18:16. in the year of mystery This appears to be a corruption of the Greek version, \u201cfor ten thousand years\u201d (see 21:6). Although the stars have transgressed the cosmic order, their punishment does not equal that of the Watchers. Unlike the Watchers, they are not imprisoned until the Judgment Day; they are released after a finite number of years.
\n19:1\u20132 These verses, like 18:14\u201316, refer to the chasm of 18:12\u201313. Nickelsburg has proposed that these verses should follow 18:10\u201311, so that the structure of this passage (18:10\u201311; 19:1\u20132) is parallel to 21:7\u201310. In Nickelsburg\u2019s reconstruction, the two explanations refer to two different places: the passage at 18:10\u201311; 19:1\u20132 refers to the prison of the Watchers while the passage at 18:12\u201316 refers to the chasm for sinning stars. While Nickelsburg\u2019s transposition produces a smoother text, the evidence of 4Q204 1 viii 28\u201329 shows that 18:12 did follow 18:11 in at least one early version of the Book of the Watchers.
\n19:1. the spirits of the angels \u2026 made men unclean and will lead men astray In this passage, as opposed to 15:8\u201316:1, the spirits of the angels, and not of the giants, continue to bring harm to humans after the Flood. In contrast to what is described in 15:11\u201312, here the spirits explicitly cause humans to sin.
\nso that they sacrifice to demons as gods The Watchers are behind the practice of idol worship. This verse may also be connected to the later statement in Jub. 15:31 that God assigned spirits to \u201crule over\u201d the nations \u201cin order to lead them astray from following him.\u201d
\n19:2. will become peaceful The Greek reads: \u201cwill become sirens\u201d; the Ethiopic appears to be the result of a corrupted reading of the Greek. This statement that the wives of the Watchers will have a continued existence as demons is unique.
\n19:3. I, Enoch, alone saw the sight Enoch\u2019s declaration echoes Daniel\u2019s statement in Dan. 10:7a, \u201cI, Daniel, alone saw the vision.\u201d The idea that the visions seen by Enoch are not for regular humans is supported by the parallels between the beginning of this section (17:3, 8; 18:2) and Job 38, where God lists the cosmic and earthly matters that are unfathomable to humans.
\n20:1\u20137 This chapter briefly notes the angels and their charges, which are more fully described in the following passages (21:1\u201332:6). The Greek version adds a seventh angel to the list, Remiel, who is \u201cin charge of those who rise.\u201d
\n20:2. namely [the angel] of thunder and of tremors The Greek reads \u201cthe one in charge of the world and of Tartarus.\u201d Tartarus is the Greek underworld, specifically a pit far beneath Hades, and hence a Greek translation of She\u2019ol or its equivalent. According to the Greek version, Uriel\u2019s charge is the reason that he is the one who explains the prisons of the Watchers and the stars to Enoch.
\n20:3. of the spirits of men See 22:3\u20134.
\n20:4. Raguel As in the Septuagint, Raguel reflects the Hebrew name Reu\u2019el.
\nand on the lights See 23:4.
\n20:5. the best part of mankind, in charge of the nation Michael is depicted as the angel in charge of Israel in Daniel 10:21; 12:1 and of the righteous of Israel in the War Scroll (1QM) 17:6\u20137.
\n20:6. Saraqael Saraqael is a corruption of the name \u201cSariel\u201d in the Greek version; the name Sariel is also found in the Aramaic fragment of 9:1.
\n20:7. the serpents and the Garden and the Cherubim The \u201cserpents\u201d are likely the serafim; the noun saraf may indicate a serpent as well as an angel in biblical usage. If so, this verse interprets the keruvim who guard the Garden of Eden with a fiery sword in Gen. 3:24 as both serafim and cherubim.
\n21:1\u20139 This chapter repeats the account of the prisons of the Watchers and of the sinning stars described in 1 En. 18:10\u201311; 19:1\u20132 and 18:12\u201316, with slightly more dialogue between Enoch and Uriel.
\n21:1. where there was nothing made As in 18:12, Enoch has traveled beyond the bounds of the heaven and earth.
\n21:10. there they will be held forever As opposed to the description of the Watchers\u2019 spirits in 19:1, this brief statement allows the Watchers no role in human affairs following their imprisonment.
\n22:1. in the west a large and high mountain The idea that the abode of the dead lies in a mountain in the west may draw from Babylonian religion and cosmography.
\nand four beautiful places In the Greek, which is the preferred reading here, \u201cfour hollow places.\u201d Their purpose is explained in vv. 9\u201313.
\n22:2. that which rolls Greek: \u201cthese hollow places.\u201d (The Ethiopic results from a misreading of the Greek.) The smoothness of the \u201chollow places\u201d makes them impossible to escape. The Greek includes an explanation at the end of v. 2 that three of these hollow places are dark while one is illuminated and contains a fountain. The illuminated pit is apparently intended for the righteous (see v. 9). However, this explanation is omitted in the Ethiopic.
\n22:3. beautiful places See comment on 22:1.
\n22:4. where they will keep them until the day of their judgment The souls of the dead will not be judged immediately, but will be placed in holding pens until the final Judgment Day, following an initial classification into the different pits described in vv. 9\u201313.
\n22:5. And I saw the spirits of the sons of men who were dead The Aramaic (partially reflected in the Greek) reads: \u201cThere I saw the spirit of a dead man complaining\u201d (4QEnoche [4Q206] 1 xxii 3\u20134).
\nand their voice reached heaven and complained Aramaic: \u201cand his lamentation reached heaven, crying out and complaining\u201d (4Q206 1 xxii.4).
\n22:7. This spirit is the one which came out of Abel The idea that Abel\u2019s spirit cries out for justice draws from Gen. 4:10, where God declares that Abel\u2019s blood cries to him from the earth, and from Lev. 17:11 and Deut. 12:23, which both equate the blood with the nefesh, i.e., the \u201clife\u201d or \u201cspirit\u201d of the animate being.
\nuntil his offspring is destroyed from the face of the earth Abel\u2019s soul continues petitioning heaven until Cain\u2019s descendants are wiped out. This passage may be an interpretation of Lamech\u2019s statement in Gen. 4:24 regarding Cain, which can be read as \u201cIf Cain is avenged sevenfold\u201d or as \u201cFor sevenfold vengeance will taken upon Cain.\u201d Enoch is the seventh generation after Adam and the sixth generation after Cain and Abel, and so he may be witness to the last generation of vengeance against Cain.
\n22:8. and about the judgment on all Greek: \u201cabout all the circular places.\u201d
\n22:9. These three [places] \u2026 And thus the souls of the righteous have been separated It appears that three of the four pits have been set aside for sinners, while one remains for the righteous. As noted above, the Greek of 22:2 includes a description of three dark pits and one illuminated pit, which contains a fountain.
\nspring of water The image of a fountain that refreshes the righteous draws from Greek ideas of Hades.
\n22:10. judgment has not come upon them during their life Because these sinners have not received due punishment during their lifetime, they are subjected to torments before the final Judgment Day (v. 11).
\n22:12. the souls of those who complain These murdered spirits apparently do not belong to the righteous who reside in the illuminated pit, but are nevertheless \u201cmore sinn\u2019d against than sinning,\u201d and therefore spend their time not in punishment but in bringing testimony against those who have murdered them.
\n22:13. sinners, accomplished in wrongdoing This verse does not explicitly explain why these sinners receive a different fate from those in vv. 10\u201311. The simplest explanation is that, unlike the previously described sinners, these \u201cgodless\u201d sinners were punished during their lifetime, and they are therefore not punished further.
\nwill not be killed on the day of judgment Greek: \u201cwill not be punished on the day of judgment\u201d; Aramaic: \u201cwill not be harmed on the day of judgment\u201d (4QEnochd [4Q205] 1 xi 1).
\nnor will they rise from here This is an oblique hint that the righteous will be resurrected on the Judgment Day.
\n22:14. Blessed be my LORD, the LORD of Glory and Righteousness The Aramaic reconstruction reads \u201cBlessed is the true judgment\/judgment of truth (berikh din kushta)\u201d (4Q205 1 xi 2), parallel to the rabbinic blessing in the house of the mourner, barukh dayan ha-emet, \u201cBlessed is the True Judge\u201d (see B. Ber. 46b). The fate of the dead is closely related to judgment.
\n23:1. another place toward the west, to the ends of the earth Enoch is still in the west, past the boundaries of the inhabited universe, but in a different location.
\n23:4. Raguel Re\u2019uel; see comment on 20:4.
\n24:2. seven magnificent mountains These are the same mountains described in 18:6\u20138, extending to the east and south, with a \u201cthrone-like\u201d mountain at the northwest corner (24:3).
\n25:3. when he comes down to visit the earth for good Or, \u201cwith goodness.\u201d This will occur in the final era, when evil will be obliterated.
\n25:4. this beautiful fragrant tree As the description below illustrates, this is the Tree of Life.
\nno [creature of] flesh has authority to touch it See Gen. 3:24.
\n25:4\u20135. this will be given to the righteous and humble. From its fruit life will be given to the chosen A midrash found in Lekach Tov (Sehel Tov) reflects a similar idea: \u201cQuestion: Why was the Tree of Life created? Answer: So the righteous will eat it in the final era [literally, \u201cin the future to come\u201d] in the Garden of Eden so they will live forever, as it states, \u2018But they who trust in the LORD shall renew their strength as eagles grow new plumes\u2019 (Isa. 40:31), \u2018He will destroy death forever\u2019 (Isa. 25:8)\u201d (Lekach Tov Gen. 2).
\n25:5. toward the north it will be planted, in a holy place, by the house of the LORD The tree will not remain in the Garden of Eden; it will be transplanted to Jerusalem. (\u201cToward the north\u201d is omitted in the Greek.) A midrash found in Bereshit Rabbati foretells that all trees will be transplanted to Jerusalem in the Messianic Age, via rivers that will flow underneath the Tree of Life (Bereshit Rabbati 2:9).
\n25:6. they will each draw the fragrance of it into their bones That is, into their physical beings. It may be the scent of the tree that will continue to give the righteous life, as in a midrash included in the collection Otzar Hamidrashim: \u201cWhen the Holy One Blessed Be He enters the Garden of Eden with the righteous, the Tree of Life emits a scent, and that scent surrounds the entire Garden, and that same scent is life for all the righteous who are there.\u201d
\nand they will live a long life on earth They will not, however, live forever, as is clarified by \u201cyour fathers lived.\u201d
\nas your fathers lived The long prediluvian lifetime that was shortened due to the Watchers\u2019 sin (10:9 above and Gen. 6:3) will be restored.
\nand in their days sorrow and pain and toil and punishment will not touch them Natural evil will be eliminated.
\n26:1. the middle of the earth The idea that Jerusalem (and the land of Israel) is the center of the earth derives from Ezek. 5:5; 38:12. It is subsequently found in Jub. 8:19 and is developed in Midrash.
\nfrom a tree which had been cut down This passage may be a reference to the messianic \u201csprouting\u201d of the house of David described in Isa. 11:1 or to the renewal of the remnant of Israel depicted in Isa. 4:2. However, it is likely that \u201cwhich had been cut down\u201d was not in the Aramaic version, based on the length of the lacuna in the Qumran fragment of this verse; see 4Q205 1 xii 2.
\n26:2. a holy mountain Zion.
\nand under the mountain, to the east of it, [there was] water, and it flowed toward the south. This likely refers to the spring of Gihon, which flows from the east of the lower city to the south. However, the course of the spring \u201cunder the mountain\u201d indicates that the author also draws from the eschatological vision in Ezek. 47:1: \u201cHe led me back to the entrance of the Temple, and I found that water was issuing from below the platform of the Temple\u2014eastward, since the Temple faced east\u2014but the water was running out at the south of the altar, under the south wall of the Temple.\u201d
\n26:3. which was of the same height Better, \u201cwas higher than it,\u201d a reading supported by the Greek and the Aramaic (see 4Q205 1 xii 5). This \u201chigher mountain\u201d is the Mount of Olives.
\na deep and narrow valley The Kidron valley.
\n26:4. And to the west of this one [was] another mountain which was lower than it, and not high The description of the mountain as both west and \u201clower\u201d complicates the identification of the mountain and the valleys mentioned later. The mountain may be the hill of Abu Tor to the southwest, opposite the southwest extension of the Mount of Olives, the Mount of Offense.
\nand under it [there was] a valley between them, and [there were] other deep and dry valleys at the end of the three [mountains] Instead of \u201cother deep and dry valleys,\u201d the Greek and several Ethiopic manuscripts read: \u201canother deep and dry valley.\u201d If this alternative reading is correct, there are only two valleys mentioned in this verse. One of these valleys is the Valley of Hinnom, although there are differing opinions regarding whether it is the first or the second valley mentioned. According to one reading, the first valley is Hinnom and the second is the slopes of the Silwan, which lies at the apex of the City of David (to the south of the Temple Mount), the Mount of Offense, and Abu Tor. According to another reading, based on the omission of \u201cbeneath it\u201d in the Greek, the first valley is the Tyropoean Valley, which lies between the Temple Mount\/Ophel and the Western Ridge, and the second valley is Hinnom.
\n27:1 The blossoming Zion is contrasted with the blighted Valley of Hinnom.
\n27:2. This accursed valley The Valley of Hinnom is noted as the site of idol worship, particularly the ritual of passing children through fire. It is consequently the focus of two prophecies of destruction in Jeremiah (Jer. 7:32\u20138:3 and 19:3\u201313) that foresee its future as a valley of slaughter and is possibly alluded to as the site of the eternal torment of the wicked in Isa. 66:24. In Enoch it is portrayed as an otherworldly counterpart to Zion, where the wicked will receive their punishment in the final era.
\nall who speak with their mouths against the LORD \u2026 and say hard things about his glory See comment on 1:9.
\n27:3. the merciful The Greek variant reads \u201cthe impious,\u201d an unusual reading indicating that even sinners will recognize the might of God.<\/p>\n
Chapters 28\u201331<\/p>\n
These chapters do not refer to known regions. Rather, they reflect the understanding that spices come from the east, as Enoch travels eastward toward the \u201cGarden of Righteousness\u201d (32:3). These chapters are rife with textual difficulties; in many places the textual witnesses disagree.
\n32:2. and I went over the Red Sea The Red Sea in antiquity could refer to the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean, and as this \u201cRed Sea\u201d lies in the far east, it likely indicates the latter.
\n32:3. the Garden of Righteousness \u201cGarden\u201d translates in Aramaic to pardes (see 4Q206 1 xxvi 21), literally, \u201can orchard.\u201d This word is the source of the Greek paradeisos and the English \u201cparadise.\u201d The orchard of righteousness is suitably filled with trees, the most important of which is the Tree of Wisdom.
\n32:6. ate and learnt wisdom There is no mention of Adam and Eve\u2019s sin in eating from the tree (see Gen. 3:11), possibly because the author does not wish to portray the pursuit of wisdom in a negative light.
\nand their eyes were opened, and they knew that they were naked, and they were driven from the Garden In this account of Adam and Eve\u2019s expulsion from the Garden of Eden, the reason for their ejection is the knowledge of their nakedness. It is not explicitly connected to any sin, although the audience is clearly expected to be familiar with the biblical story.
\n33:1. large animals \u2026 and also birds The location of these animals indicates that they are mythical in nature.
\n33:2. the ends of the earth on which heaven rests See comment on 18:5.
\n33:2\u20134 These verses refer to the astronomical knowledge transmitted to Enoch in the Astronomical Book, chap. 72\u201382, which predates the Book of the Watchers. However, unlike the Astronomical Book, this passage refers only to the stars, not to the sun and moon.
\n34:2 Enoch now embarks on a tour of the heavens and sees the different gates through which meteorological phenomena and astral bodies pass. They are similar to the twelve gates of heaven described in the Astronomical Book (ch. 76), but not identical.
\n36:4. And when I saw, I blessed, and I will always bless Enoch\u2019s concluding blessing encompasses all the \u201cglorious wonders\u201d that Enoch has seen.<\/p>\n
The Parables of Enoch (Excerpted)<\/p>\n
45:1. who deny the name of the dwelling of the holy ones The sinners derided in the Parables repudiate the heavenly realm itself.
\nand of the LORD of Spirits This is the most common epithet for God in the Parables. It is drawn from Num. 16:22; 27:16 and emphasizes the divine control of the angelic realm.
\n45:2. nor will they come upon earth That is, they will not remain upon earth.
\n45:3. On that day The reference is to the Judgment Day that will begin the Messianic Age.
