2019s great and marvelous activity (12:16\u201322).
\nIn Tobit, religion is embodied in social realities\u2014of which we are given some tantalizing glimpses. Marriage and family are central for social stability and for Israelite national and religious identity. Of marriage customs and family obligations there are numerous hints. Within this domestic sphere the men dominate, although the portrayal of Anna mitigates somewhat this patriarchal familial structure. When the author focuses on religious matters, men are clearly privileged and superior to women. Proper burial of the dead is a pervasive concern. The pious life is enacted in concrete deeds of loving-kindness. Thus, the religious obligation to bring tithes and firstfruits is intended to benefit others, and the rich have a special responsibility to share their wealth through the giving of alms.
\nFor Israelites in exile the righteous life has its negative social consequences. Tobit is persecuted and ridiculed by antagonistic and unsympathetic neighbors. The importance of endogamy (i.e., marriage within one\u2019s own tribal group) must be underscored, because intermarriage and assimilation are an easy capitulation to the social pressures felt in a minority situation.<\/p>\n

GUIDE TO READING<\/p>\n

Tobit was composed in Aramaic and translated into Hebrew and Greek. The Greek was transmitted in a long form (G2, supported by the Old Latin [OL] version) and a short form (G1). Fragments of several Aramaic and Hebrew manuscripts from Qumran indicate that the long form is more original (although it lacks two sections found in G and the Old Latin: 4:7\u201319; 13:6\u201310a). All major English editions are now based on the long form. This commentary follows that form, but makes occasional reference to possible original readings in G (sometimes supported by the OL).<\/p>\n

SUGGESTED READING<\/p>\n

Bow, B., and G. W. E. Nickelsburg. \u201cPatriarchy with a Twist: Men and Women in Tobit.\u201d In \u201cWomen Like This\u201d: New Perspectives on Jewish Women in the Greco-Roman World, edited by A.-J. Levine, 127\u201343. Society of Biblical Literature Early Judaism and Its Literature 6. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991.
\nDoran, R. \u201cNarrative Literature.\u201d In Early Judaism and Its Modern Interpreters, edited by R. A. Kraft and G. W. E. Nickelsburg, 287\u2013310. Philadelphia: Fortress; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.
\nLindenberger, J. M. \u201cAhiqar.\u201d In The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by J. H. Charlesworth. 2 vols, 2:479\u2013507. Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1985.
\nMoore, C. A. Tobit. Anchor Bible, 40A. New York: Doubleday, 1996.
\nNickelsburg, G. W. E. Jewish Literature Between the Bible and the Mishnah. A Historical and Literary Introduction, Second Ed. with CD-ROM. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005, 29\u201335.
\nPetersen, N. R. \u201cTobit.\u201d In The Books of the Bible, edited by B. W. Anderson, 2:35\u201342. New York: Scribner, 1989.<\/p>\n