\nthe Chosen One The messiah, who has a special place in heaven. This epithet is drawn from Isa. 42:1, \u201cThis is My servant, whom I uphold, My chosen one, in whom I delight.\u201d
\nthe throne of glory The messianic ruler has a special place, as in Ps. 110:1, \u201cThe LORD said to my lord, \u2018Sit at My right hand while I make your enemies your footstool.\u2019 \u201d The \u201cthrone of glory\u201d is found in the Bible with two meanings: as the throne of God (Jer. 14:21; 17:12) and as a place or position of honor that is at God\u2019s disposal (1 Sam. 2:8; Isa. 22:23). In the few cases that this phrase occurs in Second Temple literature, the throne is divine (with the exception of Sir. 47:11, where the phrase refers to David\u2019s throne, and 4Q161 8\u201310 iii 24, where it belongs to the Davidic messiah). This phrase occurs numerous times in the Parables, occasionally referring to the throne of the LORD of Spirits but more frequently referring to the throne on which the Chosen One is seated. As noted by Nickelsburg, where the Chosen One is seated on the throne of glory, it is always in the context of judgment. This indicates the special status of the Chosen One, who fulfils the usually divine function of judging the righteous and the wicked, whether human or angel (as in 55:4 and 61:8).
\nwill choose their works \u201cChoose\u201d is likely a corruption; the original text probably reads \u201cwill judge their works.\u201d
\n45:4. I will cause my Chosen One to dwell among them The Chosen One will dwell with the righteous, who will enjoy a transformed heaven (v. 4) and earth (v. 5).
\n46:1 This verse draws from Dan. 7:9, 13. As in Dan. 7:9, God in this verse is depicted as ancient and white-haired, and the messianic ruler who \u201chad the appearance of a man\u201d (see Dan. 7:13) is with him.
\n46:2. about that Son of Man As noted by Nickelsburg, the multiple occurrences of the epithet \u201cSon of Man\u201d in the Parables actually translate and conflate a number of phrases in Ethiopic, specifically \u201cson of humankind,\u201d \u201cson of a man,\u201d and \u201cson of the offspring of the mother of the living.\u201d \u201cSon of man\u201d (ben adam) appears throughout the book of Ezekiel as God\u2019s epithet for the prophet. It is also the term used by the angel Gabriel when addressing Daniel in Dan. 8:17. The use of this term to refer to the messianic ruler in the Parables builds on these references, drawing on the idea that the \u201cSon of Man\u201d has access to heavenly mysteries and is in dialogue with God. In the Parables, however, the \u201cSon of Man\u201d is described as a superhuman figure who has a place in heaven and executes divine judgment on sinners and on wicked rulers. The Synoptic Gospels refer to Jesus as the \u201cSon of Man,\u201d reflecting a further development of this idea.
\n46:4. will break the teeth of the sinners See Ps. 3:8; 58:7.
\n46:5. he will cast down \u2026 for they do not exalt him, and do not praise him, and do not humbly acknowledge The beginning of the verse refers to the Son of Man, while the explanation of the kings\u2019 punishment refers to their neglect of God.
\n46:7. who judge the stars of heaven, and raise their hands against the Most High The reference to \u201cjudging\u201d the stars of heaven may refer to condemning the angels, but is likely a corruption of an original text referring to an act of defiance against heaven.
\ntheir power [rests] on their riches The sinners are the wealthy and powerful.
\n47:1. the prayer of the righteous and the blood of the righteous will have ascended from the earth The living righteous pray themselves, while the blood of the murdered righteous cries out on behalf of those who have been killed unjustly, like the blood of Abel in Gen. 4:10.
\n47:3 This depiction of the seated Head of Days examining the books of the living while attended by angels is drawn from Dan. 7:9\u201310.
\n48:1. an inexhaustible spring of righteousness, and many springs of wisdom surrounded it In the Messianic Age all will become both righteous and wise.
\n48:3. Even before the sun and the constellations were created \u2026 his name was named A similar idea is found in Rabbinic texts; the name of the messiah is included in a list of seven things created before the creation of the world in B. Pes. 54a. This notion draws from Prov. 8:22\u201331 (where personified Wisdom declares that she predated the Creation) while also assuring the text\u2019s audience that in the divine plan, the promised cure has preceded the disease.
\n48:4. he [will be] the light of the nations As is the \u201cservant of God\u201d in Isa. 42:6; 49:6.
\n48:6. he was chosen and hidden before him before the world was created As in v. 3, who the messiah will be is already determined (that is, \u201cchosen\u201d) before the Creation. This text suggests that the messiah himself may predate the Creation, like Wisdom in Prov. 8:22\u201331.
\n48:7. But the wisdom of the LORD of Spirits has revealed him to the holy and the righteous How the righteous have learned the identity of the messiah is unclear; possibly, this composition is itself meant to provide this revelation to the righteous.
\n48:10. before him The messiah. Some manuscripts read \u201cbefore them,\u201d namely, the righteous.
\n49:2. no existence Literally, \u201cno place to stand.\u201d
\n49:3\u20134 The description of the messiah as endowed with spirits of wisdom, understanding, knowledge, and power is drawn directly from Isa. 11:2. The idea that the messiah can judge even things that are \u201csecret,\u201d that is, even when the truth of the matter is hidden, is similarly drawn from Isa. 11:3: \u201cHe shall sense (the truth) by his reverence for the LORD: he shall not judge by what his eyes behold, nor decide by what his ears perceive.\u201d
\n49:3. and the spirit of those who sleep in righteousness That is, those who have died righteous. In what manner their spirit is endowed in the messiah, and the ultimate meaning of this idea, is unclear.
\n49:4. an idle word Particularly including deceptive speech.
\nin accordance with his wish The wish of the LORD of Spirits.
\n50:2. and he will show [this] to others The identity of the \u201cothers\u201d is a matter of debate. Based on the context, these are Jews who are neither righteous nor irredeemably wicked. They will repent when they see the reward of the righteous and the punishment of the wicked.
\n50:3. they will have no honor \u2026 but in his name they will be saved Although they have sinned, they will still be forgiven. Some manuscripts read, \u201cthey will have honor\u201d; if this reading is the correct one, in this passage the repentance of the \u201cothers\u201d has granted them the \u201chonor\u201d necessary for divine forgiveness.
\n51:1\u20132 These verses depict the resurrection of the dead in the final era. Among the works included in 1 Enoch, only the Parables and the Epistle explicitly refer to resurrection. The verses here indicate that everyone will be resurrected, but only the righteous will subsequently be chosen and \u201csaved.\u201d In other references to resurrection in the Parables, however, only the righteous are resurrected (see 62:15\u201316).
\n51:4. the mountains will leap like rams, and the hills will skip like lambs This imagery is drawn from Ps. 114:6.
\n56:5\u20136 The battle described in these verses has been used to date this composition as a whole (see Introduction). This battle is usually identified as the Parthian invasion of 40 BCE described by Josephus. However, as opposed to the description in v. 7, the Parthians did in fact succeed in conquering Jerusalem. Nickelsburg has suggested that this passage predicts a replay of this battle in which the Parthians will not be able to conquer Jerusalem. The following description of internal strife in v. 7 does not refer to a known historical event, but may refer to struggles within the Hasmonean royal family.
\n56:8. and their destruction\u2014Sheol This translation is based on several manuscripts that are missing the verb in this verse. A recommended translation based on those manuscripts that include the missing verb is: \u201cand their destruction will be at an end; Sheol.\u201d
\n57:1 The parable ends with a reference to the returning exiles; see Zech. 8:7\u20138; Ps. 107:3.
\n60:7\u201310 These verses, together with 60:24\u201325, are a later interpolation of a tradition regarding Leviathan and Behemoth that is also found in 4 Ezra 6:49\u201352 and 2 Bar. 29:4. The legends regarding these two beasts draw in part from their lengthy description as examples of God\u2019s fearsome creations in Job 40:15\u201341:26. These creatures are paired in later midrashic literature. Leviathan in particular is prominent in talmudic and midrashic traditions regarding the reward of the righteous in the Messianic Age: the righteous will eat Leviathan\u2019s flesh and will be sheltered in a hut made of its skin (see B. BB 75a).
\n60:24\u201325 These verses complete the interpolated passage at 60:7\u201310; they have been shifted due to textual corruption. Verse 24 itself is considerably corrupted. In an earlier form, these verses most likely referred to the feeding of Leviathan and Behemoth to the righteous (as found in later midrashic literature) before describing the punishment of the wicked.
\nin vain The verb is missing in most Ethiopic manuscripts, a further indication of textual corruption.
\n61:1. long cords For measurement, as will be described in the passage that follows. Cords were frequently used to measure land; see Zech. 2:5.
\nthey acquired wings for themselves Angels are not typically depicted with wings in the Bible or in Second Temple literature. Consequently, these angels must \u201cacquire\u201d wings in order to fly.
\nthe north This may reflect a wider extra-biblical tradition according to which the dominion of the righteous is located in the north. In 70:3 the \u201cplace for the chosen and the righteous\u201d is located in the northwest, while in the Book of the Watchers (32:1\u20133) the \u201cGarden of Righteousness\u201d is found in the northeast. (The biblical Eden is found in the east; see Gen. 2:8.)
\n61:3. the measurements of the righteous and the ropes of the righteous The angels will measure the righteous with ropes to determine the space needed for their dwelling place in the final era (v. 4), much as the angels must measure the future Jerusalem in Zech. 2:5\u20139.
\n61:5. will reveal all the secrets of the depths of the earth Interpreted in context, the revelation of these \u201csecrets\u201d may be a reference to the resurrection of the righteous from Sheol.
\nand those who were destroyed by the desert, and those who were devoured by the fish of the sea and by animals No matter the nature of their death, the righteous will be resurrected and will never suffer death again.
\n61:6. one voice The angels praise God in chorus.
\n61:7. And him The LORD of Spirits, who is the last object in v. 5 and the subject of v. 8.
\n61:8. the throne of his glory, and he will judge On the connection between the \u201cthrone of glory\u201d and judgment, see comment on 45:3.
\nall the works of the holy ones in heaven above Even the angels are subject to the Chosen One\u2019s judgment. In 55:4 (not included in this excerpt), the Chosen One judges the Watchers, who are henceforth thrown into a chasm with their loved ones (56:1\u20134).
\n61:9. And when he lifts his face to judge \u2026 they will all speak with one voice, and bless \u2026 the LORD of Spirits The justness of the Chosen One\u2019s judgment is itself a proof of God\u2019s greatness.
\ntheir secret ways The angelic realm is one of mystery; their ways are \u201csecret.\u201d
\n61:10. and he will call all the host of the heavens There are variant readings of this passage. A possible alternative is \u201cand all the host of heavens will cry out.\u201d
\n61:12. All those who do not sleep This is a common term for angels in the Parables (39:12, 13; 71:7) due to their continuous guardianship of the divine realm (71:7). On the connection between this idea and the term \u201cWatchers,\u201d see comment on 1:5 and note ad loc (and see also 14:23).
\nhallow Better, \u201csanctify.\u201d
\n62:2. and the word of his mouth kills all the sinners and all the lawless This is a paraphrase of Isa. 11:4: \u201cHe shall strike down a land with the rod of his mouth and slay the wicked with the breath of his lips.\u201d
\n62:3. no idle word As in 49:4, this refers specifically to lies.
\n62:4. And pain will come upon them The \u201ckings and the mighty and the exalted\u201d are all sinners. They therefore suffer fear and pain when they recognize the power of the Chosen One and realize that he is sitting in judgment.
\n62:5. Son of a Woman Some manuscripts read \u201cSon of Man.\u201d
\n62:7. For from the beginning the Son of Man was hidden As in 48:6. In this verse it is clear that the Son of Man himself was created \u201cfrom the beginning\u201d and hidden from all but the righteous or the \u201cchosen.\u201d
\n62:9\u201312 The \u201cmighty kings\u201d praise and petition the Son of Man in hope of forgiveness, but they are duly punished for the manner in which they have oppressed the righteous.
\n62:14\u201315 The righteous will dwell in the presence of God and with the Son of Man, and they are promised resurrection and eternal life.
\n62:16. a garment of life \u2026 your garments will not wear out \u2026 before the LORD of Spirits The righteous are promised an everlasting life (and body) in the presence of God.<\/p>\n
Chapter 70<\/p>\n
In their present form, chaps. 70 and 71 form the conclusion to the Parables, and were likely added as an appendix in the last stage of the growth of the Parables.
\n70:1\u20132 These verses are in the third person, indicating that they were composed separately from the verses that follow.
\nwhile he was living, his name was lifted \u2026 to the presence of that Son of Man and to the presence of the LORD of Spirits There are two versions of this verse in extant manuscripts; the alternative version can be translated as \u201cthe living name of that Son of Man was raised up to\/exalted by the LORD of Spirits.\u201d The version and translation chosen here are preferred by most scholars based on literary considerations. The difference between the versions is whether Enoch is already identified with the Son of Man in 70:1. In the version chosen here, Enoch is explicitly distinguished from the Son of Man.
\n70:2. and his name vanished among them That is, Enoch himself vanished.
\n70:3. I was not counted among them A recapitulation of v. 2b.
\nthe place for the chosen and the righteous In this passage the dwelling of the chosen is located in the northwest; see comment on 61:1.
\n70:4. who from [the beginning of] the world dwelt in that place The \u201cplace for the chosen and the righteous\u201d described here does not belong only to the final era. It is the destination of all righteous people, such as the forefathers, from the time of their deaths, even prior to the Messianic Age.
\n71:2. two rivers of fire Similar to the rivers of fire that flow from underneath the divine throne in the Book of the Watchers, 14:19.
\n71:3. the secrets of mercy and the secrets of righteousness Perhaps these \u201csecrets\u201d will be necessary for heavenly judgment.
\n71:4. the secrets of the ends of heaven and all the Storehouses of all the stars and the lights This apparently refers to the cosmic secrets shown to Enoch in the Book of the Watchers (chaps. 17\u201319) and elsewhere in the Parables (41:3\u20138; 59:1\u20133; 60:11\u201322). As noted above (see comment on 18:1), meteorological phenomena are frequently kept in \u201cstorehouses\u201d in biblical depictions. The description of stars being kept in storehouses, however, is unusual.
\n71:5\u20138 These verses and their description of the heavenly throne room draw from a similar passage in the Book of the Watchers, 14:9\u201323.
\n71:5. And the spirit carried Enoch off This reading is found in one group of manuscripts; other manuscripts maintain the first person point of view.
\nof crystal stones This is a literal translation of the Ethiopic. Some have interpreted the \u201ccrystal stones\u201d as hailstones, based on the description in the Book of the Watchers, 14:9\u201312, of a house leading to the divine throne room, which is built of hailstones and surrounded by fire.
\n71:6. that house The divine throne room.
\n71:7. these are they who do not sleep As in the Book of the Watchers, 14:23: \u201cthe Holy Ones who were near him did not leave by night or day.\u201d On the meaning of this phrase, see comment on 61:12.
\n71:8. ten thousand times ten thousand See comment on 14:22.
\nMichael and Raphael and Gabriel and Phanuel A quartet of angels who hold a special position in the divine realm; they are identical to the angels who take action against the Watchers in the Book of the Watchers (according to the Greek text), except that here Phanuel has been substituted for Sariel. See comment on 9:1. In biblical use penuel\/peniel is almost exclusively a place name; it is where Jacob wrestles the angel (see Gen. 32:31\u201332).
\n71:10. the Head of Days, his head white and pure like wool As in Dan. 7:9.
\n71:14. You are the Son of Man who was born to righteousness Enoch is identified as the messianic Son of Man. This identification is the purpose of the final appendix. While it is unlikely that this identification was intended by the author(s) of the earlier texts of the Parables, it heavily influenced how the Parables would be read in its final form and as part of 1 Enoch.
\n71:15. the world which is to come The phrase \u201cthe world which is to come\u201d is an earlier instance of the idea of \u201cthe world to come,\u201d olam haba, as it appears in Rabbinic literature. In Rabbinic texts olam haba usually denotes the afterlife, and in some instances indicates the Messianic Age (as in T. BB 2:17).<\/p>\n
The Astronomical Book<\/p>\n
72:1. The book of the revolution of the lights of heaven In 1 Enoch only the Astronomical Book and the appendix in chap. 108 are introduced as a \u201cbook.\u201d
\ntheir [period of] rule This echoes Gen. 1:16, where the sun and moon are described as having dominion over the day and night respectively.
\nwhich Uriel \u2026 showed to me Uriel, whose name means \u201cmy light\/fire is God\u201d is Enoch\u2019s guide to the cosmic realm. Uriel fills a similar role as guide to heavenly secrets in the Book of the Watchers.
\nall their regulations \u2026 for each year of the world and forever The sun, moon, and stars must follow the rules of their cosmic movements; see Ps. 148:5\u20136. Like the psalm, this introduction emphasizes the unchanging nature of the rules that govern the sun, moon, and stars.
\nuntil the new creation The \u201cnew creation\u201d is not mentioned again in the course of the Astronomical Book.
\n72:2. the gates of heaven As explained by Otto Neugebauer, these gates signify \u201cfixed arcs of the horizon, related in a very simple way with the rising and setting amplitude of the sun during the course of one year.\u201d (The rising amplitude or setting amplitude of the sun is the angle between true east or west, respectively, and the sun\u2019s direction, as seen by an observer on the earth.)