COMMENTARY<\/p>\n

1:1\u20132 The superscription describes the work as \u201cthe book of the words of Tobit\u201d; it was written at the command of the angel Raphael (12:20), praising God\u2019s intervention in the lives of the protagonists. The name Tobit is a Greek form of the Hebrew name Tobi, probably short for Tobiah (\u201cYahweh is my good\u201d), which in the present work is the name of Tobit\u2019s son (in Gk., Tobias). Tobit\u2019s home in Thisbe is the first of a number of parallels with 1 Enoch which describes certain mythic events as taking place in the same general area (1 En. 13:4\u201310).
\n1:3\u20132:10 The narrative begins as Tobit recounts his piety and its anomalous consequences. Although he did not participate in Israel\u2019s apostasy, he and his family were taken into exile, where his pious concern cost him his job and his physical well-being.
\n1:3 The first-person singular narrative begun here continues until 3:7, when the story of Sarah is introduced by an anonymous third-person narrator who recounts the rest of the story. Using the idiom of the two ways (1:3; see commentary below on 4:3\u201319), Tobit describes himself as a righteous Israelite who devotes himself to acts of kindness for his exiled compatriots in Assyrian Nineveh.
\n1:4 Tobit\u2019s acts of righteousness are traced back to his days in Israel, where he was an exception among the apostates in the Northern Kingdom.
\n1:5 Tobit describes the prevailing situation\u2014Jeroboam\u2019s schism and his establishment of a rival sanctuary at Dan (1 Kings 12:25\u201333; Job 2:6, the quotation of Amos\u2019s oracle against Bethel). The divine establishment of the Jerusalem Temple will be emphasized in chap. 14.
\n1:6\u20138 In the midst of elite apostates, Tobit is singularly faithful to the Jerusalem sanctuary, to which he makes the pilgrimage prescribed in the \u201ceternal commandment\u201d in the Mosaic Torah (Deut. 16:16\u201317). Tied to these pilgrimages are the obligations to bring firstfruits and tithes: fruits of crops (Deut. 26:1\u201311); tithes of herds (Lev. 27:32); first shearings (Deut. 18:4); tithes of crops (Lev. 27:30; Deut. 14:22\u201323); a tithe turned into money (Deut. 14:25); and the third-year tithe for the orphans, widows, and sojourners (Deut. 14:28\u201329). Tobit\u2019s mention of his grandmother, Deborah, is the first of many references to his family.
\n1:10. I was carried away captive to Assyria The deportation to Assyria provides the story of Tobit with the Diaspora setting that is presumed for the rest of the narrative. As before, Tobit\u2019s piety is the author\u2019s central concern, but now this pious conduct has disastrous consequences.
\n1:10\u201313 Reminiscent of Dan. 1:8\u201320, where Daniel and his friends rise to prominence in a Mesopotamian court after maintaining righteous conduct in a Gentile context. Other elements typical of Dan. 3 and 6 will occur in Tob. 1:16\u201322.
\n1:14. While in the country of Media I left bags of silver \u2026 in trust with Gabael Tobit\u2019s deposit of money and his inability to retrieve it are crucial for the development of the plot in chaps. 4\u201311. That the Israelite Gabael lives in Media (as do Sarah and her family, 3:7) can be explained by 2 Kings 17:6, which locates part of the deportees in the cities of Media.
\n1:15 Although the text follows the narrative in 2 Kings 17\u201318, its historical statements and inferences are incorrect. The succession of Assyrian kings was Shalmaneser V, 727\u2013722 BCE; Sargon II, 722\u2013705; Sennacherib, 705\u2013681; and Esar-haddon, 681\u2013669. Shalmaneser and Sennacherib were brothers, not father and son. Although Sargon defeated Samaria and deported the Israelites, his absence here and in the next section is probably due to the omission of his name in 2 Kings.
\n1:16\u201322 Events here parallel Dan. 3 and 6. The Israelite courtier is persecuted for righteous deeds and then restored to high position. Different from the book of Daniel, the persecution and restoration of Tobit occur under successive kings, and the righteous deeds are acts of mercy, deeds of particular interest to this author.
\n1:17. I would give my food to the hungry and my clothing to the naked On feeding the hungry and clothing the naked, see 4:16. The concern is emphasized by the many commands to give alms (cf. 4:7\u201311).
\n1:18. I also buried any whom King Sennacherib put to death On burial of the dead, cf. 2:1\u201310; 4:3\u20134; 6:14; 8:12; 14:10\u201313. The importance of burial is presumed in the Hebrew Bible, as it is throughout the literature of the ancient world. Exposure of bodies was especially abhorrent (cf. Deut. 28:26; 1 Kings 21:24; 2 Kings 9:30\u201337; Ps. 79:2\u20133). Sennacherib\u2019s murder of Judeans (Tob. 1:18) is not indicated in 2 Kings 19, 2 Chron. 32, or Isa. 37, although his defeat is seen as divine punishment. Although Sennacherib\u2019s death occurred two decades after his siege of Jerusalem, 2 Kings 19:35\u201337; 2 Chron. 32:20\u201321; and Isa. 37:37\u201338 suggest a much shorter period of time (here specified as forty days). Again the author of Tobit is misled.
\n1:19. I was being searched for to be put to death Tobit\u2019s persecution for burying the victims of the king is reminiscent of Euripides\u2019s Antigone.
\n1:21\u201322 Tobit identifies Ahikar as his nephew. The story of Ahikar was a popular tale about a sage in the court of Esarhaddon who was conspired against by his nephew Nadin (called Nadab in 14:10\u201311); condemned to death, rescued, and restored to power. The plot parallels Dan. 3 and 6. The earliest evidence for the story is a 5th-century BCE Aramaic papyrus found at the ruins of the Egyptian Jewish colony of Elephantine. Neither the manuscript nor the later versions of the text, translated into numerous other languages, indicate that Ahikar was a Jew or a relative of someone named Tobit. The author of Tobit mentions Ahikar again in 2:10; 11:18; 14:10, where details of the story\u2019s plot are given. Tob. 4:17 closely parallels a proverb in 2:10 of the Syriac version of the Ahikar story.
\n2:1\u201310 This scene about Tobit\u2019s piety and subsequent blindness parallels the previous one: mention of a monarch; Tobit\u2019s burial of the dead; the disastrous consequences; and reference to Ahikar\u2019s kindness. Different from 1:16\u201322, the consequences of this event will require most of the rest of the book to resolve. The incident is typical of the characterization of Tobit and portrays one of the major problems dealt with in the book: The pious Israelite suffers because he attends to the needs of others. Tobit\u2019s piety is evident in his concern to bury the Israelite and in other details. He observes the feast of Pentecost, and, more important, he wishes to share his meal with the poor (cf. 1:17; Luke 14:12\u201324; 16:19\u201331). On the merit of hospitality in Rabbinic literature see Legends, etc., and especially B. Ta\u2019an. 20b.
\n2:5\u20132:9 The references to ablution are puzzling. According to Num. 19:11\u201319, contact with the corpse renders one unclean for seven days. The present text suggests that Tobit\u2019s ablution cleanses him, so that he can enter his house (vv. 4\u20135). The sequence\u2014burial, ablution, sleeping outdoors (vv. 7\u20139)\u2014may indicate impurity (thus G), or it may simply provide narrative cause for the event that follows. The function of the reference to sunset is unclear. Does Tobit postpone the burial so that he can eat the meal on the feast day? Or has the detail been suggested by the references to sunset in Num. 19:19\u201322 and Amos 8:9? (See next comment.)
\n2:6. \u201cYour festivals shall be turned \/ into mourning, \/ and all your songs into \/ lamentation.\u201d The quotation of Amos 8:10 is ironic. The oracle against the sinners of Bethel, who trample on the poor and take their grain (Amos 5:11; 8:4\u20136) is here applied to the pious one who shares his bread with the poor. Elements in the Amos passage are woven into the narrative of Tobit: it is on a feast day (Tob. 2:1) that Tobit\u2019s joy turns to sorrow (v. 5) and mourning (v. 6). The motif of mockery will return in 3:1\u201315.
\n2:10. I did not know that there were sparrows on the wall; their fresh droppings fell into my eyes Why does the author have his hero blinded by bird droppings? It is a cruel conclusion to the incident, and one can imagine the continued mockery. Perhaps the birds are agents of a demon like Asmodeus (3:8; cf. Jub. 11:11, where Satan sends ravens to devour seed; and Mark 4:4, 15, which appears to know some such tradition). In any case, the event triggers the divinely directed scenario that is tracked through the rest of the plot. Perhaps the author asserts that God works even in cruel and evidently arbitrary circumstances. Such a point is reinforced by a comparison with Sir. 38:1\u20137. Although physicians are agents of divine healing, their failure will facilitate God\u2019s plans for the Tobiad family. The section ends with a motif that will recur frequently. Tobit\u2019s family grieves, because they do not know of God\u2019s eventual disposition of the case (cf. 11:17\u201318).
\n2:11\u20133:17 Tobit\u2019s reproach by Anna and his death wish are parallel to Sarah\u2019s reproach by her servants and her prayer for death. This literary diptych and its immediate sequel are the turning point in the story. The prayers are heard, but they will be answered in an unexpected way\u2014through healing rather than death. This resolution will join two parts of the family and solve another problem for Israelites in exile: finding a suitable spouse with whom to maintain one\u2019s religious and cultural identity in a foreign land. The description of Israelites in prayer is integral to the author\u2019s view of piety, and the laments prepare for the contrasting hymn of praise in chap. 13.
\n2:11\u20133:6 The problem of Tobit\u2019s blindness is exacerbated by a new domestic incident, which leads him to pray for death as an escape from his misery.
\n2:11\u201314 The exacerbation of Tobit\u2019s troubles is tied to his concern about the righteous life, but the section is replete with irony. The prosperous, influential, and generous public servant is now dependent on his wife\u2019s earning power and the generosity of her employers. Although his deeds stemmed from his trust in God and presumed God\u2019s reward, he cannot believe that he is the recipient of the generosity of others. These reactions flesh out the characterization of a complex and believable human being. His central virtue\u2014a concern with righteousness\u2014is his undoing.
\n2:13. \u201cwe have no right to eat anything stolen\u201d Tobit admonishes Anna for he believes his wife has strayed from the straight and narrow. Concern with righteousness has become an obsession. His shaken faith in divine retribution has its corollary in his inability to trust Anna.
\n2:14. \u201cWhere are your acts of charity? Where are your righteous deeds? These things are known about you!\u201d Anna\u2019s response is ironic, although its precise meaning is unclear. According to G, Tobit\u2019s criticism shows his true colors (\u201cEveryone can now see what you are really like,\u201d 2:14, REB). The text of G looks like an ironic suggestion that Tobit is playing God, claiming to know everything (in spite of his blindness).
\n3:1\u20136 God\u2019s righteous judgment is the pervading theme of Tobit\u2019s prayer. In keeping with the book\u2019s double focus, this judgment is dispensed to individuals like Tobit and is evident in the nation\u2019s exile.
\n3:2. all your ways are mercy and truth; you judge the world Tobit acknowledges the balance of divine justice with mercy and faithfulness.
\n3:3. Do not punish me for my sins and for my unwitting offenses His earlier recitation of his pious deeds notwithstanding (chaps. 1\u20132), Tobit does not claim perfection, but confesses \u201cmy sins and errors\u201d (3:3). The prayer does not presume that God exacts retribution for every sin.
\n3:5. And now your many judgments are true in exacting penalty from me for my sins Tobit\u2019s prayer recognizes God\u2019s right to exact the retribution that Tobit sees in his life. Paradoxically, Tobit parallels the punishment he perceives in his righteous life with the nation\u2019s plight, which tradition uniformly saw as just.
\n3:6 Tobit\u2019s petition expresses another paradox\u2014faith\u2019s mixture of doubt and acceptance. As woes are compounded, Tobit can no longer believe that God will reverse these disasters. Yet he accepts the divine sovereignty that expresses itself in premature death. This acceptance is not based on a belief that such a death will be reversed through resurrection and eternal life.
\n3:7\u201315 The swift movement from Nineveh to Ecbatana to the heavenly throne room (v. 16) and the use of temporal expressions (vv. 7, 10, 11) tighten the narrative and unify the action, but they also depict God\u2019s control over widely scattered events.
\n3:7\u20139 Sarah\u2019s plight is similar to Tobit\u2019s. She is an innocent victim of circumstances beyond her control. The demonic element, perhaps suggested in 2:10, is explicit here. The reproach that Tobit felt in the disparity between his piety and his lot in life has its counterpart in Sarah\u2019s inability to consummate her marriage and have children to continue her father\u2019s line. The motif of the demon lover was widespread. In contemporary Jewish literature it is closely paralleled in the story of watchers, angelic beings who descend from heaven to mate with human women, in 1 En. 6\u201311. Here the demon who cannot consummate his lust kills his rivals. Some Rabbis took a dim view of a woman\u2019s marriage after the deaths of too many successive husbands. A fourth or even a third was too many (B. Yev. 64b). Mark 12:18\u201327 mentions a marriage to seven successive husbands with no negative comment.
\n3:10\u201315 Sarah\u2019s response and prayer have their own nuances. Her reflections move from self-pity to filial concern. Because her contemplated suicide would grieve her father, she turns to Tobit\u2019s solution: Let God take her life. Although Sarah\u2019s prayer is similar to Tobit\u2019s, there are remarkable differences; Sarah begins with praise and never refers to God\u2019s justice. To the contrary, she protests her innocence (cf. vv. 14\u201315a with vv. 3, 5). Moreover, a second reference to her death is modified. If God does not see fit to let her die, then let God heed her (and remove her affliction). It is an alternative Tobit has not considered.
\n3:16\u201317. the prayers of both of them were heard in the glorious presence of God. So Raphael was sent to heal both of them Prayer catalyzes the divine resolution of human problems. The introductory expression \u201cat that very time\u201d and the repetition of the verb \u201chear\u201d connect this scene with the prayers; and the rest of the paragraph summarizes the events to come. In the heavenly throne room the seven archangels (cf. 1 En. 20) relay the prayers they receive (cf. Tob. 12:12, 15) and are sent to answer them. Raphael\u2019s name (Heb. \u201cGod has healed\u201d) denotes the angel\u2019s activity (cf. 1 En. 10:4, 7; 40:9). For a close parallel to this view of the divine throne room and the relationship between prayer and the angels\u2019 roles as intercessors and agents of deliverance cf. 1 En. 8\u201310; 40; 47; 97:5; 99:3; 100:4. The probable original wording of Tob. 3:16 and 12:12, 15, \u201cbefore the glory of the Great One (Holy One),\u201d reflects the formulas in 1 En. 103:1; 104:1. God\u2019s providence will result in Tobias\u2019s marriage to the woman for whom he is the most suitable husband (3:17). This providence is evident in Tobit\u2019s and Sarah\u2019s simultaneous return to the world where their prayers will be answered.
\n4:1\u201311:18 Heaven has made its decision to heal and deliver Tobit and Sarah; the enactment remains to be described. Essential to the narrative art in these chapters is a disparity between readers\u2019 knowledge of what is happening and the characters\u2019 ignorance. This disparity has its humorous side, but also makes a religious statement: God\u2019s purposes are operative even when they are not perceived. The denouement will reveal this to the characters.
\n4:1\u20135:3 Certain that his prayer will be answered, Tobit prepares for his death. He must straighten out his finances and give his son the testamentary advice typical of deathbed situations.
\n4:1\u20132 Human events can have a divine dimension. We may paraphrase 4:1 as follows: \u201cAs soon as God had decided to help, God jogged Tobit\u2019s memory.\u201d This recollection will trigger events that effect the healing of Tobit and Sarah and the marriage of Tobias and Sarah. Tobit\u2019s human perception is altogether different. Confronted with the certainty of his death, he wishes to secure his son\u2019s future. And so he remembers the money he deposited (1:14\u201315), which can lift Tobias from the family\u2019s present deprivation. He cannot suspect the outcome of Tobias\u2019s journey.
\n4:3\u201319 Tobit\u2019s certainty about his imminent death is evident in his instruction to Tobias. The genre is familiar from texts like Gen. 49; Deut. 31\u201334, 1 Enoch (81\u201382, 91), Jubilees (21\u201323), the Testament of Moses, and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (on the literary form, see comment on 14:2\u201311). The narrative in Tobit has already presented the exemplary biographical material typical of these texts. The context here confines itself to the kind of ethical instruction that predominates in many Jewish testaments. The focal issues are the special concerns in Tobit: proper burial (vv. 3\u20134); charitable and generous use of wealth and possessions (vv. 7\u201311, 14, 16\u201317); and endogamous marriage (vv. 12\u201313). This specific advice is punctuated with general instructions that use the categories of the \u201ctwo ways.\u201d This section and its reprises in 12:6\u201310 and 14:10\u201311 have many parallels in Jewish Wisdom Literature and lend an explicitly didactic tone to the present work. The poetic parallelism in this section is not indicated in all English editions.
\n4:3\u20134 Typical of the testamentary form is the summoning of the son and the command to bury. This text stresses the son\u2019s responsibility to his parents (cf. Matt. 8:21; Luke 9:59). The phrasing recalls the commandment to honor one\u2019s parents (Exod. 20:12; Deut. 5:16) and its paraphrase in Sir. 7:27. Tob. 4:3\u20134 reflects this author\u2019s broader interest in familial matters.
\n4:5\u20136 Introduced here is the idiom of the two ways\u2014of righteousness (or truth) and iniquity. The imagery is typical of Jewish and early Christian wisdom instruction and appears also in pagan sources. A parallel to the antithetical formulation of these verses and to 4:19 occurs in 1 En. 94:1\u20135.
\n4:7\u201319 A major section of this text is omitted in G, but its originality is supported by its presence in G and the OL, which otherwise tends to agree with G.
\n4:7 The prospering of the ways of the righteous (v. 6) forms a transition to the discussion of wealth in vv. 7\u201311, where Tobit promises that generosity will be rewarded. Verse 7b expresses a principle of appropriate compensation: \u201cDo not turn away your face \u2026 the face of God will not be turned away.\u201d
\n4:9\u201311 To give alms to others is to lay up treasure for oneself. Almsgiving was an important part of Israelite piety and expressed the biblical concern for the poor. The topic is integral to this book. The hero himself performed such acts of charity (1:3, 17), and his commands here provide the ethical context for Tobias\u2019s receipt of the money from Gabael in Rages (9:1\u20136). As Raphael and Tobit repeat later, God rewards such generous use of wealth (12:8\u201310; 14:11). There is irony in Tobit\u2019s observations, however. He is awaiting a premature death, which is not the proper recompense for his conduct. But for the author, who knows the outcome, the statement is true, and it will be reiterated when it is shown to be true. Tob. 4:11 suggests a parallel between almsgiving and sacrifice, which will be made explicit in 12:9. According to this view, one obtains forgiveness and atonement not only through sacrifice in the Temple, but also through generous deeds. Several centuries later the idea would have a special and essential religious function for the Jews, whose Temple had been permanently destroyed. The injunctions about wealth and possessions provide a context for statements on the subject in the wisdom material in Matt. 6:19\u201333; Luke 12:22\u201334, in passages peculiar to Luke, and in the Letter of James.
\n4:12\u201313 From the responsible use of wealth, Tobit returns to the topic of the family (cf. 4:3\u20134), here the making of a proper marriage. In one of the book\u2019s playful ironies, Tobit gives instructions that will be carried out in a way he hardly suspects. Tobias\u2019s journey to fetch the money will result in his marriage to the kind of wife that Tobit has in mind.
\n4:12. marry a woman from among the descendants of your ancestors; do not marry a foreign woman The prohibition against marriage to a foreign spouse appears already in the stories of Isaac and Jacob (Gen. 24:3; 28:12), where journeys are also undertaken to find such a spouse. The concern reappears in Ezra 9\u201310 and Neh. 10:28\u201330, is emphasized in Jubilees\u2019 recasting of the Genesis narratives, and is central in Joseph and Aseneth. The topic is especially relevant here in a document set in the Diaspora.
\n4:13. do not disdain your kindred \u2026 by refusing to take a wife for yourself from among them. This admonition reflects the author\u2019s sociopsychological insight. In an alien culture it can be tempting for a member of the minority to marry into the majority to prove oneself better than one\u2019s compatriots. For Tobit such arrogant disdaining of one\u2019s own people leads to the destruction of the nation and religious and cultural disorder. This, rather than a notion of racial purity, is the basis for endogamy. The proverb in v. 13b is probably traditional. Although the proverb begins with a comment on the arrogance of exogamous marriage (i.e., marriage outside the tribal unit), the next two lines discuss useless behavior and its results\u2014loss, want, and hunger.
\n4:14. \u201cDo not keep over until the next day the wages of those who work for you, but pay them at once.\u201d Verse 14a complements this train of thought and may have been part of the tradition: shiftless behavior can lead to hunger; so can the withholding of wages (for the biblical command, see Lev. 19:13). In the context of Tobit, 4:14a is a command for the proper use of wealth, with the promise of appropriate recompense. Verses 14b\u201315a are a pair of general injunctions. The first is a balanced line (\u201cin all \u2026 in all\u201d) that begins like v. 12 (\u201cwatch yourself\u201d).
\n4:15. And what you hate, do not do to anyone The earliest datable formulation of the Golden Rule.
\n4:15\u201317 These verses touch on traditional topics of Jewish piety. The subject of food is introduced by a reference, to the abuse of overdrinking\u2014also a traditional wisdom topic (cf. Prov. 23:29\u201335; Sir. 31:25\u201330; T. Jud. 11\u201314; 16). Tob. 4:17 is one of several parallels to the story of Ahiqar (2:10 in the Syriac version of Ahiqar; see commentary above on 1:16\u201322). Here the point is: sustain the hungry, but if they are sinners, leave your food at the grave of the righteous dead. The ethic is startlingly narrow and the practice obscure, but the author\u2019s interest in burial is evident.
\n4:18\u201319 The interpretation here depends on one\u2019s textual reconstruction; the omission in G ends at v. 19b (\u201c\u2026 the LORD gives\u201d). In G and the OL seeking good counsel and the imagery of the two ways are central. Verse 19a may reflect Ps. 34:1, a psalm whose theme is relevant to the story of Tobit. The warning about nations\u2019 lack of good counsel (cf. Deut. 32:28) is pertinent in a Diaspora writing. What God gives varies according to the texts: in G, \u201call good things\u201d (cf. Matt. 7:7\u201314, with many parallels to this text); in G, \u201cgood counsel.\u201d According to the OL and G in part, God exalts and brings down to Sheol. The concluding admonition parallels 1 En. 94:5, which also concludes a section of two ways instruction (1 En. 94:1\u20135).
\n4:21. You have great wealth if you fear God and flee from every sin Still speaking in the idiom of wisdom instruction, Tobit assures Tobias that this money will reverse their circumstances if Tobias uses it correctly.
\n5:1. \u201cI will do everything that you have commanded me, father Tobias\u2019s response echoes Exod. 19:8; 24:3, 7; Josh. 1:16 and constitutes his formal acceptance of his father\u2019s Torah, or teaching.
\n5:4\u201322 Tobias\u2019s journey to Rages in Media requires a traveling companion. Little do Tobit and Tobias suspect that he will be an angel sent to effect God\u2019s beneficent purposes. This ignorance and the double entendres by Tobit and Raphael are the subject of considerable narrative delight.
\n5:4\u20138 The section of Tobit that is cast in the form of an angelic epiphany begins here as the angel Raphael appears to Tobias in human form. The presence of an unrecognized divine being is an ancient folkloristic motif (cf. Gen. 18; Judg. 13). Especially close to Tobit is its use in books 1\u20133 of Homer\u2019s Odyssey.
\n5:6. \u201cI have been there many times \u2026 and know all the roads Raphael\u2019s words suggest that this man is a frequent traveler through Mesopotamia. In reality, Raphael alludes to his angelic journeys (cf. v. 9). The distance from Rages to Ecbatana took Alexander\u2019s army ten days\u2019 forced march.
\n5:9\u201316a The author continues the playful description of the ignorance of Tobit and Tobias over the real state of affairs. As readers know, Tobit\u2019s concern about Raphael\u2019s lineage and qualifications is beside the point.
\n5:10. \u201cWhat joy is left for me any more? The opening words of the conversation are psychologically loaded. Tobit reacts bitterly to the angel\u2019s common greeting \u201cjoyous greetings to you,\u201d and with some self-pity he likens himself to the dead man he expects to be. But Raphael means what he says and predicts an outcome that Tobit cannot comprehend.
\n5:11\u201312 When Tobit queries Raphael about his family, the angel futilely attempts to avoid the issue. He must lie.
\n5:13. \u201cI am Azariah, the son of the great Hananiah\u201d The discussion of Raphael\u2019s lineage is, of course, absurd, but his and his father\u2019s alleged names suggest the story\u2019s outcome (Azarias, Gk., from the Heb. for \u201cthe LORD has helped\u201d; Ananias, Gk., from the Heb. for \u201cthe LORD has had mercy\u201d). Tobit\u2019s desire to know the facts (Gk. aletheia) about Raphael\u2019s family is a piece of authorial irony, but it is also a theological comment: human beings can know \u201cthe truth\u201d only when God reveals it, and human precautions are a charade when God is in charge.
\n5:14. Your kindred are good people; you come of good stock. Both Tobit\u2019s comment on Raphael\u2019s family stock and his benediction on the angel are humorously gratuitous.
\n5:16\u201317 The two textual traditions narrate this section with different nuances. In G there is a play on the idea of \u201cthe way.\u201d God will prosper Tobias on his journey, as God prospers the \u201cway\u201d of the righteous (cf. 4:19). The idea appears in G in the next section. Here G implies that Tobit expects to be alive when Tobias returns. In both texts Tobit\u2019s wish for an angelic guide unwittingly expresses the truth.
\n5:18\u201320. his mother began to weep \u2026 \u201cWhy is it that you have sent my child away?\u201d For Anna, Tobias\u2019s departure is a cause for sorrow, and the expected monetary gain is not worth the risk.
\n5:21\u201322. \u201cDo not worry \u2026 For a good angel will accompany him; his journey will be successful, and he will come back in good health.\u201d Anna\u2019s sensibility contrasts with Tobit\u2019s faith: an angel will accompany Tobias, his journey will prosper, and he will return safely. Recognizing in Tobit the influence of Gen. 27\u201329, the author of Jub. 27:13\u201318 incorporates this scene into his account of Jacob\u2019s departure.