\n72:3. six gates from which the sun rises, and six gates in which the sun sets The movements of the sun through these gates will be described in the following passage (vv. 4\u201335). These gates lie opposite each other in arcs to the east and west.
\nthe moon [also] rises and sets in those gates, and the leaders of the stars The passing of the moon through these gates will be described in chap. 74. The movement of the sun, moon, and stars through the gates is mentioned again in 75:6, but the stars do not receive their own treatment. In the Book of the Watchers (36:3), the stars are described as moving through \u201csmaller gates.\u201d
\nmany windows to the south and north These windows are mentioned again in 75:7. Their location distinguishes them from the twelve windows located in the eastern fourth gate in 72:7.
\n72:4. the greater light This term for the sun is drawn from Gen. 1:16.
\n72:5. returns through the north in order to reach the east After setting, the sun returns to the east by way of the north; this explains why the sun is hidden during the night.
\n72:6\u201332 As noted above (v. 3), these verses describe the passage of the sun through six symmetrical gates arranged in arcs on the eastern and western horizons. The sun rises through an eastern gate and sets through its corresponding western gate. The sun then returns to the east through the north. The year begins at the spring equinox, when the ratio of daylight to nighttime is 9:9. The ratio of daylight to nighttime increases in the course of the month. The number of days per month is not uniform; the third month of each quarter-year has thirty-one days.
\n72:7. twelve window openings These twelve windows are placed in the fourth eastern gate. Their purpose is not clear, but as in 75:7, these windows may be designated for the stars.
\n72:10. the day amounts to exactly ten parts, and the night amounts to eight parts A full day has 18 parts, a principle that is followed throughout this chapter.
\n72:13. because of its sign The \u201csign\u201d indicates the summer solstice, mentioned in the next verse.
\n72:14. the day becomes double the night The summer solstice, at the end of the third month.
\n72:19. its sign The autumnal equinox mentioned in the next verse.
\n72:20. On that day the day becomes equal with the night The autumnal equinox is at the end of the sixth month.
\n72:26. and becomes double the day The winter solstice, at the end of the ninth month.
\n72:32. and the night becomes equal with the day The year ends (and will begin) at the time of the spring equinox.
\nAnd the year amounts to exactly three hundred and sixty-four days In the Astronomical Book, the number of days in a solar year is a round number.
\n72:33. they are different because of the journey of that sun The variation in the relative lengths of day and night is caused by the sun\u2019s changing position in the gates, that is, the sun\u2019s changing rising amplitude.
\n72:36. the great \u2026 light, which is [so] named after its appearance This passage explains the sun\u2019s appellation in Gen. 1:16.
\n72:37. its light is seven times brighter than that of the moon, but in size the two are equal As noted by VanderKam, this statement solves the apparent contradiction in Gen. 1:16, where both the sun and moon are called \u201cgreat lights,\u201d but the sun is afterward designated the \u201cgreater\u201d (literally, \u201cgreat\u201d) light and the moon the \u201clesser\u201d (literally, \u201csmall\u201d) light. The solution proposed in this verse explains that they are both \u201cgreat lights\u201d in size, but differ in brightness. The degree of difference is drawn from Isa. 30:26, where the light of the sun during the days of creation (the \u201cseven days\u201d) is described as being seven times that of the moon.
\n73:1. the smaller light named the moon Echoing the designation of the moon in Gen. 1:16.
\n73:3. and its days [are] as the days of the sun That is, the lunar month, like the solar month, is thirty days. This reflects a 360-day solar calendar, unlike the 364-day calendar described above, and a schematic lunar calendar of 30-day months, unlike the alternating hollow and full months reflected in 73:4 and chap. 74.
\n73:4\u20138 There are many variant readings for these verses in the extant manuscripts. They describe the illuminated portions of the moon\u2019s surface for the first two days of the lunar month and are apparently a truncated version of a longer account. This is evident from an Aramaic fragment discovered at Qumran (4QAstronomical Enochb [4Q209] 7 ii\u2013iii) that includes a more complete account.
\n73:4. it rises on the thirtieth morning This indicates that the previous lunar month had twenty-nine days. Mesopotamian astronomical texts commonly indicated the beginning of a month\u2019s timetable following a hollow month with the number \u201cthirty.\u201d
\n74:2\u20134 As explained by Otto Neugebauer, \u201cThe text as it stands is not very clear. What was intended to be expressed may be formulated as follows: Enoch writes down the pattern for the gates traversed by sun and moon during the lunar year. In each month the moon is waxing and waning: first its light increases until 1\/7 of the sun\u2019s brightness is reached at full moon, which is visible in the east when the sun sets in the west; then the moon returns to darkness at conjunction which normally takes place in the same gate with the sun, though occasionally the moon may appear in an adjacent gate (as can actually be the case).\u201d
\n74:5\u20139 This passage describes the movement of the moon during one month. In contrast to the movement of the sun, which moves through the gates in order throughout the year, the moon moves through all the gates twice in the course of one month, with the exception of gates one and six. This account, like that in 73:4\u20138, is an abbreviated one. It has been understood by scholars with the assistance of an Ethiopic manuscript that describes the moon\u2019s movements through these gates during a full lunar year, including alternating hollow and full months. The month described in this passage is a hollow month of 29 days.
\n74:5. in the third and in the fourth gate These gates correspond to the equinoxes.
\n74:6 As explained by Otto Neugebauer, \u201cWe have here a general description of the relationship between the days of a lunar month and the gates: the moon comes out through one of the outermost gates during seven (or eight) days; there it turns and moves back to the gate from which the sun rises during this month, and its light becomes full (at sunset); then the moon recedes again from this gate. At the end of this verse the words \u2018enters for eight days the sixth gate\u2019 do not belong here and should be deleted.\u201d
\n74:8. in seven days VanderKam argues that this should be emended to \u201cfour days\u201d and that \u201cseven days\u201d is the result of textual corruption.
\n74:10\u201311 According to the calendrical system set out in the Astronomical Book, five solar years should be in excess of five lunar years by fifty days, not thirty as in this passage. As noted by VanderKam, the number thirty may reflect an underlying system of a 360-day solar year, with a consistent 30-day month.
\n74:10\u201316 These confusing and somewhat redundant calculations reflect the start of an attempt to apply an eight-year cycle (an octaeteris). This attempt motivates the comparison of the lunar and solar calendars for three, five, and eight years in these verses. In an octaeteris, two months of thirty days each are inserted after five years and another such month is inserted after three years, so that in eight years the lunar and solar cycles are synchronized. The octaeteris can be successfully applied when the lunar month alternates between 29 and 30 days and the solar year is understood to be 365\u00bc days (the Julian year). However, since in the Astronomical Book solar years are exactly 364 days (compared to lunar years of 354 days, as in an octaeteris), the difference between solar and lunar years cannot be resolved in this manner, and the author eventually abandons his calculations.
\n75:1. And the leaders of the heads of thousands \u2026 [have to do] also with the four [days] which are added The four days that are added to a year based on twelve 30-day months, so that a solar year will be 364 days, as outlined above in chap. 72, where every quarter-year season ends with a 31-day month. The passage here emphasizes the importance of these \u201cadditional\u201d days, attributing their administration to particularly important heavenly beings.
\n75:2. and because of them men go wrong in them This passage addresses those who have adopted a 360-day solar calendar, without the four \u201cadditional\u201d days.
\none in the first gate, and one in the third gate, and one in the fourth gate, and one in the sixth gate The sun rises from the gates listed here at the end of each season, for a 31-day month: from the first gate prior to the winter solstice (72:25), from the third gate prior to the autumnal equinox (72:31), from the fourth gate prior to the spring equinox (72:19), and from the sixth gate prior to the summer solstice (72:13).
\n75:3. For the signs and the times and the years and the days This corresponds to the description of the luminaries\u2019 function in Gen. 1:14: \u201cthey shall serve as signs for the set times\u2014the days and the years.\u201d
\nthe angel Uriel showed to me, whom the LORD \u2026 has placed in charge The authority of the calendrical system outlined here is emphasized by noting the status of Uriel, the source of this knowledge. Uriel is in charge of all the luminaries by divine mandate.
\n75:4\u20139 This is one of the few passages in the Astronomical Book that discusses the stars. They are mentioned alongside weather and wind movements. Verses 8\u20139 seem to refer to a specific constellation, possibly the Big Dipper (the seven brightest stars of Ursa Major).
\n80:2. But in the days of the sinners the years will become shorter In contradiction to the statement in 72:1 that the movements of the luminaries will be \u201cexactly as they are, for each year of the world and forever,\u201d the passage at 80:2\u20138 predicts an age when the cosmos and nature will be changed. Based on this contradiction and other differences in terminology and content, 80:2\u20138 is likely an editorial interpolation.
\ntheir seed will be late \u2026 And the rain will be withheld The emphasis in 80:2\u20133 is not on alterations in the movements of the luminaries but on the consequences of the changes in natural cycles for human agriculture. The punishment of sinners through the withholding of rain and poor crops is a common biblical theme; see Lev. 26:18\u201320; Deut. 11:16\u201317; 28:23\u201324.
\n80:4. And the moon will change its customary practice Some have interpreted this verse as an attempt to explain the discrepancy between the 364-day calendar espoused here and the observed annual cycle. However, the change in the \u201cpractice\u201d (literally, \u201corder\u201d) of the moon and the stars (see v. 6) is sandwiched between the punishing change in agriculture and the erring of the sinners, indicating that the change in lunar movements may be a sign of general disorder as opposed to a concrete explanation of calendrical deviation. Significantly, the sun is not mentioned in v. 5 where one would expect it to be, although it may have been omitted through textual corruption.
\n80:6. And many heads of the stars in command will go astray The disorder will extend to the \u201cheads of the stars,\u201d who will transgress the divine order.
\n80:7. will be closed to the sinners \u2026 and will think them gods Sinners will not understand astronomy, and will therefore think that the stars are gods rather than subordinate to the divine order and constrained to designated paths. The worship of the sun, moon, and stars is paradigmatic of idol worship in the Bible (see Deut. 4:19) and \u201cworship of the stars\u201d (avodat kokhavim) is a standard term denoting idol worship throughout Rabbinic literature.
\n81:1. the book of the tablets of heaven This book contains within it the future deeds of all humankind, as explained in v. 2, and possibly humankind\u2019s fate. Similar content is attributed to the heavenly tablets in the Epistle of Enoch (91\u2013107); see 93:2; 103:2; 106:19\u2013107:1.
\n81:3. then I immediately blessed the LORD Enoch\u2019s blessing following the revelation of the tablets resembles the conclusions of the travel sections in the Book of the Watchers where Enoch blesses the LORD following each set of mysteries that is revealed to him.
\nhe has made all the works of the world God\u2019s creation of everything is manifest in the revelation of divine determinism expressed through the heavenly tablets.
\nbecause of his patience Now that Enoch knows of the generations of human sinning still to come, he understands the extent of divine forbearance.
\n81:4. no book of iniquity The \u201cbook of iniquity\u201d may refer to the heavenly tablets. Alternatively, it may be a counterpart of the book referenced in the Bible in which the righteous are inscribed.
\n81:5. these three holy ones Several other manuscripts read \u201cthese seven holy ones,\u201d reflecting the seven archangels mentioned in the Greek version of the Book of the Watchers (20:1\u20138) and in the Animal Apocalypse (90:21\u201322). \u201cThese three holy ones,\u201d in the version reflected here, relate to the angels who are in charge of Enoch\u2019s revelation in 87:2\u20133 and 90:31. The appearance of these three\/seven angels in the Astronomical Book is incongruous with the fact that only Uriel has been previously mentioned. Scholars have consequently viewed this appearance as proof that chap. 81 is a later interpolation in the Astronomical Book.
\nno flesh is righteous before the LORD Nobody can be found to be completely blameless before God; see Ps. 143:2.
\n81:6 This verse explains how the mysteries revealed to Enoch in heaven were transmitted to those who remained on earth. Enoch is allowed one more year on earth so that he can write his book and teach his heavenly wisdom to his children.
\n81:9. And those who practice righteousness will die because of the deeds of men This prediction acknowledges that the righteous will suffer because of the wicked; cf. Isa. 57:1. Surprisingly, the final redemption and reward of the righteous is not mentioned.
\n82:1 This verse explains the origin of the Book of Enoch, or at least the Astronomical Book, and how it has reached the hands of the reader. Time has passed between the instructions to Enoch in 81:5\u20136 and Enoch\u2019s words in 82:1. During this interval Enoch has done as commanded in 81:5\u20136: he has instructed Methuselah and has written down the revelation he received. He now gives his book into the hands of his son Methuselah for transmission to future generations.
\n82:4\u20138 These verses return to the central theme of the Astronomical Book. They contain an admonition regarding correct and incorrect calendrical practices, and correspond to the similar injunction in 75:1\u20133.
\n82:4. and do not sin like the sinners in the numbering of all their days in which the sun journeys in heaven The righteous uphold a 364-day solar year (and not a 360-day year, as explained below).
\nfor thirty days \u2026 with the four which are added and divide between the four parts of the year See comment on 75:1.
\n82:5. Because of them men go wrong The reference is to the four days added to the twelve 30-day months in a 364-day year.
\n82:6. For they belong in the reckoning of the year The four \u201cadditional\u201d days are in fact a basic part of the solar year.
\none in the first gate, and one in the third, and one in the fourth and one in the sixth See comment on 75:2.
\n82:7. for the lights, and the months, and the feasts, and the years, and the days Uriel showed me As in 75:3, this description corresponds to Gen. 1:14, but \u201cthe months\u201d have been added, and \u201cset times\u201d (mo\u2019adim) has been understood to mean \u201cfeasts,\u201d i.e., festival days.
\nand he inspired me\u2014he to whom the LORD of the whole created world gave commands about the host of heaven for me Once again (see 75:3), the author emphasizes the divine authority of Uriel in order to bolster his calendrical assertions.<\/p>\n
The Book of Dream Visions<\/p>\n
83:2. For the first time when I learnt the art of writing, and for the second time before I took your mother The sense of this passage is that both visions occur when Enoch is a young man, before he was married (despite the advanced age of the biblical Enoch when he became a father in Gen. 5:21).
\n83:3. heaven was thrown down \u2026 it fell upon the earth The rain of the Flood. This and the following verses describe the Flood in terms that are general enough to also refer to a future apocalypse, one that is relevant for an audience in the Second Temple period.
\n83:7. it is about to sink into the abyss A figurative description of the covering of the entire earth in water (Gen. 7:19\u201320) that maintains the dual sense noted in the commentary on v. 3.
\n83:10. and wrote my prayer down Referring to the prayer found in 84:2\u20136.
\n83:11. the sun rising \u2026 the moon setting \u2026 stars \u2026 the whole earth, and everything as he knew it at the beginning The movement of the planets and stars demonstrates God\u2019s power and wisdom.
\n84:1. with the tongue of flesh which God has made for men born of flesh It is God\u2019s creation of the human tongue that gives humans the right and the ability to pray. See 14:2.
\n84:2. all the heavens [are] your throne forever, and the whole earth your footstool See Isa. 66:1.
\n84:4. And now the angels of your heaven are doing wrong The Watchers; see chaps. 6\u201316; 19:1\u20132.
\nand your anger rests upon the flesh of men until the day of the great judgment There are two possibilities for identifying the Day of Judgment: (1) The Flood: the \u201cwrath\u201d is the violence wrought by the giants on humankind before the deluge; and (2) The Day of Judgment in the final era: the \u201cwrath\u201d is the destruction caused by the spirits of the giants (see 15:8\u201316:1) or by the spirits of the Watchers (see 19:1) until the end-time, when they are completely destroyed.
\n84:6. wipe out from the earth the flesh which has provoked you to anger Enoch asks that only the wicked be destroyed.
\nbut the flesh of righteousness and uprightness establish as a seed-bearing plant forever Once again, the verse is ambiguous. The destruction it describes could refer to the Flood, which will destroy the wicked while allowing Noah and his sons to escape. Noah\u2019s son Shem is the forefather of Abraham and thus of the Jewish people, the \u201cflesh of righteousness and uprightness.\u201d Alternatively, the verse may refer to the final era, when the wicked will be obliterated and only the righteous will survive.
\na seed-bearing plant Perhaps a reference to Isa. 61:11.
\n85:1. another dream This second dream is substantially different from the first. It summarizes biblical and post-biblical history from the beginning of creation until the end-time, with different animal species substituting for human beings. This section of 1 Enoch is often called the Animal Apocalypse in modern scholarship.
\n85:3. Before I took your mother Edna That is, before Enoch took a wife. Enoch\u2019s single state may be repeated here in order to explain why Enoch was alone when he had his vision.
\na bull came out of the earth Adam.
\nand that bull was white In Enoch\u2019s vision, white consistently indicates righteousness and purity.
\na heifer came out Eve. No mention is made of God fashioning Eve from Adam\u2019s rib, nor of the sin of Adam and Eve.
\none of them was black Cain; his black color signifies his wickedness and his imminent sin.