\n6:1\u201317 Tobias\u2019s and Raphael\u2019s journey to Media serves several functions. Most obviously, it provides the geographic movement that enables Tobias to seek his financial fortune. But in God\u2019s scheme, Tobias is headed for other, unexpected, goals. He will meet the woman destined to be his bride, and along the way he will acquire the magical apparatus that will facilitate the healing of Tobit and Sarah.
\n6:1\u20139 As elsewhere in the story, God intervenes directly in human events. The means for healing Tobit and Sarah literally leaps out of the water just as Tobias arrives at the riverbank. God has prepared a great fish to accomplish the divine purpose. The parallel to the Jonah story is clearer in G, where the fish attempts to swallow Tobias himself rather than just his foot (cf. also comment on 14:4\u20137). An allusion to magical practice for physical cure and exorcism is evident, but the author\u2019s appraisal of it is less certain. Perhaps he makes fun of magic. In any case one wonders how Tobias can survive a journey through the Mesopotamian heat transporting the reeking organs of the fish. Although the journey is from one geographic location to another, the narrative recalls the accounts of Enoch\u2019s cosmic journeys (1 En. 17\u201336). In the company of an angel Tobias travels to a place where he sees something he does not understand. When he asks, the angel explains. The scene is also reminiscent of the description of the first night of Jacob\u2019s journey (Gen. 28:10\u201322).
\n6:10\u201318 When Tobias and Raphael have traversed the 325 miles to the Median capital, the angel informs Tobias of the events that will take place in Ecbatana. The section serves two functions. First, it allows Tobias to protest against the dangers of marrying Sarah, but then to accept Raphael\u2019s assurance of divine protection. This acceptance is remarkable since he does not know that his companion is an angel. Second, in this section Tobias receives the instructions necessary to defeat the demon. The conversation is carefully constructed and held together by key words. The references to \u201cthis night\u201d emphasize how swiftly the action will move and how imminent is the danger that Tobias may perish on his wedding night.
\n6:11\u201315 Raphael\u2019s repeated urging (\u201clisten to me, brother\u201d) meets with resistance. Tobias has \u201cheard\u201d about the fate of Sarah\u2019s previous husbands, and he is \u201cafraid\u201d the same will happen to him.
\n6:16\u201318 After Raphael\u2019s reassurances and the formulaic \u201cfear not,\u201d typical of epiphanies (though Tobias does not perceive this as such), the young man acquiesces in what he has \u201cheard\u201d from Raphael. The angel uses several arguments. He responds to Tobias\u2019s concern that he live to bury his parents (4:3\u20134) by recalling Tobit\u2019s other command that he marry a woman from his family (4:12\u201313). In addition, the apparatus for an exorcism, combined with earnest prayer, will effect the couple\u2019s deliverance. Finally, without citing his sources, Raphael assures Tobias that Sarah is the bride eternally destined for him. Predestination is an aspect of the author\u2019s belief that God intervenes in human affairs. For the notion of marriages made in heaven among the Rabbis, see Gen. Rab. 68; Lev. Rab. 8; B. Mo\u2019ed Kat. 18b; B. Sot. 2a. Raphael\u2019s reference to Sarah\u2019s beauty and Tobias\u2019s love for her (6:12, 17) recall Gen. 29:17, 30.
\n7:1\u20139:6 This lengthy section solves the second of the problems in chap. 3. Sarah is healed when Tobias and Raphael dispose of Asmodeus. Moreover, Tobias\u2019s marriage fulfills Tobit\u2019s commandment (4:12\u201313) and dramatizes the importance of endogamy.
\n7:1\u20139 Once Tobias has agreed to marry Sarah, he is anxious to be taken to her house, where he is welcomed with great emotion. This scene parallels Telemachus\u2019s arrival at Sparta (Od. 4:137\u201344, 183\u201386) and Jacob\u2019s arrival in Mesopotamia (Gen. 29:11\u201314). As in 6:13, the author assumes that news traveled through the Mesopotamian Israelite communities.
\n7:5\u20137 Although Tobit is \u201chealthy and alive,\u201d Raguel finds incongruous the blindness of a man who fits the Greek ideal of goodness and nobility (the translator uses the Gk. kalos and agathos) and epitomizes Israelite piety (he is righteous and does deeds of mercy; cf., e.g., 1:3).
\n7:9. \u201cBrother Azariah, ask Raguel to give me my kinswoman Sarah.\u201d Tobias wastes no time in reminding Raphael of his promise to arrange a marriage with Sarah. One did not discuss business before meals. Tobias\u2019s breach of etiquette underscores the urgency of the request. Raphael\u2019s role as marriage broker combines features from Gen. 24, where Abraham sends a servant to find a wife for Isaac, promising that an angel will accompany him (Gen. 24:7, 40).
\n7:10\u201316 Tobias need not worry; according to the law of levirate marriage, he is the leading candidate for Sarah\u2019s hand, a fact emphasized, by the references to the Law of Moses (cf. Deut. 25:5\u201310). The author is concerned not with descendants for the first husband, the point of levirate law, but with Sarah\u2019s status as an only child (Tob. 3:15). In this context Raguel\u2019s willingness to \u201ctell the truth\u201d (7:10) is praiseworthy. The author\u2019s irony appears in Raguel\u2019s statement, \u201cEat, drink, and be merry tonight, for there is no one else to take Sarah my daughter, except you\u201d (v. 10). It is an ad hoc reformulation of the familiar aphorism; past events suggest that tomorrow Tobias will be dead. Tobias\u2019s single-minded determination to marry Sarah contrasts with Raguel\u2019s vacillation between the assumption that Tobias will die like the others and his hope that things will be different. This hope may reflect Raguel\u2019s evident ignorance of the demonic cause of the husbands\u2019 deaths. The brief description of the wedding ceremony sheds a little light on the details of such occasions.
\n7:16. \u201cTake courage, my daughter.\u201d With the wedding ceremony and meal finished, the moment of truth has arrived. Will the marriage be consummated, or will another bridegroom die? The mother is hopeful and quiets her daughter\u2019s sorrow with the doubly repeated \u201chave courage\u201d (Gk. tharsei), very likely a translation of the same Aramaic as Raphael\u2019s \u201cfear not\u201d (6:17).
\n8:1\u20138 The first part of 8:4 appears to have originally been located after v. 1. The parents bring Tobias to the wedding chamber, and then they leave and shut the door. Whether the text ever described the demon\u2019s entrance into the wedding chamber is uncertain. In any case Tobias\u2019s magical ritual and the young couple\u2019s prayer stand in the same order as in Raphael\u2019s earlier description (6:16\u201317). This unusual wedding night is a foil to Gen. 29:23\u201325. Instead of a marriage consummated with a rival wife, the rival lover is driven out.
\n8:3. The odor of the fish so repelled the demon that he fled The idea that the stench of roasted fish organs (now many days ripe) could drive off a demon was surely intended as humorous, though it may reflect some actual ritual. \u201cBinding\u201d is a technical term used for the incapacitating of demons. The description recalls 1 En. 10:4, where Raphael binds Asael hand and foot. Asmodeus\u2019s banishment to Egypt suggests that Tobit was written in a place other than in Egypt.
\n8:4\u20138 The prayer of Tobias and Sarah is a functional equivalent of the magical ritual. They pray for mercy (Gk. eleos, a technical term in Tobit for deliverance; see comment on 13:1\u20132) and salvation (Gk. soteria). They have already been saved from the demon; so the prayer (which fits well with other liturgical elements in Tobit) is a petition for continued blessing. Perhaps the references to the fish and the ritual go back to older folkloristic motifs that were early integrated into this story. Noteworthy in the prayer is the allusion to Genesis not as a reference to Scripture, but as a reminder of God\u2019s will in creation.
\n8:9\u201310 The prayer\u2019s reverential character contrasts with Raguel\u2019s pessimistic assumption that Tobias will die. For readers the digging of the grave is a ludicrous act of unfaith that parallels some of Tobit\u2019s actions. The narration of the simultaneous contrasting events inside and outside the wedding chamber parallels chap. 3.
\n8:14\u201317 When Raguel ascertains that Tobias is alive, he sings a hymn similar to Sarah\u2019s and Tobias\u2019s prayer.
\n8:21. Take courage, my child. Tob. 8:21 focuses on family relationships, and Raguel\u2019s related \u201chave courage, child\u201d (in G) parallels Edna\u2019s words to Sarah (7:18) and emphasizes Tobias\u2019s status as the family\u2019s son.
\n9:1\u20132 With the marriage of Tobias the nature of the journey has changed. Tobias\u2019s companion has shown his credibility and is sent on alone to fetch the money, time is of the essence. Tobias\u2019s delay will worry his father, or perhaps his father will die before the young man returns.
\n9:6 When Gabael arrives, he is welcomed as a member of the family (cf. 1:14), and his meeting with Tobias closely parallels that in 7:1\u20138.
\n10:1\u201311:18 This major section recounts the completion of Tobias\u2019s journey and the healing of Tobit. Thus a solution is found for the problem that led to the development of the plot.
\n10:1\u20137a Again the author juxtaposes simultaneous contrasting scenes. Over against the joy of the wedding celebration stands the gloom of the Tobiad household. Not only are Tobit and Anna ignorant of events in Ecbatana; they assume the worst. The scene is a counterpart to 5:17\u201322, but the interaction between Tobit and Anna has become more bitter. The psychology is interesting. Tobit counts the days of Tobias\u2019s absence (10:1; cf. 9:4) and creates a pessimistic scenario to explain the delay. When Anna outdoes him by supposing that Tobias has died, Tobit responds with words of comfort, which Anna refuses to accept. She acts as one mourning the dead.
\n10:7b\u201310 Again changing scenes, the author returns to the dutiful son\u2019s concern about his father. Understandably, Raguel wants his newfound son and newly healed daughter to remain, but when he fails to delay the departure, he sends Tobias off with his bride and with a substantial dowry that is a down payment on a full inheritance (cf. Raphael\u2019s prediction, 6:11).
\n10:11\u201312 The scene is a counterpart to the farewell in 5:16b. Central is the book\u2019s pervading concern with family, expressed with complementary sentiments. Raguel reminds Sarah that in her father-in-law\u2019s house she will be the daughter of Tobit and Anna. Edna exhorts her \u201cson\u201d to care for \u201cmy daughter.\u201d Both send the couple off \u201cin peace,\u201d wishing them a safe journey, prosperity, and children that Raguel and Edna will live to see. Raguel\u2019s concluding exhortation about honoring parents may be textually out of place and may have originally been addressed to Sarah.
\n10:13. praising the LORD of heaven and earth Tobias praises God, as we have come to expect.
\n11:1\u20134 A curious narrative touch is the reference to Tobias\u2019s dog, which had gone off on the journey with them (5:16, G; 6:1, G) and is now mentioned again for the first time. Dogs are not house pets in Israelite texts, but cf. Od. 2:11; 16:62.
\n11:5\u20136 The author returns to Anna (cf. 10:7a), who, despite her gloomy protests, is still watching the road for Tobias\u2019s return. She is her blind husband\u2019s eyes and informs him that \u201cyour son\u201d is coming.
\n11:8. your father will regain his sight and see the light Raphael\u2019s instructions build narrative tension. The wording of G, \u201che will see the light,\u201d suggests a wordplay, for Tobias is \u201cthe light of my eyes\u201d (v. 14, G; cf. Anna\u2019s expression in 10:5).
\n11:9\u201310 Anna\u2019s readiness to die recalls the motif in 4:4. With a touch of pathos the father is depicted as stumbling out to meet his son.
\n11:11\u201315 The healing has a magical or miraculous element; fish gall works where the physicians had failed (cf. 2:10). But plot is of importance. The physicians\u2019 failure allowed Tobit to recover his money, Sarah to be healed, and Tobias to find his destined wife. Praise to God is in order, as when Sarah was healed. The motif will be expanded in chaps. 12\u201313. The interpretation of Tobit\u2019s experience as scourging and mercy will also recur in 13:1\u20132. That Tobit \u201csees\u201d his son has double meaning, connoting both the son\u2019s return and Tobit\u2019s recovery of his sight. The scene has some interesting parallels (and resonances?) in Luke 15:20\u201324 (cf. also Jub. 31:4\u20139).
\n11:16\u201318 With this scene another theme is resolved. Tobit meets the wife he had hoped Tobias would find (4:12\u201313). Of course, he praises God on his way to meet her. The people\u2019s astonishment is a motif that will be typical of the later miracle stories in the Gospels. Tob. 11:17 again emphasizes the family. The rejoicing of the people gives the scene the character of a communal festival (cf. Esther 8:16\u201317). Reference to \u201cthe Jews,\u201d if original to the text, is odd in a document about a northern Israelite family (but cf. 1:3\u20137 and chap. 13). On Ahikar and Nadab, see comment on 1:16\u201322.
\n12:1\u201314:1 Now that the major problems have been resolved, the author provides a final narrative twist. When Tobit and Tobias offer their helper a bonus, they discover his real identity and are told that appropriate thanks belongs to God, who sent the healer. So they sing hymns of praise, and Tobit writes the reverential book we have been reading\u2014including a hymn of praise (chap. 13).
\n12:1\u201322 The author now concludes the angelic epiphany introduced at 3:16\u201317. The disguised angel reveals his true identity, Tobit and Tobias react in terror, and Raphael reassures them, commissions them to a task, and then disappears.
\n12:1\u20135 Tobit and Tobias continue to act in accordance with their wrong perceptions. As Tobias\u2019s summary suggests (v. 3), Raphael has resolved all their problems and is worthy of a special reward. The 50 percent commission vastly exceeds what was implied in 5:14, but is consonant with the generosity espoused throughout the book.