\nand the other red White is reserved for the line of Seth, the line that will produce Abraham (v. 8). Red, a common color for cattle, signifies neither wickedness nor complete righteousness. This color is also chosen for Japheth, who bears neither the wickedness of Ham nor the righteousness of Shem (see 89:9).
\n85:4. struck the red one The murder of Abel.
\nand pursued it over the earth Abel is also described as \u201cpursued\u201d (nirdaf) by Cain in several parallel midrashim. However, the position of the verb in this verse, following the apparent killing of Abel, is peculiar. Nickelsburg proposes that the order of the verbs be reversed or that the second verb be read as passive: Cain is pursued by Abel\u2019s spirit, as described in 22:5\u20137.
\n85:5. many bulls come out from it which were like it and followed behind it Cain\u2019s descendants are as evil as he is.
\n85:6. seeking that red bullock \u2026 and thereupon it moaned bitterly, and continued to seek it Eve\u2019s search and lament are an addition to the biblical account. The only indication of Eve\u2019s mourning in the Bible is her naming of Seth, \u201cmeaning, \u2018God has provided me with another offspring in place of Abel\u2019 \u201d (Gen. 4:25).
\n85:8. another white bull Seth.
\nmany black bulls and cows The birth of further children to Eve is another addition to the biblical account. It explains whence came available wives for Adam\u2019s offspring. From the perspective of the narrative these births provide a wellspring of evildoers (black cattle) who will be easily corrupted before the Flood.
\n85:9. from it came many white bulls The state of humanity before the Flood is of two opposing camps: the righteous, descended from Seth (white cattle), and evildoers, descended from Cain and from Eve\u2019s other, anonymous children (black cattle).
\n86:1. a star fell from heaven In this retelling of the Watchers story (see chaps. 6\u201311), Asael descends first, on his own.
\nand ate and pastured amongst those bulls Asael pretends to be human. This is a conventional angelic ability; see 17:1.
\n86:2. the large and the black bulls \u2026 all of them changed their pens and their pastures and their heifers \u2026 and they began to moan Asael has somehow caused the corruption of the cattle, although how is not clear, nor is it clear exactly what their sin is or why they are moaning. One opinion is that the \u201clarge\u201d cattle are the white cattle, descendants of Seth (the \u201clarge white bull\u201d in 85:9), and therefore this verse signifies intermarriage between the descendants of Seth and the descendants of Cain. If so, this is an allusion to the tradition found later in Christian literature (and afterward in Jewish texts) that interpreted the bene elohim of Gen. 6:1\u20134 as descendants of Seth and the \u201cdaughters of man\u201d as descendants of Cain.
\n86:3. I saw many stars, how they came down The rest of the Watchers descend only after Asael has corrupted humankind.
\n86:4. all of them let out their private parts like horses The Watchers remain a different species in terms of their sexual organs.
\nelephants and camels and asses New and peculiar species emerge from the mating of the Watchers and human women. The three species listed here may signify the three generations that the Watchers produce in the Greek version of 7:2: the giants, the \u201cNephilim,\u201d and the \u201cElioud.\u201d
\n86:6. they began to devour those bulls Signifying the giants\u2019 violence against humanity; see 7:4.
\nall the sons of the earth The author slips in his allegory and refers to human beings as humans.
\n87:1. And again I saw them, how they began to gore one another and to devour one another The beginning of the verse implies that the giants are the subject of the action, but the continuation of the verse is puzzling, particularly since the giants\u2019 eventual punishment includes their murder of each other (see 10:9; 88:2). Jub. 7:22 also describes the different generations of the Watchers\u2019 progeny devouring each other, perhaps based on this verse. The verse may have originally referred to the killing of humans by the giants, or the violence between humans instigated by the giants\u2019 behavior.
\n87:2. who were like white men Humans are depicted as animals, so angels are depicted as humans.
\nfour came from that place, and three [others] with them The seven archangels; see comment on 20:1\u20137. If the individual angels are identical to those listed in the Greek version of 20:1\u20137, the \u201cthree\u201d must be Uriel, Reuel, and Remiel. The \u201cfour\u201d are those who are commissioned to carry out the punishment of the Watchers: Raphael, Gabriel, Michael, and Sariel; see comment on 9:1 and 10:1\u201315.
\n87:3. and showed me a tower high above the earth The Temple. In the language of the Animal Apocalypse, the \u201chouse\u201d signifies Jerusalem and the \u201ctower\u201d on it is the Temple. This identification is reflected in the citation found in T. Levi 10:5: \u201cFor the house which the LORD will choose will be called Jerusalem, as the book of Enoch the Righteous contains.\u201d
\n88:1. one of those four Raphael, who binds Asael (10:4\u20135).
\n88:2. one of them drew his sword Gabriel, who sets the Watchers\u2019 children \u201cagainst one another in a war of destruction\u201d (10:9).
\n88:3. one of those four who had come out Michael. As in the Book of the Watchers (10:11\u201313), Michael binds the Watchers only after they have witnessed the destruction of their children.
\n89:1. And one of those four went to a white bull and taught him a mystery Sariel reveals knowledge of the flood to Noah and instructs him regarding the ark (10:1\u20133).
\nbut became a man Noah \u201cbecomes a man\u201d in order to build the ark, as Moses will \u201cbecome a man\u201d in order to build the Tabernacle in 89:36. Apparently animals are incapable of construction, even in allegory, or else humans are elevated when they build something in response to a divine command.
\nthree bulls dwelt with him Noah\u2019s sons: Shem, Ham, and Japheth.
\n89:2\u20138 The translation here reflects the longer Ethiopic version, due to the fragmentary nature of the shorter Aramaic. As Nickelsburg notes, the Aramaic sticks closely to the biblical account, while the Ethiopic describes the cosmos as the \u201cenclosure\u201d of a building that stands on the earth. The description of the flood from above and below reflects Gen. 7:11: \u201cAll the fountains of the great deep burst apart, and the floodgates of the sky broke open.\u201d
\n89:4. water had risen above that enclosure This verse corresponds to Gen. 7:17\u201320.
\n89:5\u20136 These verses correspond to Gen. 7:21\u201323, but also describe the death of the Watchers\u2019 progeny. The author is careful to note that the Watchers\u2019 children (presumably those who survived the previous fighting) are completely destroyed by the flood. These beings have no further influence on humankind, in contrast to what is described in 15:8\u201312.
\n89:7. the chasms of the earth were made level The Aramaic reads, \u201c[and the fissures] of the chambers were stopped\u201d (4QEnGiantsf [4Q206] 4 ii 2). Following the Aramaic reading, 89:7 corresponds to Gen. 8:2\u20133a: \u201cThe fountains of the deep and the floodgates of the sky were stopped up, and the rain from the sky was held back; the waters then receded steadily from the earth.\u201d
\nand other abysses were opened This clause explains what happened to all the excess water, a difficulty that is not clarified in the biblical account.
\n89:8. the earth became visible, and that vessel settled on the earth See Gen. 8:4\u20135.
\n89:9. And one \u2026 was white, like that bull Shem, who is the forefather of Abram\/Abraham, and is therefore within the chosen line of Israel.
\nand one of them [was] red as blood Japheth. On Japheth\u2019s color, see comment on 85:3.
\nand one [was] black Ham, the father of Canaan. Ham views the nakedness of his own father, Noah (Gen. 9:22), leading to Noah\u2019s curse of Canaan (Gen. 9:24\u201325). Ham\u2019s black color derives from his biblical actions, although his sin is not recounted here.
\nthat white bull passed away from them Noah dies.
\n89:10. so that there arose from them every kind of species These are the various nations.
\nBut amongst them was born a white bull Abram.
\n89:11. a wild ass Ishmael. Ishmael\u2019s species is based on the divine oracle regarding Ishmael in Gen. 16:12: \u201cHe shall be a wild ass of a man.\u201d
\nand the wild asses increased See Gen. 21:18.
\n89:12. a black wild boar The author has chosen to emphasize the evil of Esau and the Edomites by depicting Esau not only as a pig, but as a black pig. The boar is used to depict Edomites throughout the Animal Apocalypse, although in 89:72 the Samaritans are also portrayed as boars (see comment below).
\na white sheep Jacob, the forefather of the Israelites. In the Aramaic fragments of this verse, Jacob is specifically called a white ram, while his children are sheep. The Israelites are depicted as sheep throughout the Animal Apocalypse, just as they are in many of the prophetic books.
\ntwelve sheep The twelve tribes.
\n89:13. they handed one of their number over to the asses, and those asses in turn handed that sheep over to the wolves This verse describes the selling of Joseph: his brothers sell him to the Ishmaelites (Gen. 37:25\u201328), who in turn sell him to the Egyptians (39:1). The author solves the textual difficulty in Gen. 37:28, where Joseph is sold to merchants who are referred to as both Ishmaelites and Midianites, by equating the two nations; see the identification of Midianites as wild asses in 89:16.
\n89:14. And the LORD brought The Aramaic reads \u201cand the ram led forth\u201d (4Q206 4 ii 16); that is, Jacob takes his children (and grandchildren) to Egypt (Gen. 46:5\u20137).
\nand they increased See Exod. 1:7.
\n89:15. began to make them afraid This clause is not found in the Aramaic.
\nand they oppressed them See Exod. 1:11.
\nthey threw their young into a river with much water The Nile; see Exod. 1:22.
\nbut those sheep began to cry out because of their young In the biblical account, the Israelites cry out to God only after the king of Egypt dies (Exod. 2:23); see 89:16. The author has inserted an additional appeal to God following the murder of the Israelites\u2019 children, in contrast to the puzzling silence of the Israelites in the biblical account.
\n89:16. a sheep which had been saved from the wolves Moses\u2019s upbringing as a prince is not mentioned, nor is his crime (see Exod. 2:11\u201315); he is simply an Israelite who has managed to escape the Egyptians.
\nfled and escaped to the wild asses The Midianites (Exod. 2:15); see comment on 89:13.
\nI saw the sheep moaning \u2026 and petitioning their LORD See Exod. 2:23.
\nuntil that LORD of the sheep came down \u2026 at the call of the sheep from a high room, and came to them, and looked at them As described in Exod. 2:24\u201325: \u201cGod heard their moaning.\u2026 God looked upon the Israelites, and God took notice of them.\u201d
\n89:17. And he called that sheep Moses is commissioned to speak to the Egyptians.
\nthat they should not touch the sheep In the Bible, Moses is instructed to request leave for the Israelites to sacrifice to their God as a pretense for the Israelites\u2019 escape (Exod. 3:16\u201318). The author has altered the message to be less deceptive and more clearly justifiable: Moses requests that the Egyptians cease tormenting the Israelites.
\n89:18. another sheep Aaron; see Exod. 4:27\u201328.
\nthey should not touch the sheep This request is consistent with God\u2019s message in 89:17, while in the biblical account (Exod. 5:1) the message remains consistent with Exod. 3:18; see comment on the previous verse.
\n89:19. how they acted even more harshly toward the sheep This follows the biblical account, where Pharaoh responds to Moses and Aaron\u2019s initial request by increasing the amount of labor expected from the Israelites and by dealing harshly with them when they do not meet their quotas; see Exod. 5:6\u201319.
\n89:20. and their LORD God.
\nbegan to beat those wolves All ten plagues are summarized in these words.
\nbut the sheep became silent, and from then on they did not cry out Indicating that the Israelites were safe both from the plagues and from Egyptian oppression during the plagues.
\n89:21. until they escaped from the wolves The beginning of the Exodus from Egypt.
\nbut the eyes of the wolves were blinded Blindness in the Animal Apocalypse indicates ongoing sinfulness. Here it indicates that God \u201chardened the hearts\u201d of Pharaoh and the Egyptians so that they would pursue the Israelites; see Exod. 14:4, 8, 17\u201318.
\n89:22. And the LORD of the sheep went with them See Exod. 13:21.
\nand his face [was] glorious, and his appearance terrible and magnificent This passage may be a precursor to 89:26, where God\u2019s appearance frightens the Egyptians.
\n89:23. a stretch of water The Red Sea.
\n89:24. and the water stood on one side and on the other See Exod. 14:22.
\nstood between them and the wolves In Exod. 14:19\u201320 an angel of God stands between the Israelites and the Egyptians, together with a pillar of cloud. The continued intervention of God himself in the verse here avoids the incongruity of the biblical switch from God to his angel.
\n89:25. And while those wolves had not yet seen the sheep Presumably because of the pillar of cloud between them; see Exod. 14:19\u201320.
\n89:26. But when they saw the LORD of the sheep, they turned to flee before him See Exod. 14:24\u201325: \u201cAt the morning watch, the LORD looked down upon the Egyptian army from a pillar of fire and cloud, and threw the Egyptian army into a panic.\u2026 And the Egyptians said, \u2018Let us flee from the Israelites, for the LORD is fighting for them against Egypt.\u2019 \u201d
\nsuddenly resumed its natural form See Exod. 14:27.
\nuntil it covered those wolves See Exod. 14:28.
\n89:28. and they began to open their eyes and to see In contrast to blindness, \u201cseeing\u201d in the Animal Apocalypse indicates believing in God and fulfilling his commandments. The \u201copening\u201d of the Israelites\u2019 eyes depicted here begins either after the crossing of the Red Sea (Exod. 14:30\u201331) or with God\u2019s directives at Marah (Exod. 15:26).
\nand giving them water At Marah; see Exod. 15:23\u201325.
\nand grass Manna and quail; see Exod. 16:1\u201336.
\nthat sheep Moses.
\n89:29. And that sheep went up to the summit of a high rock Moses\u2019s initial ascent of Mount Sinai (Exod. 19:3).
\nand the LORD of the sheep sent it to them God gives Moses directives to transmit to the Israelites; see Exod. 19:10\u201313.
\n89:31. And all of them were afraid and trembled before him The Israelites cry to Moses that they are not able to withstand hearing the commandments directly from God; see Exod. 20:15\u201318; Deut. 5:20\u201324.
\n89:32. And that sheep \u2026 again went up to the summit of that rock Following the second ascent, referenced in Exod. 19:9\u201320:18, Moses goes up again (Exod. 24:12\u201318).
\nand the sheep began to be blinded and to go astray from the path which it had shown to them This refers to the episode of the Golden Calf in Exod. 32:1\u20136.
\nbut that sheep did not know Moses is not aware of the Israelites\u2019 sin until God informs him (see Exod. 32:7\u20138).
\n89:34. they were afraid and trembled before it The fear of the Israelites when they see Moses return is not found in the biblical account.
\n89:35. some other sheep with it The Levites; see Exod. 32:26.
\nand then began to kill them See Exod. 32:27\u201328.
\n89:36. until that sheep became a man See comment on 89:1. This may also refer to Moses\u2019s radiance as the result of his revelation on Sinai, described in Exod. 34:29\u201335.
\na house for the LORD of the sheep The Tabernacle; see Exod. 35\u201340.
\n89:37. that sheep which had met that sheep \u2026 fell asleep The death of Aaron, Num. 20:23\u201329.
\nuntil all the large sheep were destroyed and small ones rose up in their place The entire generation of the Exodus has died out, as promised in Num. 14:28\u201335. In the biblical account this is the punishment for the Israelites\u2019 initial refusal to enter the land of Canaan, a sin not mentioned in the Animal Apocalypse.
\n89:38. separated from them and fell asleep God directs Moses to ascend Mount Nebo, where he dies (Deut. 32:48\u201352; 34:5\u20136).
\nall the sheep sought it Because God himself buries Moses, the Israelites do not know where he died or was buried. The search for Moses is a dramatic addition to the cryptic statement in Deut. 32:6, \u201cHe buried him in the valley in the land of Moab, near Beth-peor; and no one knows his burial place to this day.\u201d
\nand cried out very bitterly over it See Deut. 34:8.
\n89:39. until they left off crying for that sheep As described in Deut. 34:8b.
\nand crossed that river of water The Jordan River.
\nthere arose all the sheep The Ethiopic text has been emended by Charles and Nickelsburg to \u201cthere arose two sheep,\u201d substituting kel\u2019ehomu \u201ctwo (of them)\u201d for kwellomu \u201call (of them).\u201d The two sheep are Joshua and Eleazar, son of Aaron, who became the high priest following Aaron\u2019s death (see Josh. 14:1).
\nthose which had fallen asleep Moses and Aaron.
\n89:40. a good place and a pleasant and glorious land The Land of Israel.
\nthat house The Tabernacle at Shiloh; see Josh. 18:1.
\n89:41. And sometimes their eyes were opened, and sometimes blinded, until another sheep rose up and led them This verse refers to the period of the Judges, and echoes the similarly summarizing introduction in Judg. 2:10\u201319. The introduction in Judges describes a cycle of straying, abandonment by God, suffering, salvation via a judge\/chieftain appointed by God, and a subsequent return to straying following the death of the chosen leader.
\n89:42. the dogs The Philistines.
\nthe foxes The Ammonites.
\nthe wild boars The Edomites, in particular, their relatives the Amalekites (see Gen. 36:12 and the battle described in 1 Sam. 15).
\na ram Saul.
\n89:43 A Greek excerpt of the Animal Apocalypse reads: \u201cAnd this ram began to butt and pursue with its horns. And it hurled itself against the foxes and, after them, against the wild boars; and it destroyed many wild boars. And after them it [struck] (emended from \u201cdid\u201d) the dogs.\u201d In the Greek version, the fight with the \u201cfoxes\u201d signifies Saul\u2019s initial battle against the Ammonites at Jabesh-Gilead (see 1 Sam. 11). The fight with the \u201cwild boars\u201d refers to Saul\u2019s battle against the Amalekites in 1 Sam. 15. (This diverges somewhat from the biblical account, in which Saul battles extensively with the Philistines before his climactic battle with the Amalekites.) Finally, the \u201cdogs\u201d signify the Philistines, with whom Saul continues to battle throughout his rule, as does David.
\n89:44. And the eyes of that sheep were opened, and it saw that ram in the middle of the sheep, how it renounced its glory Samuel recognizes that Saul has begun to go astray.
\nand began to butt those sheep The Greek version of this verse does not mention any oppression of the Israelites on Saul\u2019s part; it refers instead to Saul forsaking his path. The \u201cstraying\u201d of Saul in the Greek version indicates Saul\u2019s incomplete fulfillment of the command to annihilate Amalek and all its livestock; see 1 Sam. 15:9\u201311, 28.
\n89:45. sent the sheep to another sheep and raised it up to be a ram God sends Samuel to David to appoint him king in place of Saul; see 1 Sam. 16:1\u201313.
\n89:46. and during all this those dogs oppressed the sheep The battles with the Philistines are ongoing; see 1 Sam. 17\u201318.
\n89:47. And the first ram pursued that second ram, and that second ram rose and fled before it Saul decides to have David killed and David flees; see 1 Sam. 19.
\nthose dogs made the first ram fall The Greek reads, \u201cit fell before the dogs.\u201d The Greek more closely reflects the biblical account, in which Saul falls on his sword to avoid being tortured and killed by the Philistines; see 1 Sam. 31:4.
\n89:48. that second ram David.
\na small sheep became ram Solomon inherits David\u2019s throne despite Solomon\u2019s relatively low place in the birth order. The following verse seems to reflect David\u2019s military excursions, and it is likely that v. 48b, referring to the death of David and the succession of Solomon, originally followed v. 49.
\n89:50. And that house became large and broad Jerusalem is expanded; the author draws from the verses at 1 Kings 3:1; 9:15, which mention that Solomon built the wall surrounding Jerusalem.
\na high tower was built on that house The Temple. On the identification of the \u201chouse\u201d and the \u201ctower\u201d in the Animal Apocalypse, see comment on 87:3.
\nthat house was low This accurately describes the state of Jerusalem both in the Solomonic era and in the earliest days of the Second Temple period, when Jerusalem did not include the high western ridge, the \u201cMishneh\u201d or \u201cUpper City.\u201d
\nthe LORD of the sheep stood on that tower God\u2019s presence is over the Temple; see 1 Kings 8:27\u201330; 9:3.
\nthey spread a full table before him The Israelites offer sacrifices. This may refer specifically to the Temple\u2019s consecration: see 1 Kings 8:64.
\n89:51. how they went astray \u2026 and left that house of theirs This passage refers to Jeroboam\u2019s establishment of the golden calves at Beth El and Dan as alternative centers of worship for the Northern Kingdom of Israel following its split from the Kingdom of Judah; see 1 Kings 12:26\u201331. The passage also encapsulates the apostasy of the Northern Kingdom during the generations that follow.
\ncalled some of the sheep \u2026 but the sheep began to kill them God sends prophets to the people, but Jezebel, the wife of Ahab, institutes the official worship of Ba\u2019al and kills off the prophets; see 1 Kings 18:4, 13.
\n89:52. but one of them was saved The prophet Elijah.
\ncried out against the sheep At Horeb, Elijah exclaims, \u201c \u2018for the Israelites have forsaken Your covenant, torn down Your altars, and have put Your prophets to the sword. I alone am left, and they are out to take my life.\u2019 \u201d (1 Kings 19:14)
\nand brought it up to me Like Enoch, Elijah ascends alive to heaven; see 2 Kings 2:11\u201312.
\n89:53. And he sent many other sheep to those sheep to testify [to them] God continuously sends prophets to warn the people of Israel and Judah.
\n89:54. they left the house of the LORD of the sheep and his tower, they went astray in everything, and their eyes were blinded The apostasy of Israel and Judah is total, and it justifies the extreme punishment that follows.
\n89:55. the lions and the tigers and the wolves and the hyenas and \u2026 the foxes This verse describes the period leading up to the destruction of the First Temple by the Babylonians. (The Assyrian exile of the Northern Kingdom is not explicitly mentioned.) The \u201clions\u201d clearly signify the Babylonians\/Chaldeans (see 89:56). The \u201cwolves\u201d have already been identified as the Egyptians (89:13\u201327); for the period to which this verse refers, see 2 Kings 23:28\u201335. The \u201cfoxes\u201d have been identified as the Ammonites (see 89:42\u201343). Nickelsburg proposes that this verse is based partially on 2 Kings 24:2, regarding the result of Jehoiakim\u2019s rebellion against King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon: \u201cThe LORD let loose against him the raiding bands of the Chaldeans, Arameans, Moabites, and Ammonites; He let them loose against Judah to destroy it, in accordance with the word that the LORD had spoken through His servants the prophets.\u201d If so, the \u201ctigers\u201d are the Arameans and the \u201chyenas\u201d are the Moabites.
\n89:56. he left that house of theirs and their tower The presence of God leaves the Temple and Jerusalem (see Ezek. 10:18\u201319; 11:22\u201323).
\ninto the hands of the lions The Babylonians.
\ninto the hands of all the animals This indicates either the dispersion of Israelites in the Diaspora, or continued torment of the exiles by the nations mentioned in the previous verse.
\n89:58. and rejoiced God\u2019s joy at the destruction of Israel and Judah, despite Enoch\u2019s plea, underlines the extreme consequences of Israel\u2019s and Judah\u2019s sins and their complete disconnection from God.
\n89:59. seventy shepherds Whether these shepherds are human or angelic has been a matter of debate. While it is unusual for the Animal Apocalypse to use human terms to refer to non-angelic characters, there is nothing to indicate that the shepherds are actually rebellious angels, as they would need to be to disobey the divine command (see 89:61). On the other hand, as Charles points out, it would be peculiar for human leaders over successive generations to be summoned before God at the same time, as they are in this verse. In addition, while it would be more usual to attribute leadership of the nations, and not of Israel, to angelic beings (see Deut. 32:8 LXX), the leadership of an angel in place of God may indicate the severity of Israel\u2019s sin; see Exod. 32:31\u201334. Finally, the shepherds eventually share the prison of the rebellious and angelic Watchers; see 90:25. It is nevertheless at least equally likely that the shepherds are the treacherous leaders of Israel. There is an extensive biblical tradition of sinning human leaders portrayed as shepherds (see Jer. 23:1\u20134; Ezek. 34; Zech. 10:3), and the shepherds and their \u201csheep\u201d suffer from a similar apostasy in 89:74. The idea that God deliberately hands over Israel to destructive shepherds who are later punished for their misdeeds clearly draws from Zech. 11:4\u201317, particularly Zech. 11:16\u201317, in a passage that seems to refer to a human leader: \u201cFor I am going to raise up in the land a shepherd who will neither miss the lost [sheep], nor seek the strayed, nor heal the injured, nor sustain the frail, but will feast on the flesh of the fat ones and tear off their hoofs. Oh, the worthless shepherd who abandons the flock! Let a sword descend upon his arm and upon his right eye! His arm shall shrivel up; his right eye shall go blind.\u201d It should be noted, however, that the identity of the shepherds as human or angelic, while important in determining the development of Second Temple thought, is less crucial for understanding the narrative flow of the Animal Apocalypse. The seventy periods during which these shepherds rule, called \u201chours\u201d by the author, are drawn from an interpretation of Jer. 25:11\u201312 and 29:10 similar to that found in Dan. 9:2, 24. According to this interpretation, the seventy years of the verses in Jeremiah refer to seventy weeks of years: 490 years. The author divides the seventy \u201chours\u201d in which the shepherds rule into four general periods of differing lengths: twelve hours, twenty-three hours, twenty-three hours, and twelve hours. However, it is not always clear at what point every period begins and ends.
\n89:60\u201364 The heavenly dialogue outlines several long-term consequences of Israel\u2019s cumulative sins. First, God will no longer be directly involved in Israel\u2019s leadership. This leadership is given over to \u201cshepherds\u201d (see comment on 89:59). Second, the coming era will be a time of destruction: not only will the shepherds destroy those who have been divinely earmarked for destruction (89:60) but they will go beyond the divine decree, destroying even those who do not deserve it (89:61). While there will be an eventual reckoning for this betrayal, God and his angels will not interfere during the seventy periods of the shepherds\u2019 leadership (89:64). What is described, then, is a period during which evil forces, particularly other nations (see below), are allowed to do their will to Israel with no impediment, physical or metaphysical.
\n89:65 The first period begins directly before the destruction of the First Temple and Jerusalem.
\n89:66. the lions and the tigers The Babylonians and the Ammonites; see comment on 89:55.
\nthe wild boars devoured with them The special mention of the Edomites\u2019 participation in the destruction draws from the description of Edom\u2019s betrayal in Obad. 11\u201314.
\n89:68. And the shepherds and their companions handed those sheep over to all the animals Israel is betrayed by her leaders (whether human or angelic) and handed over to the nations, who visit violence upon them.
\neach one of them at his time received an exact number The number of the sinners who were divinely destined for destruction (see 89:60).
\n89:69. more than was prescribed As in the divine prediction in 89:61\u201362, the shepherds go farther than their mandate allows and hand over the innocent for destruction as well.
\nI began to weep and to moan very much because of those sheep Enoch is troubled by the deaths of the innocent.
\n89:70\u201371 The careful accounting of the deaths caused by the shepherds, and the repeated report to God, emphasize that while God has temporarily ceded control of his people, his omniscience is unimpeded.
\n89:72. twelve hours This period is a short one compared to the next period of twenty-three \u201chours.\u201d If the twelve hours are meant to reflect an exact reckoning, this period covers eighty-four years.
\nthree of those sheep Two of the sheep are Zerubbabel and Jeshua (see Ezra 5:2); the third sheep may be Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 5:14, 16). Alternatively, if the author was less concerned with chronological accuracy, the third sheep may be Ezra or Nehemiah, who returned to Zion later. Nehemiah\u2019s identification as the third sheep could explain the emphasis on the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem (the \u201chouse\u201d); see Neh. 2:13\u201317.
\nthe wild boars hindered them The \u201cpeople of the land\u201d (Ezra 4:4) or Samaritans (Neh. 3:33\u201334) try to prevent the rebuilding of the Temple. Their identification as wild boars may be an attempt to link them genealogically to the Edomites, who are usually identified with boars in the Animal Apocalypse.
\n89:73. but all the bread on it [was] unclean and was not pure The initial offerings of the rebuilt Temple are not suitable for sacrifice. This description reflects the rebuke in Mal. 1:7\u20138 referring to the lately rebuilt Second Temple: \u201cYou offer defiled food on My altar. But you ask, \u2018How have we defiled You?\u2019 By saying, \u2018The table of the LORD can be treated with scorn.\u2019 When you present a blind animal for sacrifice\u2014it doesn\u2019t matter! When you present a lame or sick one\u2014it doesn\u2019t matter! Just offer it to your governor: Will he accept you? Will he show you favor?\u2014said the LORD of Hosts.\u201d
\n89:74. And besides all [this], the eyes of these sheep were blinded so that they could not see Not only are the sacrifices unsuitable, but the Judahites themselves sin.
\nand their shepherds likewise Their leaders also sin. This may explain the leaders\u2019 immediate betrayal, described in the following passage.
\nand they handed yet more of them over to their shepherds for destruction The sinning of the nation has led to more sinners being designated for destruction by the shepherds. (Alternatively, Nickelsburg proposes emending \u201ctheir shepherds\u201d to \u201cthe wild beasts.\u201d)
\n89:75. But the LORD of the sheep remained still God does not intervene, following the plan detailed in 89:59\u201364.
\nwere scattered abroad and had mixed with them This passage indicates both the dispersion of the Judahites and the intermarriage that will occur as a result of the dispersion.
\n89:76. and he entreated him on behalf of them The angel follows the instructions given to him in 89:63, noting the evil deeds of the shepherds, and also fulfills the role of angels as intercessors for humankind (see 9:3 and commentary). However, while God knows all, he does not act.
\n90:1. thirty-seven shepherds While all manuscripts read \u201cthirty-seven,\u201d it is generally agreed that this is a mistake for \u201cthirty-five.\u201d As noted above, this section reflects a chronologically symmetrical framework made up of periods of varying lengths: 12, 23, 23, 12 (see 89:72; 90:5, 17).
\nand others received them This refers to the conquering of the Persian Empire by the Macedonians. The transfer of rule marks the transition to the next era and its twenty-three shepherds.
\n90:2\u20134 Nickelsburg interprets the events described here as the wars of the first Diadochoi in 323\u2013301 BCE, which resulted in general devastation. He proposes that the eagles may represent the Ptolemies. It is difficult to ascertain the identities of the other birds.
\n90:4. by the dogs Previously, dogs signified the Philistines; it is not clear which nation the dogs denote here.
\nand they left on them neither flesh nor skin nor sinew until only their bones remained; and their bones fell upon the ground, and the sheep became few The complete desolation and ruin of the Judeans is a fitting preamble to the rise of the new generation described in v. 6.
\n90:6. and small lambs were born from those white sheep, and they began to open their eyes, and to see The new generation realizes the sins of the previous generations and abstains from their transgressions.
\nand to cry to the sheep These righteous \u201clambs\u201d attempt to convince the rest of the nation to stop sinning, but to no avail (see v. 7).
\n90:7. but were extremely deaf And so they are not able to \u201chear\u201d the rebuke of the younger generation.
\nand their eyes were extremely and excessively blinded The blindness of the sheep is such that they are unable to recognize the correct path. The terms used in this verse demonstrate the extent to which the \u201csheep\u201d of previous generations are tragically set in their sinful ways.
\n90:8\u201316 In their present form, these verses describe the period of Seleucid rule and the battles of the Maccabean revolt in 166\u2013161 BCE.
\n90:8. the ravens flew upon those lambs, and took one of those lambs This verse likely refers to the assassination of Onias III by a Seleucid official in 171 BCE. If so, the author has disregarded the internal disputes that led to this assassination described in 2 Macc. 4:31\u201334.
\n90:9. horns came up on those lambs, but the ravens cast their horns down This image depicts the rising of the Maccabees and their subsequent battles with the Seleucids. The imagery is drawn from Dan. 8:7\u20139.
\na big horn grew on one of those sheep Judah Maccabee.
\n90:10. And it looked at them, and their eyes were opened \u2026 and the rams saw it, and they all ran to it The leadership of Judah Maccabee succeeds in saving the nation from its apostasy, including even the older \u201crams.\u201d This return to the correct path will enable the end of the period of divine neglect; see vv. 14\u201315.
\n90:11. eagles and vultures These may be Egyptian and Greek mercenaries hired by the Seleucids; see 1 Macc. 6:29.
\nthe sheep were silent It is not clear why the sheep would be silent while the rams cried out. Matthew Black suggests that the correct reading here is \u201cthe sheep suffered,\u201d and that the phrase in the Ethiopic manuscripts resulted from a confusion between Aramaic \u1e25-sh-h, to be silent, and \u1e25-sh-sh, to suffer.
\n90:13. the shepherds If, as suggested above, these shepherds are wayward human leaders, this passage may refer to the royally appointed governors who resisted the Maccabees before and during the Maccabean revolt.
\nand cried out that its help might come to it Judah Maccabee calls for divine assistance. Unlike the cries of his predecessors, his call will be answered.
\n90:14. that man \u2026 and he helped that ram and showed it everything The angel charged with overseeing the sins of the shepherds comes to the aid of the Maccabees.
\n90:15. that LORD of the sheep came to them in anger God aids the Maccabees directly. The period of divine neglect of Israel has come to an end.
\n90:16. all the wild sheep The \u201cwild sheep\u201d represent apostate Jews. Alternatively, Nickelsburg has emended the unusual term \u201cwild sheep\u201d to \u201cwild beasts,\u201d a term which is common to the Animal Apocalypse and fits well in the present context.
\nand they all came together and helped one another in order to dash that horn of the ram This passage is generally understood to represent the battles of Judah Maccabee in 163\u2013161 BCE.
\n90:17. those twelve last shepherds These are the last of the 70 shepherds. The time of reckoning is nigh.
\n90:18. and the earth was split, and all the animals and the birds \u2026 sank in the earth, and it closed over them The author leaves any semblance of a realistic account, indicating that the historical aspect of the narrative has given way to a summary of the author\u2019s apocalyptic expectations. After the seventy periods of divine neglect, God directly punishes the enemies of Israel with a miraculous earthquake.