\n12:6\u201310 Raphael\u2019s instructions are given privately to the men of the story and not in the presence of Anna and Sarah, who have also been beneficiaries of the angel\u2019s activities.
\n12:6. Bless and sing praise to his name. Raphael emphasizes that proper payment is the offering of praise and thanks for God\u2019s deeds in the presence of all humanity (vv. 6\u20137; cf. vv. 17\u201318). Such public acknowledgment anticipates the universalistic note to be struck in 13:11; 14:6\u20137.
\n12:7\u201310 Raphael\u2019s injunctions indicate the proper use of wealth and promise blessings to the giver of alms. By the time readers come to this reprise of Tobit\u2019s testamentary instructions (4:5\u201311), it is clear that almsgiving does deliver from death (cf. 4:10; 14:11). The combined references to prayer, fasting (G, OL), almsgiving, and \u201cstoring up\u201d gold are paralleled in Matt. 6:1\u201321, which thus reflects its background in Jewish wisdom teaching.
\n12:11\u201314 Raphael reviews past events, revealing to the protagonists the divine activity of which they had been unaware. His explanation brings Tobit and Tobias up to date on what readers have known since 3:16\u201317 and adds a few details to that section. The text of 12:13 is uncertain. According to G, Tobit\u2019s pious deeds were not hidden from the angelic witness. The motif of testing in G suggests the same idea, but may imply some divine initiative in the incident described in 2:1\u201310. (On Raphael\u2019s second function as divinely sent savior, or specifically, healer, see comment on 3:16\u201317.)
\n12:15. I am Raphael, one of the seven angels who stand ready and enter before the glory of the LORD.\u201d Raphael is one of seven angels of the presence who have special access to the divine throne room, where they relay the prayers of humanity in the form of memoranda to the heavenly King.
\n12:16\u201321 The form of Raphael\u2019s self-revelation as well as the human reaction, the angelic reassurance, and the sudden disappearance are traditional elements in the epiphany form. More often than not, such epiphanies have a commissioning function. Although that function is not central in Tobit (Raphael appears in order to heal), it is present in the command to praise God (12:20; cf. Rev. 1:19) and in the fulfillment of the command (Tob. 12:22). That angels do not eat human food is a traditional idea (cf. T. Ab. 4, Recension A; Luke 24:36\u201343).
\n12:22. They kept blessing God and singing his praises This verse concludes the principal narrative in the book by underscoring its reverential tone, which is punctuated by the hymn that follows.
\n13:1\u201314:1 Tobit\u2019s hymn partakes of two worlds. Its themes, diction, and literary form are typical of Israelite piety in the real world in which the author of Tobit and his audience lived. Indeed, it may be a reused liturgical composition. Because the hymn reflects real usage, it lends verisimilitude to the literary portrait of Tobit in the fictive setting that constitutes the hymn\u2019s second world. Within the world of that narrative, the hymn not only serves the literary functions of characterization and plot development, but also helps to express some of the author\u2019s central religious conceptions: exile and return; judgment, repentance, righteousness, and deliverance; and God\u2019s sovereignty and ultimate triumph. Between the narrative introduction (13:1) and conclusion (14:1) the hymn is framed by a pair of matched benedictions (13:1, 18). The introduction (vv. 1\u20132) sets the theme (divine justice and mercy), and the body of the poem is divided into two major sections addressed to the \u201csons of Israel\u201d in exile (vv. 3\u20137) and to Jerusalem (vv. 8\u201318). Pairs of opposing words (\u201cscourge\u201d \/ \u201chave mercy\u201d; \u201cgrieve\u201d \/ \u201crejoice\u201d; \u201cscattered\u201d \/ \u201cgathered\u201d) contrast Israel\u2019s present situation in exile and its future return to Jerusalem, which are functions of God\u2019s judgment for sin and the salvation that will follow repentance. The composition is a hymn of praise in response to God\u2019s mighty acts, a prayer of rejoicing. Its consistently optimistic tone is evident in the repetition of verbs like \u201cpraise,\u201d \u201cexalt,\u201d \u201cgive thanks,\u201d \u201crejoice.\u201d Although much of the vocabulary is reminiscent of the book of Psalms (esp. Ps. 92\u2013118), key themes and terminology reflect the concerns of the author and the author\u2019s time. Israel is in dispersion. The glory of Jerusalem and the Temple are eschatological or end-time realities, described in imagery derived from the Isaian tradition. God\u2019s royal rule is denoted by such titles as \u201cKing of the Ages\u201d and \u201cKing of heaven,\u201d which do not occur in Psalms, but are frequent in liturgical passages in the apocalyptic literature of the Hellenistic period.
\n13:1. Blessed be God who lives forever, because his kindom lasts throughout the ages. An initial blessing with an explication (\u201cI give thanks to you\/Blessed are you \u2026 because \u2026\u201d) is formulaic in prayers of this period (cf. 1QH 5:20; 10:14). The terminology in the address implies the title \u201cKing of the Ages\u201d (cf. Tob. 13:6, 10).
\n13:2. For he afflicts, and he shows mercy On the word pair \u201caffliction\u201d\/\u201chave mercy,\u201d see comment on 3:5, where it applies to Israel, and on 11:15a, where Tobit applies the words to his own experience. The double theme of judgment and salvation is developed in this verse.
\nhe leads down to Hades \u2026 and he brings up Sickness and healing were, in Israelite thought, a descent to and return from Hades. On the God who kills and brings to life, cf. Deut. 32:39; 1 Sam. 2:6. For the whole complex of ideas here, see Wis. 16:13\u201315; cf. also 2 Macc. 7:35, in the context of resurrection. For death, Sheol, and resurrection as metaphors for exile and return, cf. Ezek. 37 and Bar. 2:17; 3:4\u20138.
\n13:3\u20137 The address to \u201cthe children of Israel\u201d (v. 3) is presumed in this section in its use of the second-person plural. This first major part of the prayer, like the second (vv. 8\u201318), concludes with the author speaking in the first-person singular (vv. 6\u20137). This section (and not least its titles for God) emphasizes the power and majesty of the divine judge, who has scattered Israel into exile because of their sins. As chastisement or scourging, however, this banishment is the act of the heavenly \u201cFather\u201d (v. 4). Israel is to acknowledge this act for what it is\u2014in the presence of the nations\u2014lest they conclude that their might led to the defeat of Israel (cf. Deut. 32:27\u201331). Semantically and conceptually, a fine line separates Israel\u2019s \u201cconfession\u201d of God\u2019s judicial power from their \u201cgiving thanks\u201d to God. Such thanksgiving and praise recognize that God\u2019s scourging is not ultimate punishment, but paternal chastisement that will be mercifully alleviated when God gathers the scattered people. This mercy is predicated on Israel\u2019s repentance. When they \u201cturn\u201d back to God, then God will \u201cturn\u201d to them, a common prophetic theme. This crucial motif of Israel\u2019s repentance, absent in Deut. 32, is present, however, in its context (Deut. 30:1\u20136) and appears in Jewish texts of the Hellenistic and Roman periods that employ the historical scheme found in the latter chapters of Deuteronomy.
\n13:8\u201314:1 This second part of the prayer complements the first. Reference is made to Israel\u2019s punishment (vv. 9, 14), Jerusalem\u2019s suffering because of the sins of its \u201csons\u201d (v. 9; cf. 2 Macc. 5:19\u201320), and the present distress of its inhabitants (v. 10). But the text\u2019s emphasis on God\u2019s anticipated salvation is evident in the density of reverential terminology and the repeated references to joy and gladness. Since salvation presumes repentance, earlier mention of Israel\u2019s iniquities (v. 5) and the nation\u2019s status as sinners (v. 6) is replaced by reference to its new status as \u201cthe righteous\u201d (vv. 9, 13). Although Tobit is depicted as a Galilean and the author doubtless thinks of a return to the whole of the Land of Israel, this hymn focuses on Jerusalem as the locus of salvation. This emphasis is consonant with the account of Tobit\u2019s journeys to Jerusalem (1:5\u20138) and the eschatological scenario in 14:5\u20137. Jerusalem\u2019s importance is indicated by the fourfold use of the name (13:8, 9, 16, 17) and the shift from the plural address to the Israelites in vv. 3\u20137 to the singular address to Jerusalem in vv. 8\u201318. This mode of direct address and the concern for the deliverance of Jerusalem and its attendant joy are paralleled in the \u201cApostrophe to Zion\u201d (a non-canonical poem preserved on the Qumran Psalms Scroll 22:1\u201315), Bar. 4:36\u20135:9, and 11 (cf. also Sir. 36:1\u201317), which are probably remnants of a category of literature that gave liturgical expression to Zion-centered future hope (cf. also the prayers in Dan. 9:4\u201319; Bar. 1:15\u20133:8; the Prayer of Azariah [Song of the Three Young Men 1\u201322]). The chief source for these expressions of a hope in Zion\u2019s restoration is in the oracles of Isa. 40\u201366 (esp. Isa. 54:11\u201314 [cf. Tob. 13:16\u201318]; Isa. 60:4\u201314 [cf. Tob. 13:11]). Thus, Tob. 13 and other contemporary texts attest a liturgical or contemplative setting for nourishing the older, unfulfilled prophetic hopes for restoration. A bolder expression of the hope for a divinely rebuilt Jerusalem appears in Rev. 21:9\u201327, which has also been influenced by a tradition fed by Ezek. 40\u201348.
\n14:2\u201315 Our story closes with the deaths of the dramatis personae, and the accounts serve several narrative functions. Tobit\u2019s testament contains final instructions that bring closure to aspects of the story. The land of exile will perish. The return of God\u2019s scattered people, anticipated in chap. 13, is guaranteed by the prophetic word. The command to give alms is repeated. Proper burials are carried out. Tobit\u2019s prediction about Nineveh\u2019s destruction is fulfilled.
\n14:2\u201315 The final chapter centers on Tobit\u2019s death. His second testament (see comment on 4:3\u201319, Tobit\u2019s first testament) has many elements typical of the genre: the protagonist\u2019s deathbed situation and his age (14:2, 3); the summoning of children and grandchildren (v. 3); eschatological prediction (vv. 4\u20137); ethical instructions (vv. 8\u201311a); and death and burial (v. 11b). Two literary peculiarities of Tobit govern the shape of the testamentary form here. Tobit\u2019s ethical instructions have already been given in chap. 4, where he anticipated his death. In keeping with the author\u2019s parallelism between the individual and the nation, most of Tobit\u2019s instructions in chap. 14 constitute a prediction about Israel\u2019s future that complements the scenario in Tobit\u2019s hymn (chap. 13).
\n14:2. Tobit died in peace when he was one hundred twelve years old In contrast to chap. 4, when he sorrowfully anticipated the premature death he had invoked as an escape from an unbearable life, Tobit now dies \u201cin peace\u201d after the full and prosperous life that has been the reward of his piety. The texts differ as to his age. Death at 158 (G) seems more likely than 112 (G); we would expect the pious hero to live longer than his son, who dies at the age of 117 (14:14). In keeping with earlier emphases, Tobit\u2019s life after his recovery has been marked by almsgiving and praise to God.
\n14:4\u20137 Speaking with the insight traditionally ascribed to a deathbed situation, Tobit utters a prophecy that he supports by an appeal to \u201cthe prophets of Israel\u201d (G) and the word of Nahum (G, which G has revised to the more familiar story of Jonah [see also commentary above on 6:1\u20138]). The appeal to the veracity of the prophetic word (cf. 2:6) attests the authority of the prophetic corpus in the author\u2019s time.
\n14:4 The first event in the predictive scenario is the destruction of Nineveh (612 BCE). Reference to the event is natural in a story set in that city, although the repeated vendetta (14:4, 10, 15) is hardly prepared for in the narrative (but cf. 1:16\u201320). Though apologetic in tone (prophecy has been fulfilled), it may also express the author\u2019s unhappiness with Diaspora existence.
\n14:5\u20137 Tobit\u2019s prediction has the expected references to the Babylonian exile, the return, and the building of the Second Temple. More interesting are his expectations of a glorious eschatological Temple, the Gentiles\u2019 conversion and abandoning of their idols, the return of the whole Dispersion, and the expunging of evildoers from all the earth. Certain of these elements appeared in chap. 13 and are rooted in prophetic tradition (esp. Isa. 40\u201366). Close parallels in the eschatological scenarios in 1 En. 10\u201311; 90; 91:7\u20139, 11\u201317 may attest common tradition.
\n14:8\u201310 In this summary statement reference to almsgiving and obedience to God is an expected final emphasis. Testaments teach ethics by positive and negative example. Tobit\u2019s example, already recounted in detail, is here supplemented by a brief reference to Ahikar and Nadab. Ahikar\u2019s almsgiving was suggested in 2:10. The allusion to death and life, darkness and life is a reprise of 13:2.
\n14:11\u201312a With Tobit\u2019s death and burial the testamentary form concludes. The glorious burials of the main characters are a final reminder that this is a story about the wealthy. For this author the pious rich deserve such obsequies. By way of contrast cf. 1 En. 103:5\u20138 and Luke 16:19\u201331. Tobit\u2019s and Anna\u2019s burials resolve the concerns in 4:3\u20134; 6:14; 14:10.
\n14:12b\u201315 Tobias\u2019s responsibility as a son extends to the burial of his father-in-law and mother-in-law. The author brings closure to his story by associating Tobias\u2019s death not with his burial, but with his joy and his praise of God for Nineveh\u2019s destruction. This last word guarantees the fulfillment of the other predictions in Tobit\u2019s testament.<\/p>\n