\n90:19. a big sword was given to the sheep For a similar image, see the description of Judah Maccabee\u2019s dream in 2 Macc. 15:15\u201316, in which the prophet Jeremiah gives Judah a golden sword as a gift from God to strike his enemies.
\nand the sheep went out against all the wild animals to kill them This verse seems to contradict the previous one, in which Israel\u2019s enemies were completely destroyed by God.
\n90:20. a throne was set up in the pleasant land God has returned his presence to the Land of Israel and will visit his justice directly upon the world.
\n90:21. those men, the seven first white ones The seven archangels; see 87:2.
\nto bring before him the first star As in the Book of the Watchers, 10:4\u20138, Asael (see 86:1) is punished first, although the punishment described here is the final one of the Day of Judgment, not the intermediary punishment described in 10:4\u20138.
\nthose stars whose private parts were like the private parts of horses The rest of the Watchers; see 86:3\u20134.
\n90:22. Take those seventy shepherds The punishment of the seventy shepherds, like that of the Watchers, has been suspended until the Day of Judgment. Their sin is equated with that of the Watchers, and they will share their punishment.
\n90:24. full of pillars of fire These pillars of fire are described as a feature of the Watchers\u2019 prison in the Book of the Watchers; see 18:11; 21:7.
\n90:25. that abyss of fire The shepherds share the Watchers\u2019 prison.
\n90:26. a similar abyss was opened in the middle of the earth \u2026 and they brought those blind sheep, and they were \u2026 thrown into that abyss of fire Regular sinners of Israel are thrown into a separate but similar abyss.
\nwas on the south of that house The reference is to the Valley of Hinnom, which lies to the south of ancient Jerusalem (the \u201chouse\u201d) and is the biblical site of the ritual of passing children through fire; see comment on 27:2.
\n90:28. until he folded up that old house The \u201ctower\u201d is not mentioned, and so the \u201cold house\u201d may indicate not only Jerusalem, but also the Second Temple, which is replaced by a divinely constructed Temple.
\nthe south of the land The reference is not clear.
\n90:29. a new house, larger and higher than that first one Both Jerusalem and the Temple will be rebuilt on a better and larger scale.
\n90:30. and all the animals on the earth and all the birds of heaven falling down and worshipping those sheep, and entreating them and obeying them in every command The idea that the nations will obey Israel in the end-time is also found in Dan. 7:27.
\n90:31. those three Uriel, Reuel, and Remiel; see comment on 87:2.
\nthe hand of that ram The ram is either Judah Maccabee, who may have been elevated because of his special role in the redemption, or Elijah, who ascended alive to heaven (see 89:52).
\nput me down in the middle of those sheep Enoch will be with the people of Israel to witness their return.
\n90:32. And those sheep were all white, and their wool thick and pure. The people of Israel have become righteous.
\n90:33. And all those which had been destroyed and scattered \u2026 gathered together in that house The ingathering of the dispersed exiles is a prominent theme in prophetic visions of the final era; see Isa. 27:13; Mic. 4:6\u20137; Zech. 10:8\u201310. Some have interpreted the gathering of the \u201cdestroyed\u201d as indicating resurrection of the dead (see Dan. 12:2), but it is just as likely to refer to the metaphorically \u201cdestroyed\u201d nation that has now been restored to its land. The grouping of the \u201cdestroyed\u201d together with the \u201cdispersed\u201d supports this latter interpretation.
\nand the LORD of the sheep rejoiced very much God\u2019s joy at Israel\u2019s righteousness and return to Jerusalem contrasts sharply with the divine happiness at Israel\u2019s destruction following their apostasy in 89:58.
\n90:34. and all the sheep were enclosed in that house, but it did not hold them. All of Israel will return, and will therefore overflow the bounds of Jerusalem; see Isa. 49:19\u201320; Zech. 2:5\u20139.
\n90:35. And the eyes of all of them were opened \u2026 there was not one among them that did not see In the final era, all of Israel will be righteous; see comment and note on v. 32.
\n90:37. a white bull was born The \u201cwhite bull\u201d is born only after the victory of Israel, the return of Israel to Jerusalem, and the establishment of Israel\u2019s righteous nature. After Israel\u2019s supremacy and continued righteousness is assured, this figure introduces a return of the world to an Edenic state, before there were separate nations.
\n90:38. all their species were transformed, and they all became white bulls The Gentiles are no longer separate nations, and they have all become righteous.
\na wild ox The role of the \u201cwild ox\u201d is not clear, although it appears to represent the leader of the Gentiles.
\n90:41. I wept bitterly Enoch weeps for the long period of destruction that Israel will suffer under the seventy shepherds.<\/p>\n
The Epistle of Enoch<\/p>\n
91:1. And now, my son Methuselah This chapter continues the previous testamentary framework, in which Enoch transmits his wisdom and ethical directives to his son Methuselah.
\n91:3. Love uprightness and walk in it The call to righteousness is central to the Epistle of Enoch.
\n91:5. the state of wrongdoing The state of humanity before the Flood.
\na great punishment The Flood.
\nan end will be made of all iniquity, and it will be cut off at its roots This passage refers specifically to the (brief) end of sin that follows the Flood, as in the Book of the Watchers; see 10:16.
\n91:6. all the deeds of iniquity \u2026 will prevail for a second time The cleansing of the earth from sin, accomplished through the Flood (see 10:16\u201322), does not last long.
\n91:7. a great punishment will come from heaven upon all these \u2026 to execute judgment on the earth This passage refers to the final Day of Judgment, when iniquity will again be destroyed.
\n91:9. [their] towers The temples of idol worship.
\n91:10 The Aramaic fragments indicate that the text of 91:10 differed significantly from what is found here, although the fragmentary nature of the text makes it difficult to reconstruct. Nickelsburg concludes that 91:10, as it appears in the Ethiopic text, was constructed secondarily in order to introduce vv. 91:11\u201317 after their dislocation from their original location following 93:10. For the meaning of 91:11\u201317 in its original context, see comment on 93:10.
\n91:18\u201319 The Aramaic fragments discovered at Qumran reflect a slightly different and longer version of these two verses.
\n91:18. the paths of righteousness and the paths of wrongdoing The choice between these two paths is central to Enoch\u2019s later instruction in 94:1\u20135.
\n92:1. this complete wisdom teaching This phrase does not appear in the (admittedly fragmentary) Aramaic.
\n92:2. for the Holy Great One has appointed days for all things Despite the current era of distress, the audience can take comfort in the fact that its end has been predetermined by God.
\n92:3. And the righteous man will rise from sleep This verse reflects the belief in the resurrection of the righteous on the Day of Judgment.
\n92:5. And sin will be destroyed in darkness forever The emphasis of this passage is not on the destruction of sinners, but on the reward of the righteous and on the end of sin itself.
\n93:2. the plant of righteousness and uprightness The image of the righteous of Israel as a plant raised by God can also be found in 1 En. 62:8 and 84:6, but it is particularly prominent in the Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1\u201310, 91:11\u201317); see vv. 5 and 10 below.
\nthe tablets of heaven The heavenly tablets can also be found in 81:1 and throughout the Epistle. The idea that all of history, past, present, and future, is inscribed on heavenly tablets is prominent in the introduction to Jubilees (1:26\u201329).
\n93:3. the seventh Enoch is the seventh generation from Adam.
\nin the first week \u201cWeeks\u201d in this chapter denote eras, without a clear correspondence to length.
\n93:4. in the second week great wickedness will arise Before the Flood.
\nthe first end The Flood.
\na man will be saved Noah.
\niniquity will grow Unlike the depiction of the Flood in 91:5, here there is no mention of sin ending after the Flood, even temporarily.
\nhe will make a law for the sinners This may refer to the law against eating blood dictated to Noah in Gen. 9:4. (See also Jub. 7:26\u201333, where Noah reminds his descendants of this law in order to prevent future sin and destruction.)
\n93:5. a man will be chosen as the plant of righteous judgment Abraham.
\n93:6. visions of the holy and righteous The \u201cvisions\u201d signify divine (and perhaps angelic) involvement in the Ten Plagues prior to the Exodus.
\nand a law for all generations and an enclosure will be made for them The fourth week includes both the giving of the Torah at Sinai and the building of the Tabernacle in the desert.
\n93:7. fifth week The fifth week appears to include the nation\u2019s entry into the land of Israel, but from the author\u2019s point of view the only important event of this week is the building of the Temple in Jerusalem.
\n93:8. all those who live in it [will be] blinded This short passage depicts the apostasy of Israel and Judea during the entire period from the split of the United Kingdom until the destruction of the First Temple.
\na man will ascend The prophet Elijah, who ascends alive to heaven in 2 Kings 2:11\u201312.
\n93:9. an apostate generation This refers to the generation that precedes the final age of righteousness. The author has neglected to mention the rebuilding of the Temple, presumably because the author perceived it as deficient compared to the ideal First Temple.
\n93:10. the chosen righteous \u2026 will be chosen At the dawn of the final era, the righteous of Israel will be elevated and given special knowledge. As noted above (see comment on 91:10), the verses 91:11\u201317 were originally located here as part of the Apocalypse of Weeks. The verse at 91:11 was considerably shorter in the Aramaic version that survived at Qumran. The fragment of this passage has been reconstructed and translated by J\u00f3zef Milik as: \u201cAnd they will have rooted out the foundations of violence and the structure of falsehood therein, to execute [judgment]\u201d (4QEnochg [4Q212] 1 iv.14).
\nIn the original passage (93:10, 91:11\u201317), the final era consists of several distinct stages, split into a number of \u201cweeks\u201d:<\/p>\n
1. The elevation of the righteous and the subsequent uprooting of deceit (93:10, 91:11);
\n2. the destruction of the wicked by the righteous in battle (91:12);
\n3. the rebuilding of the Temple (91:13);
\n4. the revealing of the \u201crighteous judgment\u201d to all nations\u2014all the people of the earth will be righteous (91:14);
\n5. the punishment of the Watchers (91:15);
\n6. the creation of a \u201cnew heaven\u201d that shines with a special brightness and heralds the beginning of an eternity of righteousness. Sin no longer exists (91:16\u201317).<\/p>\n
93:11\u201314 This fragmentary passage emphasizes the uniqueness of Enoch\u2019s revelation by describing the limited nature of human knowledge compared to divine wisdom.
\n93:11 The Aramaic fragment of this text (4Q212 1 v.14\u201315) indicates that there is an additional line before the beginning of this verse, although the reading is uncertain. J\u00f3zef Milik has proposed: \u201c[who is the man who] can understand the command [of God]?\u201d
\n94:1\u20135 This passage, commonly known as the \u201cTwo Ways,\u201d echoes the basic Deuteronomic principle of choosing the path of righteousness over the path of iniquity; one is life, the other is death (Deut. 30:15\u201319). The \u201cTwo Ways\u201d serves as an introduction to a series of discourses that focus on the doom of the sinner (particularly the wealthy one) and the eventual reward of the righteous.
\n94:2. to certain men from a [future] generation Enoch is referring to the generation that will receive the Torah at Sinai.
\n94:9. and are ready for the day of the outpouring of blood and for the day of darkness Despite the sinners\u2019 current wealth, they are already destined for destruction.
\n95:1. that I might weep over you Enoch does not weep for the sinners\u2019 fate, but for the actions that they have perpetrated; this is made clear in the following verse.
\n95:2. Who permitted you to practice hatred and wickedness? This is a rhetorical question, and is not presented as the theological difficulty it presents in the Book of the Watchers (9:11).
\n95:3. will again deliver them into your hands that you may execute judgment upon them as you desire The description of the final era in the Epistle includes the destruction of the wicked not only by God, but by the righteous themselves; see 91:12 and 98:12.
\n95:4. who pronounce anathemas that you cannot loose Those who pronounce magical curses that cannot be undone.
\n96:2. like satyrs This meaning of the Ethiopic term is not clear, but in the Ethiopic translation of the Bible, based on the Septuagint, the word translates \u201csirens\u201d and \u201cdaughters of sirens\u201d in Isa. 13:21 LXX and Jer. 50:39 LXX (the original Hebrew is benot ya\u2019anah \u201costriches\u201d) and \u201cdonkey-centaurs\u201d or \u201cdemons with donkey-centaurs\u201d in Isa. 34:11 LXX and 34:14 LXX (the Hebrew in Isa. 34:14 is tziyim et iyim \u201cwildcats with hyenas\u201d).
\n96:6. you have left the spring of life The \u201cspring of life\u201d is obedience to God\u2019s will; see Jer. 2:13; 17:13.
\n98:4. so sin was not sent on the earth, but man of himself created it The declaration of sole human responsibility for iniquity stands in contrast to the idea, found in the Book of the Watchers, that the Watchers caused human sin before the Flood (see 8:1\u20139:10). Here human responsibility for sin justifies the \u201cgreat curse\u201d that humans will suffer because of it.
\n98:5. because of the deeds of her hands This verse adds an important codicil. Not only is lawlessness the sole fault of humankind, but natural evil as well is solely the consequence of human actions, apparently as punishment for these actions. The choice of barrenness to illustrate this idea derives from the biblical description of barrenness and its elimination as an exclusively divine prerogative. This verse clarifies that it is ultimately the consequence of human action.
\n98:6. that all your evil deeds are revealed in heaven The lack of divine responsibility for sin and evil should not be interpreted as a lack of divine knowledge.
\n98:9. you fools Sinners. The description of sinning as foolishness is akin to the depiction of sinning as blindness in the Animal Apocalypse and elsewhere.
\n98:11. and eat blood This sin is singled out as the first prohibition given to humankind as a whole in Gen. 9:4. It is also mentioned here due to its connotation of violence; see 1 En. 7:5.
\n98:12. they will cut your throats and kill you See comment on 95:3.
\n98:13. for graves will not be dug for you As in Jer. 16:4, 6. (See also Jer. 8:2; 22:19; 25:33.)
\n99:2. who alter the words of truth, and they distort the eternal law Those who amend the words of the Torah.
\nand count themselves as being without sin Since they follow the \u201camended\u201d law.
\n99:14. the measure and the eternal inheritance of their fathers The Torah.
\n100:2. For a man will not in mercy withhold his hand from his sons \u2026 and the sinner will not withhold his hand from his honored brother The familial carnage depicted in this verse refers to the undiscriminating violence that will prevail before the Day of Judgment.
\n100:5. they will guard them like the apple of an eye until an end is made The righteous will be protected from the extreme violence that prevails before the Judgment Day.
\n100:11. for they will all be withheld from you so that they do not fall on you This is the standard biblical punishment for sinners, particularly sinning nations; see, for example, Deut. 11:17; Zech. 14:17.
\n100:12. give gifts to the rain A facetious suggestion.
\n101:1\u20139 In this passage the author uses nature to illustrate both the power of God and the consequences of disobeying him.
\n102:4\u2013103:8 These chapters present a significant theological difficulty and offer a solution. The righteous suffer in life and then die; it seems that they cannot be rewarded. Sinners, in contrast, live a prosperous life, and then die with no apparent punishment. The twofold solution that the author proposes consists of the promise of future resurrection for the pious (a mystery revealed to Enoch in the heavenly tablets) and the judgment and torment of sinners after death.
\n103:9\u2013104:6 This passage addresses a different but related difficulty: the suffering of the righteous in this world, and their lack of recourse to the leaders who should come to their aid.
\n103:11. We hoped to become the head According to the divine promise of Deut. 28:13.
\n104:1 The author promises the righteous that their actions are known and recorded and will be rewarded.
\n104:2. but now you will shine like the lights of heaven Similar imagery describing the resurrection of the righteous is found in Dan. 12:2\u20133: \u201cMany of those that sleep in the dust of the earth will awake, some to eternal life, others to reproaches, to everlasting abhorrence. And the knowledgeable will be radiant like the bright expanse of sky, and those who lead the many to righteousness will be like the stars forever and ever.\u201d
\n104:3. for [justice] will be exacted from the rulers for all your distress, and from all those who helped those who plundered you This corresponds to the judgment of the wayward shepherds in the Animal Apocalypse (90:22\u201323, 25).
\n104:9\u201313 In these verses the author bemoans the \u201cfalse\u201d books that will be written, perverting the words of the Torah. The Book of Enoch is clearly understood to be a \u201clegitimate\u201d divine book.
\n104:9. for all your lies and all your impiety lead not to righteousness, but to great sin It is apparent that those who write books \u201cin their own words\u201d (v. 10) consider them to be correct interpretations. The author addresses the misperception of these \u201csinners\u201d that their books will lead the nation to greater righteousness (a perception that bears a striking resemblance to the author\u2019s attitude toward his own composition).
\n105:1\u20132 These verses are omitted in the Greek. The Aramaic fragment seems to reflect a different version of these verses based on the length and placement of its lacunae, but the only words that have survived in Aramaic are \u201cover\/against the sons of earth,\u201d \u201cyou will (be),\u201d and \u201c[to] you [shall be] all.\u201d
\n105:2. and my son \u201cI and my son\u201d is apparently spoken by Enoch, referring to himself and to Methuselah. (Alternatively, it may be a Christian gloss.)
\n106:1 The following segment regarding Noah and his birth shares certain narrative elements with the Genesis Apocryphon. Here, however, this account is integrated into the ongoing testament of Enoch to his son Methuselah.
\n106:2. he made the whole house bright like the sun Moses is likewise described as filling the house with light at his birth in B. Sot. 12a.
\n106:6. but from the angels This doubt on the part of Lamech is depicted more explicitly in the Genesis Apocryphon, where Lamech fears that a Watcher has mated with his wife (1Q20 II.1\u20132); Lamech\u2019s wife Bitenosh is forced to remind him of the experience of Noah\u2019s conception (II.8\u201318). In the Genesis Apocryphon, as in this passage in 1 Enoch, Lamech asks Methuselah to consult with Enoch before he can be convinced (II.19\u201321). Enoch\u2019s position in heaven gives him access to angelic doings, so he will be able to provide Lamech with accurate information regarding Noah\u2019s origins.
\n106:13. will do new things Following the Ethiopic; the verse that has survived in Greek reads \u201cwill renew his commandment.\u201d The Greek version relates to the covenant with Noah following the Flood.
\nin the generation of my father Jared On the connection between the Watchers and the generation of Jared, see comment on 6:6.
\nfrom the height of heaven Following the Ethiopic; the Greek reads \u201cfrom the covenant of heaven\u201d; both texts refer to the sin of the Watchers.
\n106:17. not of spirit, but of flesh The giants are barely described, but appear not to be the mix of spiritual and physical that they are portrayed as in 15:8\u20139. (In the Greek version, the phrase \u201cnot of spirit, but of flesh\u201d appears at the conclusion of v. 14 and not in v. 17.)
\n106:18. for he will be a remnant for you Following these words the Greek version contains an additional phrase, \u201cfrom whom you will find rest.\u201d This etymology of Noah is based on nua\u1e25, \u201crest,\u201d an easier fit than the biblical etymology of Noah based on n-\u1e25-m, \u201ccomfort\u201d (Gen. 5:29). However, it contradicts the etymology provided for Noah in 107:3.
\n107:3. for he will comfort the earth after all the destruction This follows the biblical etymology in Gen. 5:29, except that in the Genesis passage Noah comforts humanity in the face of ongoing labor, the result of Adam\u2019s sin. Here Noah comforts the earth following the destruction that ensues from the Watchers\u2019 sin and from the general iniquity of humankind.<\/p>\n
Another Book by Enoch<\/p>\n
108:1. for those who should come after him and keep the law in the last days That is, the Second Temple period audience of this book.
\n108:3. for their names will be erased from the books of the holy ones The idea that the righteous are inscribed in a heavenly book is biblical; see Exod. 32:32 and especially Ps. 69:29, and cf. Isa. 4:3 and Dan. 12:1.
\n108:6. and of those who alter everything which the LORD has spoken See 104:9\u201311.
\n108:9. and the LORD tested them much An explanation of the evil that has befallen the righteous.
\n108:10. yet they blessed me The righteous passed the test and continued to bless God despite their woes; see Job 2:10.
\n108:11. who in the flesh were not recompensed with honor The righteous did not receive their reward during their lifetimes. This will be corrected in the Final Judgment.<\/p>\n
Apocalypse of Abraham<\/p>\n
Alexander Kulik<\/p>\n
Apocalypse of Abraham consists of two main sections, distinguished by genre, and according to some opinions, originally independent. The two sections, \u201caggadic\u201d and \u201capocalyptic,\u201d nevertheless make up a coherent narrative presenting a prehistory and expansion of the biblical story of Abraham\u2019s covenant with God (Gen. 15). In many instances, the parts share themes and style.
\nThe aggadic section concerns Abraham\u2019s rejection of idolatry. Having experienced the weakness of helplessly damaged idols. Abraham comes to the conclusion that idols are weaker than men, their makers; that they cannot help themselves and, therefore, cannot help those who worship them. The event ends with a monotheistic conclusion, which leads to a revelation and a divine intervention.
\nThe following, apocalyptic part, contains the descriptions of the \u201cCovenant Between the Pieces\u201d and of the ascension to heaven, including the apocalypse itself. The revelation, introduced already at the conclusion of the aggadic prehistory, continues with God\u2019s command on sacrifice. The fulfillment of the sacrifice is followed by the ascension to heaven, where Abraham sees visions, which leads him to ask about the existence of evil in the world. In the last chapters, Abraham is shown the future of his progeny.<\/p>\n
Authorship and History<\/p>\n
The Hebrew or Palestinian Aramaic original of Apocalypse of Abraham is presumed to have been composed in Palestine in the early centuries of the Common Era. There are no reliable data on this, but common opinion attributes it to the decades following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (based on the description of the destruction of the Temple in 27:1\u20135). Nevertheless, Apocalypse might have been composed, with at least equal probability, in the late Second Temple period. The earliest reliable external evidence for its dating is contained in the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions 32\u201333 (3rd\u20134th century). Both the contents and linguistic features of the document display its undoubtedly Jewish origin, while the specifically Essene milieu suggested by some scholars is not so obvious. The same is true of supposedly dualistic (gnostic) and Christian interpolations and glosses. Some of these were recognized as such due to a misinterpretation of the text.
\nApocalypse has come down to us in East Slavic copies dating from the 14th century onward. In accordance with a very common pattern, these copies go back to an original translation in South Slavic, which, as Lunt has shown, may date to the 10th\u201311th centuries. A relatively full text of Apocalypse is found in six manuscripts that date from the 14th to 17th centuries.
\nIn fact, paradoxically, the very obscurity of the text often helps us to get closer to its lost original, since this obscurity is often a result of a series of slavishly literal renderings in the translation. Like nearly all early Slavonic literary texts, Apocalypse was translated from the Greek, which may be confirmed by the long lists of Hellenisms, that is, linguistic elements that reflect an underlying Greek text. However, features that may indicate the existence of a Hebrew or Aramaic original have been preserved even at the Slavonic stage of its transmission. The abundance of obviously Semitic characteristics in the document have led some to raise the possibility of direct translation from Hebrew into Slavonic.
\nThe existence of a Hebrew or Aramaic original is quite possible, since the literal renderings of Hebrew or Aramaic are attested on different linguistic levels, and the reconstruction of Hebrew and Aramaic forms often helps to clarify difficulties of the Slavonic text. While the Semitic origin might be considered proven, the problem of choice between a Hebrew or Aramaic original cannot be solved unequivocally. At the time of its writing, elements of both languages could be mixed in a single text. The only obvious Aramaic forms that we will see are Aramaic names (which coexist with Hebrew ones; see comments on 1:3; 5:5). Some elements of syntax and phrasing may reflect an Aramaic original as well as a Hebrew one. In very rare cases there are Hebrew forms that are impossible or unattested in Aramaic.
\nThe history of the scholarship on Apocalypse involves more than 100 years of largely fragmentary research abounding in translations based on incomplete evidence and short surveys based on these translations. The work was introduced to Western readers in 1897 by Gottlieb Nathanael Bonwetsch. His German translation also contained an apparatus based on four manuscripts. Since then, Apocalypse has been translated into English, French, and some other languages; in recent decades important critical studies have appeared. Our study is possible thanks to the publications of critical editions by Philonenko-Sayar and Philonenko in 1981 and by Rubinkiewicz in 1987 (see \u201cSuggested Reading\u201d).<\/p>\n
Significance<\/p>\n
Along with 2 Enoch and the Ladder of Jacob, Apocalypse of Abraham is one of the most significant early Jewish writings to have been preserved solely in translation into Slavonic. Its lost Hebrew (or, less probably, Palestinian Aramaic) original may be defined as one of the earliest Jewish mystical writings and a representative missing link between early apocalyptic and medieval hekhalot traditions. Although surviving only in a secondary medieval translation, it may, nevertheless, be considered a faithful witness to Second Temple Judaism, preserving many unique motifs and significantly elucidating the history of Hellenistic Jewish thought and the ancient roots of medieval mysticism.<\/p>\n
GUIDE TO READING<\/p>\n
The translation below follows mostly the Codex Sylvester (MS Syl), taking into account all relevant readings from other manuscripts. In the commentary, I have tried to focus on the problems specific to Apocalypse, without raising questions common to the apocalyptic genre as a whole, which are dealt with in the commentaries to older apocalyptic works elsewhere in these volumes. References to the editions, translations, and commentaries to Apocalypse give the verse under discussion without noting the page. I do not provide references when interpretation or commentaries are based on my book of 2004\u20132005.<\/p>\n
SUGGESTED READING<\/p>\n
Box, George H., and Joseph I. Landsman. The Apocalypse of Abraham. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1918.
\nDean-Otting, Mary. \u201cThe Apocalypse of Abraham.\u201d In Heavenly Journeys: A Study of the Motif in Hellenistic Jewish Literature, 248\u201361. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1984.
\nGinzberg, Louis. \u201cAbraham, Apocalypse of.\u201d The Jewish Encyclopedia, 1:91\u201392. New York, London: Funk and Wagnalls, 1901\u20131906.
\nKulik, Alexander. Retroverting Slavonic Pseudepigrapha: Toward the Original of the Apocalypse of Abraham. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature: 2004; Leiden: Brill 2005.
\nLunt, Horace G. \u201cOn the Language of the Slavonic Apocalypse of Abraham.\u201d Slavica Hierosolymitana 7 (1985): 55\u201362.
\nPennington, A. \u201cThe Apocalypse of Abraham.\u201d In The Apocryphal Old Testament, edited by Hedley F. D. Sparks, 363\u201392. Oxford: Clarendon, 1985.
\nPhilonenko-Sayar, Belkis, and Marc Philonenko. L\u2019Apocalypse d\u2019Abraham (= Semitica 31). Paris: Librairie d\u2019Am\u00e9rique et d\u2019Orient Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1981.
\nRubinkiewicz, Ryszard. \u201cThe Apocalypse of Abraham.\u201d Revised and noted by H. G. Lunt. In The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth, 1:689\u2013705. Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1983\u20131985.
\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. L\u2019Apocalypse d\u2019Abraham en vieux slave [The Apocalypse of Abraham in Slavonic]. Lublin: Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des Lettres et des Sciences de l\u2019Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Lublin, 1987.
\nTurdeanu, Emil. \u201cL\u2019Apocalypse d\u2019Abraham en slave.\u201d Journal for the Study of Judaism 3 (1972): 153\u201380. Reprint: Apocryphes slaves et roumains de l\u2019Ancien Testament, 173\u2013200. Leiden: Brill, 1981.<\/p>\n
COMMENTARY<\/p>\n
1:1. On the day when I was carving the gods of my father Terah Terah is described as an idol maker in Jub. 12; Tanna de-Vei Eliyahu 2:25; and Gen. Rab. 38:13. Abraham himself is depicted as making an idol with his father in S. Eli. Rab. (= Dibrei Yemei Yerahmiel) 33. The Slavic word translated here as \u201ccarve\u201d might have rendered a Greek word meaning \u201cdestroy\u201d: Abraham destroys idols in Apoc. Ab. 1:6; 2:9; 5:6\u20137; and 8:5\u20136 and other sources. According to Lunt, this word might also mean \u201cguard.\u201d
\n1:2\u20133. at the time when my lot came up \u2026 having entered their temple for the service Having finished the \u201csacrificial services\u201d outside the temple, Abraham enters the temple to continue the service inside. This description precisely follows the order of the Second Temple daily morning tamid service as it is described in the Mishnah: first, priests cast lots (M. Yoma 2:1\u20134; M. Tam. 1:1\u20132; cf. also Luke 1:9); then they sacrifice in front of the sanctuary (M. Tam. 1\u20135), finishing their service inside (M. Tam. 6). Cf. the evocation of priestly lots in similar context in later midrash: \u201cAfter a time, the lot fell to Terah to go and serve idols for the wicked Nimrod.\u201d Cf. the similar anachronistic \u201c[time] of evening offering\u201d in Apoc. Ab. 13:2. For other evocations of the Temple and its service, see 25:4; 27:1\u20135; 29:18. It is less probable that by the words \u201cI had finished the services of my father Terah\u2019s sacrifice\u201d Abraham means his rejection of idol worshiping. In this case, the \u201clot\u201d would mean the divine choice. This interpretation goes well with the second variant of the interpretation of the first verb\u2014\u201cdestroy\u201d (see comment on Apoc. Ab. 1:1); thus, the first two verses tell us that it was the day when Abraham was destroying the gods while testing them (cf. 1:6; 2:9; 5:9), and had ceased serving them when the lot of heavenly choice fell upon him.
\n1:3. Mar-Umath This stone idol, like Dagon in 1 Sam. 5:3\u20134, is found prostrate in his sanctuary, and after an attempt to put him back, his head breaks off. Its Aramaic name means \u201cthe lord of the nation(s).\u201d There are other names of deities derived according to the same model: the Aramaic Mar Ilahi, \u201clord of gods,\u201d and the Akkadian Mar Beiti, \u201clord of house.\u201d Cf. the Aramaic proper noun Bar-Eshath in Apoc. Ab. 5:5. See also comment on 1:9.
\nNakhon This Hebrew name meaning \u201cstable; firmly established\u201d is used to emphasize that this idol has not fallen, in contrast to Mar-Umath. Cf. \u201cidol that will not topple\u201d (Isa. 40:20) and \u201cthey fasten it [= idol] \u2026 so that it does not totter\u201d (Jer. 10:4). Cf. also the use of the same name in 2 Sam. 6:6, where the ark of God is going to fall before \u201cthe threshing floor of Nakhon.\u201d For the association of goren, \u201cthreshing floor\u201d (or generally \u201copen place,\u201d as in 1 Kings 22:10; 1 Chron. 18:9), with a sacred place or a place of worship see 2 Sam. 24:18; 1 Chron. 21:18, 28; and 2 Chron. 3:1, where it designates a location of David\u2019s altar and Solomon\u2019s Temple.
\n1:8. Bring me an axe and a chisel from the house It is not clear why Terah needs two cutting tools for this work. A hammer and a chisel might be meant. The latter is a hapax legomenon (unique word) izmal\u2014a Greek-Slavonic transliteration of a Hebrew izmel, \u201cchisel.\u201d
\n1:9. And he carved another Mar-Umath Cf. the description in Apoc. Ab. 3:6\u20138, which defines Mar-Umath as the idol \u201chaving a head of one stone and being made of another stone\u201d (3:8). This recalls a Roman custom of changing the heads of emperors\u2019 statues. In 38 CE images of Caligula were introduced in the Alexandrian synagogues (Philo, Leg. 20, 25, 29, 30), and he was also the first to try to bring the emperor\u2019s cult to Jerusalem, ordering his statue to be set up in the Temple. Thus, the very name \u201cLORD (of the nation)\u201d may go back to its Greek and Latin equivalents, designating a deified Roman emperor, most probably Caligula (cf., e.g., Acts 25:26). Negative accounts of Caligula in other Jewish sources from the same period are found in Sib. Or. 12:50\u201367 and possibly in 3 Macc. 2:22, where the deified Ptolemy, very likely identified in this composition with Caligula, also falls, having entered the Temple. In any case, the tradition of the fall (= disgrace) of an idol or a deified figure is much older; cf. the same sequence of events in Apoc. Ab. 1:3, 6 and 1 Sam. 5:3\u20134.
\n2:3. kokonil This unique word is most probably a result of corrupted Greek \u201cNile\u2019s grain.\u201d
\nAnd behold, merchants from Paddan-aram came with camels The verse is borrowed almost verbatim from Gen. 37:25.
\n2:9. Gur Meaning is unclear. Cf. Arab \u01e7\u016bra, \u201cbottom, depression, depth\u201d (also figuratively).
\n3:2. What is the profit of the labor that my father is doing? The verse refers to Eccles. 1:3: \u201cWhat real value is there for a man in all the gains he makes beneath the sun?\u201d
\n3:8. And I said to myself Literally, \u201cand I said to my heart\u201d\u2014a Hebrew idiom (cf. Gen. 8:21; 24:45; 1 Sam. 27:1), which, unlike \u201cto say in one\u2019s heart,\u201d was reproduced neither in Targums nor in the Septuagint (LXX) and thus may point to a Hebrew rather than Aramaic original.
\n4:2. for you gave honor to the gods Literally, \u201cfor you brought the price of the gods.\u201d A Greek equivalent of this Slavic phrase means not only \u201cbring the price\u201d but also \u201cgive honor.\u201d
\n4:5. I was for you a kind god of this gain The verse\u2014in the tradition of biblical parallelism\u2014corresponds to the idea of Apoc. Ab. 4:3.
\n5:4. on my left Or \u201cin my left hand.\u201d For the symbolic meanings of \u201cleft\u201d and \u201cright\u201d sides in the apocalyptic section, see 21:7 and 27:1.