4 Baruch<\/p>\n

Pablo Torijano<\/p>\n

4 Baruch (or the Things Omitted from Jeremiah the Prophet) describes several events that happened around the time of the fall of Jerusalem at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar (586 BCE). Jeremiah, after being warned by God of the impending destruction of the city, grieves with his secretary, Baruch, and asks for divine favor on behalf of Abimelech the Ethiopian (cf. Jer. 38:7\u201313); God tells Jeremiah to send Abimelech away to the vineyard of Agrippa for safety. After this, following God\u2019s instructions, Jeremiah entrusts the Temple vessels to the earth and the Temple keys to the sun. Finally, God orders Jeremiah to go with the people into captivity, while Baruch is to remain in Jerusalem. After the city falls and the people are taken to Babylon, Baruch laments alone in a tomb near the city.
\nMeanwhile, following Jeremiah\u2019s instructions, Abimelech has left the city early in the morning to gather some figs at the so-called farm of Agrippa, an unidentified place. On his way back, he takes a nap and sleeps for 66 years. When he awakens, he is confused and cannot recognize his surroundings. An angel leads him to Baruch, who interprets Abimelech\u2019s return as a sign of the return of the exiles, and his figs, still fresh, as symbolizing personal resurrection and national restoration. Baruch sends a letter and some of the figs to Jeremiah so that he may prepare the people for their anticipated return. Jeremiah comes back with the people, but some of those with Babylonian spouses, refuse to leave them, even though God has ordered the people to \u201cforsake the works of Babylon.\u201d Jeremiah, Baruch, and Abimelech bar entry into Jerusalem for these mixed couples, as do the Babylonians when they attempt to return there. Eventually they settle in Samaria, becoming the ancestors of the Samaritans. Once back in Jerusalem, Jeremiah sees a marvelous vision of many divine mysteries, and prophesies about the future coming of Jesus Christ, the son of God. As a consequence, the people stone him to death.<\/p>\n

Authorship and History<\/p>\n

Two different authors worked on 4 Baruch. The first one was a Jew, whose familiarity with Jerusalem and Israel comes through clearly and who wrote between the two Jewish revolts (i.e., between 70 and 135 CE). He developed the traditions about Jeremiah into a tale of hope and national redemption while addressing several challenges (Samaritans, the Temple, the Law, messianic expectations). The second author, a Christian, edited the text by adding the final story about Jeremiah\u2019s martyrdom. With this addition, he tried to change the text into a missionary work addressed to the Jewish people after the failure of the second revolt.
\nThe work poses several problems in relation to its dating, provenance, original language, composition, and sources. Since it is a text that draws from several sources and has a complicated composition, and in its final form was adapted by Christians, it could have been produced over a lengthy period of time. However, the central place given to God\u2019s Law, the expression of hope in the resurrection, and the idea of the heavenly Jerusalem all point to the period between the rebellions of 70 and 132 CE (the Bar Kokhba revolt occurred during 132\u2013135 CE) as the time frame of its compilation: it is quite likely that 4 Baruch was written around 130 CE. The Christian edition would have been made after the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt.
\nThe language of composition has also been debated. The text as it stands has been preserved in Greek, but the presence of some elements (grammatical oddities in the Greek, transliterations of Hebrew words) could point to a Semitic original, or more likely to an author whose mother tongue was Hebrew or Aramaic.
\nSeveral details of this text suggest that Israel was its place of origin: the references to the vineyard of Agrippa (4 Bar. 3:14, 21; 5:22) and the market of the Gentiles (6:19). This provenance is reinforced if the text\u2019s purported date at the time of the Babylon conquest and the Restoration is taken into account, although this dating could be also a literary device used by the author to give the work more ancient authority.
\nThe Greek text is represented by a total of 63 manuscripts in two different forms: a longer, older version (in 23 extant manuscripts), and a shorter one (in 40 manuscripts) that abridged the former. The large number of manuscripts testifies to the importance and popularity of the work in Christian literature. It has been translated also into Ethiopic, Armenian, and Old Church Slavonic (an ancient Slavic language).<\/p>\n

Significance<\/p>\n

The Jewish author elaborates the biblical traditions about Jeremiah and uses the prophet\u2019s story to show the importance of God\u2019s Law, the resurrection, and the hope for spiritual restoration. The text is a sort of historical haggadah that retells a chapter of Israel history to instruct people. The text appears to address the Diaspora, with an orientation of eschatological hope. However, it shows a critical vision of the messianic expectations of the day. The Christian redactor reworks the text into a positive view of Jewish history after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt and extends a missionary invitation to the Jewish people; thus Jeremiah is presented as a Christian witness to the messiah.
\n4 Baruch has similarities and points of contact with several other early Jewish writings, but it is difficult to establish a direct link with them to decide if they were sources of it. 2 Baruch, a Jewish text that is preserved in Syriac (an Aramaic dialect), seems to be a main source text, but 4 Baruch elaborates traditions that were known in late antiquity and that appear also in other works such as Pesikta Rabbati, which tells the story of Jeremiah\u2019s life from his birth until the destruction of the Temple; and 2 Maccabees, whose second chapter could be the basis for the narrative about the Temple vessels that appears in 4 Baruch.<\/p>\n

SUGGESTED READING<\/p>\n

Herzer, Jens. 4 Baruch (Paraleipomena Jeremiou). Writings from the Greco-Roman World 22. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005.
\nKraft, Robert A., and Ann-Elizabeth Purintun. Paraleipomena Jeremiou. SBL Texts and Translations 1. Missoula MT: SBL, 1972.
\nRiaud, Jean. \u201cThe Figure of Jeremiah in the Paralipomena Jeremiae Prophetae: His Originality; His Christian ization by the Christian Author of the Conclusion (9:10\u201332).\u201d Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha 22 (2000): 31\u201344.
\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. Les Paralipom\u00e8nes du proph\u00e8te J\u00e9r\u00e9mie. Pr\u00e9sentation, texte original, traduction et commentaires. Cahiers du Centre Interdisciplinaire de Recherches en Histoire, Lettres, et Langues 14. Angers: Universit\u00e9 Catholique de l\u2019Ouest, 1994.
\nRobinson, Stephen E. \u201c4 Baruch (First to Second Century AD): A New Translation.\u201d In The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha 2, edited by J. H. Charlesworth, 413\u201325. Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1983\u201385.
\nSchaller, Berndt. \u201cIs the Greek Version of the Paralipomena Jeremiou Original or a Translation?\u201d JSP 22 (2000): 51\u201389.<\/p>\n

COMMENTARY<\/p>\n

1:1. when the children of Israel were taken captive by the king of the Chaldeans With this introduction, the author sets the deportation of 587\/586 BCE as the pretended stage for the whole work. The destruction of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians appears in several pseudepigrapha (2 Baruch, 2 Esdras [4 Ezra], 3 Baruch), functioning as the symbolic framework for understanding the difficult circumstances that the Jewish people had to cope with at other points in their history. This framework allows the circumstances of the Jewish people around 130 CE to be addressed indirectly in the guise of past events. The identification \u201cchildren of Israel\u201d that appears three times in the whole text (4 Bar. 1:1, 6:16, 9:30) includes here the Samaritans as well, who are later barred from entry into Jerusalem at the return from the Babylonia exile (8:4\u20138). The king referred to obliquely is Nebuchadnezzar; he is not mentioned directly in the text until later (5:19). The title employed (\u201cking of the Chaldeans\u201d) has no parallel in the sources of 4 Baruch and is quite unusual in the Hebrew Bible, appearing only at 2 Chron. 36:17; Dan. 9:1. \u201cChaldeans\u201d and \u201cBabylonians\u201d (or Babylon) are used to denote Israel\u2019s adversaries, but while the former is used when referring to the past, the latter refers to the Roman Empire and thus to the actual historical circumstances of the author and his audience.
\nmy chosen one A title that defines the role of Jeremiah in 4 Baruch as intercessor for the people. It refers to Jer. 1:5 (\u201cBefore I created you in the womb, I selected you\u201d) and places Jeremiah among the great personalities of the Hebrew Bible and the Apocrypha who were also given this title. The prophet appears as intercessor already in the Hebrew Bible (Jer. 7:16; 11:14; 15:1; 18:20), and this characterization of Jeremiah as intercessor is well known also in Hellenistic Jewish literature.
\n1\u20132. the multitude of the sins of those who dwell in it The causes of the destruction are apparently so clear that the author does not feel the need to enumerate them. The biblical text of Jeremiah recapitulates them in Jeremiah\u2019s speech in the Temple: theft, murder, adultery, perjury, and idolatry. 2 Bar. 1:2\u20134, one of the direct sources for 4 Baruch, gives a list of the people\u2019s sins. The author \u201cof 4 Baruch\u201d uses the traditional motif of sin-punishment, thereby emphasizing the people\u2019s responsibility for the Destruction.
\n2. your prayers are like a solid pillar \u2026 an indestructible wall The power of the prayers of the righteous can even prevent God\u2019s punishment. The author reworks his sources (Jer. 1:18; 2 Bar. 2:1, 63:3; 85:1\u20132), which refer to both the prayers and the deeds of the righteous, underlining the importance of praying in Jerusalem. This idea is found in Philo as well (Migration 124). The idea of the righteous as pillars for the people appears also in Rabbinic literature: Yohanan ben Zakkai is called a \u201csolid column\u201d by his disciples (B. Ber. 28b), and Abraham being the pillar on which the world rests (Exod. Rab. 2:6).
\n6. LORD Almighty This divine title appears in 4 Baruch only one other time, as \u201calmighty LORD\u201d (9:6). \u201cLORD Almighty\u201d (Gk. kyrie pantokrat\u014dr) is quite common in the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, but is more unusual in postbiblical literature. By using it, the author of 4 Baruch shows the centrality of God\u2019s role in the events.
\nthe chosen city This expression makes evident that even when punished, Jerusalem is still the chosen city. In this way the author combines judgment with salvation.
\n11. at the sixth hour of the night The Chaldeans conquered the city at midnight. This time is symbolic. According to Josephus (Ant. 10.136), the Romans broke into the city at midnight; it is likely that the author is referring to that moment. The sixth hour motif is found in the New Testament as well although applied to Jesus\u2019s death, which turns day into night at the sixth hour. Josephus tells that the Romans conquered Jerusalem at midnight.
\n2:1. the temple of God The Gk. for \u201ctemple,\u201d hagiast\u0113rion, is very uncommon. Elsewhere it is found only in the Septuagint (Ps. 72:17; 73:7; 82:13; Lev. 12:4), translating the Heb. mikdash. Those passages seem to furnish the motif of the fall of Jerusalem (cf. Ps 73:7 \u201cthey burned your sanctuary with fire).
\n1\u20132. Jeremiah tore his garments and put dust on his head These are the normal rites of mourning that appear in many texts of the Hebrew Bible and Jewish literature.
\n2. Father Jeremiah The author of 4 Baruch refers in this way to Jeremiah on several occasions (4 Bar. 2:4, 6, 8; 5:22; 9:8). However, in the Hebrew Bible, the only prophets to receive this title are Elijah (2 Kings 2:12) and Elisha (2 Kings 6:21; 13:14); it seems that the author of 4 Baruch conceived of the prophet Jeremiah as the head of a school, in a similar way to the Rabbinic schools and their masters.
\n5. let us rend our hearts The author uses Joel 2:13 as source but changes its meaning. The biblical text insists on divine grace and mercy, while in 4 Baruch the punishment is irreversible. The transformation of the biblical source underlines the tragedy of the situation.
\n7. Babylon Babylon stands here for Rome. In Jewish literature written in Greek, this identification appears in the Sibylline Oracles (5:143, 158\u201361) and in 2 Esdras (4 Ezra) 3:1, 2, 28, 31. We find it also in the New Testament (1 Pet. 5:13; Rev. 17\u201318).
\n3:2. there came a sound of trumpets; and angels emerged from heaven In the Hebrew Bible, a blast of the trumpet or ram\u2019s horn is the traditional sign for announcing the coming of God (Exod. 19:13, 16, 19), and may also herald dire retribution. Although in 4 Baruch it announces a negative event, the trumpet\u2019s sound is not negative in itself (1QM 3:1\u201310; Apoc. Ab. 31:1; Pss. Sol. 11:1). The combination of the trumpet motif and angels appears frequently in the New Testament; the angels use the sound of the trumpet to gather the chosen ones (1 Cor. 15:52; 1 Thess. 4:16).
\n5. Do not destroy the city until I speak to my chosen one The author makes clear that Jeremiah has authority over the angels; thus, his intercessory role and his moral authority are reinforced.
\n8. they will take the people away to Babylon This is the first direct mention of the main consequence of the destruction: the people\u2019s captivity in Babylon. As above, Babylon refers to Rome, the main adversary of the Jewish people in the 2nd century CE.
\n9. the holy vessels of the temple service 2 Baruch 6:7 gives an inventory of the vessels. Both here and in 1 Chron. 9:28 LXX, they are called literally \u201cthe vessels of the service\u201d (ta skeue tes leitourgias) and are entrusted to the priests. Jeremiah\u2019s worries about the vessels underlines his role as priest in 4 Baruch.
\n10. Take them and consign them to the earth Part of the Greek textual tradition of 4 Baruch and the Ethiopic version adds \u201cand to the altar\u201d; either way, the text of 4 Baruch differs from the biblical account about the Temple vessels\u2019 fate. In the biblical tradition, the vessels are brought to Babylon as booty, but the tradition about hiding the vessels appears in the Jewish author Eupolemus (mid-2nd century BCE); in 2 Macc. 2:4\u20138; and in the source text 2 Bar. 6:7. In these texts the altar is included among the objects hidden by the prophet, whereas in 4 Baruch the altar becomes a place of protection for the rest of the objects (4 Bar. 3:10). The whole scene is plotted against the background of 2 Bar. 6:7\u20138.
\nwho sealed you with seven seals for seven epochs 4 Baruch differs here from 2 Bar. 2:6. God is described here in a special way. According to some traditions, the seven seals are the seven periods during which the world will be sealed until a new Creation occurs. In other sources, \u201cthe seven seals\u201d refers to the seven days of Creation. The number seven symbolizes perfection or completion of time.
\nyour ornaments The Gk. word (h\u014draiot\u0113s) can mean also beauty. Here, the expression may refer to the perfection of an anticipated new Creation.
\n11. until the gathering of the beloved 2 Bar. 6:9 refers here to the end-time, a well-known apocalyptic expression. \u201cThe beloved\u201d here is the people; by using this phrase, the author implies a promise of restoration, because God himself calls the people \u201cbeloved.\u201d
\n12. Abimelech the Ethiopian This key figure, introduced here for the first time, is based on Ebed-melech (a eunuch in King Zedekiah\u2019s palace whose name means \u201cservant of the king\u201d), who appears in Jer. 38:7\u201313. The preservation of Abimelech echoes Jer. 39:16b\u201318 and works as a symbol of the final restoration of the people.
\n21. the estate of Agrippa Scholars have questioned whether this place ever existed; several authors have identified the village of Hermippo, mentioned by the 6th-century CE Christian author Theodosius, as the place for the estate. This village would have been near the Mount of Olives.
\nsome figs In antiquity these fruits were thought to have healing powers (see, for example, 2 Kings 20:7; Isa. 38:21). In 4 Baruch they are a symbol of the people\u2019s salvation, as\u2014according to the author\u2019s ideology\u2014the people will heal and become stronger in exile.
\n4:2. And the great angel trumpeted This expression refers to the archangel Michael, who appears later in 9:5 (see also 6:9). Note the trumpet as the sign for the coming judgment; see also the comment on 3:2.
\n4. Sun, take the keys of the temple of God The author of 4 Baruch transforms his source (2 Bar. 2:18), in which the \u201chighest heaven\u201d is the depository. Although the text here avoids equating God and the sun, clearly the sun acts as a symbol for God. This metaphor appears one time in the Hebrew Bible (Ps. 84:12).
\n5. we have become unfaithful guardians Until now Jeremiah and Baruch have appeared as the only ones without responsibility for the events. Here, the author makes them responsible for the worsening of the situation; as it has been shown above, Jeremiah\u2014and to a lesser degree, Baruch\u2014have adopted an intercessory role, a priestly function. (Note also Baruch\u2019s words in 4 Bar. 4:7\u20138: \u201cbecause of our sins and those of the people.\u201d) Furthermore, by attributing partial responsibility to Jeremiah and Baruch in their role as leaders of the people, the author indirectly criticizes the religious leaders of his own day.
\n6. they brought him out with the people and dragged them into Babylon In the biblical tradition, Jeremiah is dragged instead to Egypt, along with a remnant of the people (Jer 43:1\u20137). The tradition of Jeremiah\u2019s exile to Babylon is known in Rabbinic literature.
\n7. and wailed this lamentation The Gk. word thr\u0113nos (lamentation) defines a literary genre in the Septuagint that is employed frequently in the Prophetic writings for a lament for Jerusalem or Israel.
\n8. the lawless ones The Gk. paranomoi (literally, \u201capart from the law\u201d) is a conventional term in postbiblical Jewish literature for designating non-Jewish persons.
\n12. he remained sitting in a tomb The author chooses a symbolic place for Baruch. The tomb represents despair for the destiny of the people.
\nthe angels came to him and explained to him everything These angels have the function of \u201cinterpreting angels.\u201d In the apocalyptic literature they show the way and explain everything to the prophetic protagonist, often a man that travels the heavens.
\n5:1. in the burning heat The Gk. word kauma names the midday heat, but it has here a symbolic meaning as well since it refers also to the \u201cheat\u201d of judgment and deportation that takes place while Abimelech is away.
\n2. he fell asleep and slept for 66 years From now on, the Abimelech story is narrated. It constitutes the center of the text and is structured around the symbol of Abimelech\u2019s sleep. The number 66 is repeated several times in 4 Baruch (5:29; 6:8; 7:29), which highlights its symbolic importance. Its exact meaning is debated but it could have been originated in a conscious change of the \u201cseventy years\u201d that appears in the exile tradition in the Hebrew Bible. The explanation for this change is problematic; it could be an stock phrase for a round time span or even for an approximate time span. Abimelech\u2019s sleep lasts for the entire duration of the exile, which is thereby identified with a sleeping or dreaming time. The long sleep theme has many parallels in Jewish, Christian, and pagan literature.
\n4. and found them dripping milk The author increases the dramatic impact of the scene with this concrete detail; the figs\u2019 freshness implies that no time has passed for Abimelech. Figs are linked with preservation and indirectly with the people\u2019s redemption.
\n11. the landmarks of the city The Greek expression ta s\u0113meia t\u0113s pole\u014ds literally means \u201cthe signs of the city.\u201d Perhaps the author is alluding here to the reconstruction of Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolia by the Roman emperor Hadrian (130 CE); the general lines of the city were maintained, but it was rebuilt as a Hellenistic town. This would be in accord with the proposed date of 4 Baruch.
\n14. until the LORD takes this trance from me Gk. ekstasis, \u201ctrance,\u201d can also mean \u201cdeep sleep,\u201d \u201cecstasy,\u201d or \u201cfright.\u201d Abimelech thinks that he is hallucinating due to an abnormally deep sleep.
\n17. Where is Jeremiah the priest, and Baruch the secretary The priestly function of Jeremiah is at last stated clearly, as well as the secretarial role of Baruch. Both functions are expressed now because they fit the new circumstances of the people in the Babylonian exile. Jeremiah turns into the high priest who the restoration needs.
\n19. to preach the good news to them and to teach them the word Although these expressions seem to have Christian overtones, we do not have here a Christian interpolation. However, the reference to \u201cthe word\u201d (Gk. logos) for expressing the content of the teaching does not appear elsewhere in Jewish literature. It is not so common either in Christian literature; when it is used is usually linked to Jewish ideas (see Luke 1:4; Gal 6:6).
\n27\u201328. and he saw them dripping milk An observation may hold very different meanings depending on the observer. Whereas for Abimilech the freshness of the figs means that the old man is wrong, for the old man they are signs of salvation because he understands at once what happened.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

15:2. see, I have heard all of the words of your confession The angel speaks in the first person, but in several manuscripts, the angel uses the third person to speak on behalf of God (\u201cthe LORD has heard\u201d). Similar differences appear in 15:3, 4 (\u201cfinger of God\u201d instead of \u201cmy finger\u201d), 6; and 19:5, … <\/p>\n

\u201eOutside the Bible Commentary – 26\u201c <\/span>weiterlesen<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":6,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2166","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-allgemein"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2166","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/6"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2166"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2166\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2179,"href":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2166\/revisions\/2179"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2166"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2166"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/buch.jehovah-shammah.de\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2166"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}