\n5:5. Bar-Eshath Aramaic \u201cthe son of fire\u201d or rather \u201cfiery.\u201d Cf. Mar-Umath in 1:3. The similar name Eshat is attested for the Ugaritic goddess of fire. Philo of Byblos also lists three Phoenician gods of fire, translating their names into Greek as Phos, Pur, and Phlox (Phoenician History, as given in Eusebius). The name Bar-Eshath is quite appropriate to the function of this idol in the story: having been made of wood, he maintains the fire but eventually is burned by it.
\n5:10. Laughing greatly to myself I said It may also be translated: \u201cLaughing greatly I said to myself.\u201d However, the first variant, which is no less grammatically correct, goes better with the parallel verse of Gen. 18:12: \u201cAnd Sarah laughed to herself, saying.\u201d
\n5:13. And I gave him wine and milk The combination is known also from the Bible; see Gen. 49:12; Isa. 55:1; Joel 4:18; Song of Sol. 5:1. Greeks drank this mixture, called oinogala\/oiogala.
\n5:17. Great is the power of Bar-Eshath! Cf. Ps. 147(146):5 LXX and Nah. 1:3 LXX: \u201cgreat is his [God\u2019s] power!\u201d
\n6:1. and [yet] groaned in the bitterness and anger of my soul The same Hebrew idiom occurs in the apocalyptic section: \u201cthrough groaning of the bitterness of their soul\u201d (Apoc. Ab. 29:15). For the closest parallels to 6:1, see Job 7:11 in the Masoretic Text (MT): \u201cI will complain in the bitterness of my soul\u201d (LXX differs) and Job 10:1; cf. also Isa. 38:15; Ezek. 27:31; and Prov. 14:10.
\n6:3. Or would he have subordinated his body to his soul, his soul to his spirit, then his spirit\u2014to folly and ignorance This description is reminiscent of Philo\u2019s (originally Platonic) views on the tripartite hierarchical nature of the soul, which consists of the highest, rational part nous (intellect) and two spiritual parts of different grades; see, for example, Alleg. Interp. 1.12\u201313. The psycologocal trichotomy expressed in the hierarchy of neshamah\u2013nefesh\u2013ruah (all meaning \u201csoul, spirit\u201d) might be common to both the Bible and Rabbinic thought. Similar ideas were also developed in medieval Jewish thought (cf., e.g., Saadia Gaon, Emunot ve-De\u2019ot, 6). Thus, here \u201cfolly and ignorance\u201d (from Eccles. 1:17) must stand in place of nous; otherwise we are dealing here with a diarchic soul structure, also well attested. Another possibility is that the Hebrew nefesh here was just a reflexive form\u2014\u201chimself\u201d (it is rendered literally in some Jewish Greek texts). Considering that literally \u201csubordinate one\u2019s soul\u201d in Rabbinic sources means \u201cbind oneself, make oneself responsible,\u201d and \u201cspirit of folly\u201d means \u201cfolly, madness,\u201d we can reconstruct the Hebrew as \u201che bound himself to folly.\u201d Thus, these three concepts\u2014\u201csoul\/himself,\u201d \u201cspirit,\u201d and \u201cfolly\u201d\u2014might be brought into hierarchic relationships by later copyists or translators.
\n6:4. Must one put up with evil The alternative reading may be: \u201cOnce it is necessary to suffer heavily.\u201d
\nLet me risk my life for purity Literally, \u201clet me throw my mind on the purity.\u201d The Hebrew idiom \u201cthrow the soul\/oneself,\u201d meaning \u201crisk one\u2019s life,\u201d was literally reproduced in Judg. 9:17 LXX. Cf. also the Rabbinic Hebrew \u201cput one\u2019s soul,\u201d meaning \u201cdedicate oneself.\u201d \u201cPurity\u201d must be opposed here to the impurity of idols, the idea found in the Bible and developed in Rabbinic writings (cf., e.g., Gen. 35:2; M. Shab. 9:1). On the concept of ritual purity\/impurity in Apocalypse, see 9:5 (\u201cpure sacrifice\u201d); 13:3, 4 (\u201cimpure bird\u201d); 13:8 (earth as \u201cthe dwelling place of your [Azazel\u2019s] impurity\u201d).
\n6:7 Zoukh The name may go back to Semitic zh\u2019, \u201cbe proud,\u201d zwh\u2019, \u201cdistracted,\u201d or zh\u2019wh\u2019, \u201chaughty, high, mighty.\u201d Cf. the name Azukhan in 2 Enoch, probably derived from the same root. Greek magic papyri from Hellenistic period contain Zeoch as a god\u2019s name, while the forms Zouch, Zouki, Zouchel, and twice Zouche were identified by Preisendanz as \u201cmagic words.\u201d Actually, they may be gods\u2019 names to the same extent as Zeoch above: Zouchel has a theophoric suffix-el, and the form Zouche is identical to the Slavonic form in the oldest versions of the Apocalypse. Moreover, in PGM. 4 the name Zoukhe occurs in the prayer to Helios together with Iao (interchanged with the forms Iavo, Iavou, and Iaou), while in Apocalypse the golden god Zoukh(e) stands beside the god named Yoavon; see 6:9 and comment.
\n6:9. Yoavon The name might go back to the Hebrew combination with the theophoric prefix and aven (which means \u201cidolatry\u201d in Hos. 4:15; 5:8; etc.; Isa. 41:29; 66:3; cf. also Isa. 55:7) or, less probably, avon, \u201cwrong.\u201d Greek magic papyri, besides other gods\u2019 names and \u201cmagic words,\u201d contain the similar Iavo, Iavou, Iaou, and Iao, that are supposed to go back to the Tetragrammaton (see comment on 6:4).
\n7:1\u201312 The translation of this chapter follows mainly MS Syl (and to some extent MSS C and D). The Palaea versions contain an obviously secondary form of the text. The content of this chapter\u2014the hierarchy of gods and natural elements (beginning from 6:6)\u2014has close parallels in Hellenistic Jewish and Rabbinic writings.
\n7:2. Fire is the noblest [element] in the image [of the world] Previously understood as \u201cfire is more honorable than the things formed.\u201d In the apocalyptic part of Apocalypse, this word unambiguously designates the visionary \u201cpicture\/image\u201d of the world that was shown to Abraham; see comment on 21:2.
\n7:11. I will seek in your presence the God Cf., for example, Job 5:8: \u201cBut I would resort to God; \/ I would lay my case before God.\u201d
\n7:12. For who is it, or which one is it The same idiom occurs in Esther 7:5.
\nwho set you yourself among the elements It is also possible that the foretext contained \u201camong the angels\u201d; cf. Ps. 8:6(5) LXX: \u201cyou made him [a human] a little less than angels.\u201d
\n8:1 The last chapter of the \u201caggadic part\u201d introduces the beginning of a revelation. It starts without an angelic mediation.
\n8:4 An expansion (and motivation) of Gen. 12:1 (\u201cGo forth from your native land \u2026\u201d).
\n8:6 Abraham is saved from fire as in Josephus, Ant. 6.4\u201318, or Gen. Rab. 38:13, a motif based upon a paranomastic interpretation of the toponym Ur in Gen. 15:7: \u201cI \u2026 brought you out from Ur of the Chaldeans.\u201d
\n9:3. I am the primordial and mighty God, who initially created the two luminaries of the world God is defined here by the creation of luminaries, for they were Abraham\u2019s last candidates for gods, considered by him to be the most powerful elements of the world (Apoc. Ab. 7:8\u201310; cf. 7:12). The verse as a whole may be a transposed paraphrase of Ps. 136:7: \u201cWho made the great lights, His steadfast love is eternal.\u201d For \u201cthe luminaries of the world\u201d see 3 En. 10 and Gen. Rab. 12:5.
\n9:5\u20136 Abraham is ordered to bring a sacrifice (according to Gen. 15:9), which will enable him to \u201cknow secrets\u201d and see \u201cgreat things.\u201d The whole vision develops as a midrashic interpretation of Gen. 15.
\n9:6. secrets Literally, \u201ckept things.\u201d Cf., for example, 14:4; 1 En. 16:3; T. Jud. 16:4; Od. 8:10; Gen. Rab. 50:9; etc. Cf. also the very similar context in Hekhalot Rabbati 16:1: \u201cand I shall tell them the secrets and mysteries.\u201d Biblical Aramaic razin or razaya refers to the future events hidden in a dream (Dan. 2:8\u201329); cf. also Deut. 29:28. In Qumran texts the term relates either to (a) a hidden future, (b) natural phenomena (1QHa 1:21), or (c) \u201chidden knowledge that leads to ethical behavior\u201d (1QS 9:18\u201319; 11:3\u20136). Philo uses the word in different meanings, sometimes very similar to those of Qumran sources and sometimes borrowing from the language of the mystery religions. The Rabbis also use a modified form of this Greek term is mysterion, appearing also in a combination identical to \u201cGod\u2019s secrets\u201d in Philo or in 3 Bar. 1\u20132. \u201cGod reveals them only to righteous\u201d (Tanh. Va-yera 5). The homophonic Hebrew term designates secret places of heaven in B. Hag. 5b; Lam. Rab., intr. 24.
\nfriend Both places in the MT where Abraham is defined as a \u201cfriend\u201d (lit. \u201clover\u201d) of God (Isa. 41:8; 2 Chron. 20:7) were not rendered by nouns in the Septuagint. In other Greek sources on Abraham the word is usually philos. Cf. Philo, who calls Abraham both \u201cthe lover of God\u201d (Cherubim 2; Abraham 10) and \u201cbeloved of God\u201d (Abraham 10, 19).
\n9:9. things built and firmed, made and renewed by my word The fourth term, literally \u201crenovations\u201d may reproduce the Greek enkainia or Hebrew\/Aramaic hanukkah, \u201cconsecration\u201d; cf. Dan. 3:2; Ezra 6:16, 17; and Neh. 12:27 LXX and MT (in the last two cases the consecration of the Second Temple is meant). In John 10:22, this Greek word (as well as its Hebrew counterpart in Rabbinic sources) was used to denote the feast of Hanukkah established by Judah Maccabee at the re-consecration of the Temple during the Maccabean revolt. Thus, the other three terms may also relate to the stages of the history of Israel classified according to the destiny of the Temple: (1) \u201cBuilt\u201d\u2014\u201cbuilding\u201d or \u201cprocess of building,\u201d designating the Temple. Thus, the foundation of the Temple of Solomon may be meant; cf. the description of the celestial prototype of the Temple in Apoc. Ab. 25:4. (2) \u201cFirmed\u201d\u2014restoration of the offerings or repair of the Temple (cf., e.g., 2 Kings 12:5\u201316) by the righteous kings of the First Temple period; cf. Apoc. Ab. 27:10.: (3) \u201cMade\u201d\u2014\u201ccompletion,\u201d \u201caccomplishment\u201d\u2014building of the Second Temple. Cf. the four stages of the Jewish history in Apocalypse with the analogous triple structures in 1 Enoch and 2 Baruch. This interpretation assumes that the history of Apocalypse ended before the last destruction of the Temple.
\n10:3. Go, Yahoel, the namesake of the mediation of my ineffable name This interpretation corresponds to the meaning of Yahoel that is a combination of God\u2019s names. See B. Sanh. 38b (based on Exod. 23:20\u201321). Yahoel and Metatron, whose functions are very similar, are explicitly identified in 3 En. 48D:1. Cf. Apoc. Ab. 10:8 and comments there.
\n10:8. I am Yahoel.\u2026 I am a power in the midst of the Ineffable who put together his names in me Cf. T. Dan 6:2 and also T. Levi 5:6. For a mediator between God and humans, see also Job 9:33; Gal. 3:19\u201320; 1 Tim. 2:5; Heb. 9:15. Some scholars derive the name of Metatron from the Latin mediator.
\nIneffable Cf. \u201cineffable name\u201d in Apoc. Ab. 10:3. Most manuscripts have \u201csaid, uttered,\u201d which might mean \u201cExplicit [lit. \u2018Expressed clearly\u2019] Name,\u201d denoting the Tetragrammaton in its explicit form; cf. the use of this term in 3 En. 22:5; 48B, D:5.
\nwho put together his names in me Cf. 3 En. 48D:5: \u201cThese 70 names (are) a reflection of the Explicit Name \u2026 which the Holy One, blessed be He, took from his Explicit Name and put upon the name of Metatron.\u201d Cf. Apoc. Ab. 10:3.
\n10:9. rivalries Rivalry between heavenly creatures is a well-known motif of early Jewish literature. Metatron is known as a celestial choirmaster.
\nin the middle of man\u2019s night, at the seventh hour Both definitions relate to the same period of time: the seventh hour follows midnight according to the 12-hour structure of day and night (e.g., B. Sanh. 38b). For angels singing at night, see B. Hag. 12b; B. Avod. Zar. 3b.
\n10:10. to rule over the Leviathans An image of a biblical beast, sometimes associated with primordial Chaos (Job 3; 40\u201341; Ps. 74:14), well developed in Rabbinic tradition. A plural form must suppose a couple, as probably in Apoc. Ab. 21:4 (male and female or nahash bariah and nahash akalaton based on Isa. 27:1). Often Leviathan is attested together with another monster (usually Behemoth, sometimes considered to be Leviathan\u2019s spouse). Here, it is mentioned with Hades (Apoc. Ab. 10:11). See comment on 21:4.
\n10:11. I am ordered to unlock Hades Probably one more Chaos monster. Personified Hebrew She\u2019ol (Greek Hades) appears in Hos. 13:14 and 1 Cor. 15:55. Hades may appear independently or in pair with another creature (as here and in Rev. 6:8; 20:13\u201314). In 3 Bar. 4:4, it comes with a Serpent (Leviathan?) and probably is defined as its \u201cbelly.\u201d Hades\/She\u2019ol is known as a belly of \u201ca big fish\u201d in Jon. 2:3. She\u2019ol is described as Azazel\u2019s belly (very often identified with a Serpent; see, e.g., Rev. 12:9; 20:2) in Apoc. Ab. 31:1\u20135 (see comment on 31:5).
\n10:14. the way of earth Probably the Rabbinic Hebrew idiom derekh eretz, \u201cthe way the world operates.\u201d
\n11:2. The appearance of the griffin\u2019s body was like sapphire This reading is based on an emendation; the text was previously understood as \u201cthe appearance of his body was like sapphire.\u201d However, only the torso of Yahoel must be of a griffin-like appearance, while his head is like that of a man, according the description in 11:2\u20133 and 10:4. In contrast to Yahoel, the minor angels accompanying him in his mission to Abraham have, apparently, a human appearance; cf. Apoc. Ab. 12:9.
\n11:3. like the appearance of the bow in the clouds Cf. \u201cthe bow \u2026 in the clouds\u201d (Gen. 9:14, 16; Ezek. 1:28).
\n12:9. And give them [halves] to the two men Cf. \u201ctwo men\u201d of 2 En. 1:4\u20135. The total number of angels meeting Abraham and their functional distribution is identical to that of the story in Gen. 18\u201319 and traditional Jewish exegesis relating to it.
\n12:10. I shall ascend in order to show to you [the inhabited world] on the wings of two birds See Apoc. Ab. 15:2, where Abraham is set on a pigeon and Yahoel on a turtledove (cf. Exod. 19:4). That explains why Abraham here (as well as in Gen. 15:10) does not cut up the birds. They are supposed to function as the psychopompoi, \u201ccarriers of souls\u201d of pagan sources. The motif is unique to Apocalypse.
\nthe fullness of the inhabited world See, for example, Ps. 50(49):12; 89:12.
\n13:2. evening offering Literally, \u201cevening gift.\u201d It anachronistically designates here the time of day (before sunset, when the evening sacrifice in the Temple was offered) rather than the offering itself; see this use in Dan. 9:21, where it is obviously not connected to an actual offering (cf. also Ezra 9:4, 5).
\n13:3. an impure bird \u201cA bird of prey\u201d in Gen. 15:11 is interpreted in Apocalypse as Azazel, impersonalized Evil. Azazel plays an important role in Apocalypse: his origin is in heaven (14:4; cf. Isa. 14:12\u201315; 4Q180 1); he rules evil on earth (Apoc. Ab. 14) and tortures sinners in She\u2019ol (31); his portion is the heathen (20; 22:5); he is a serpent who seduced the first humans (23:1\u201311); he greets an anti-messiah (29).
\n13:4. where no one eats or drinks \u2026 and they will burn you up Azazel proves to be partly right: Abraham and Yahoel ascend from \u201cthe edge of the fiery flame\u201d (15:3); in heaven they find \u201ca strong light that cannot be described \u2026 [and] in this light a fire was kindled\u201d (15:5\u20136); in the Throne vision everything is either made from or covered with fire (18). Similar dangers await Moses: he cannot find food in heaven (Exod. Rab. 20:10; Pesik. Rab Kah. 26:9); angels threaten him (e.g., Pesik. Rab. 20; Exod. Rab. 42:4). There are more similarities between Moses and Abraham in the story.
\n13:11. adviser Philonenko-Sayar and Philonenko posit Aramaic y\u2019t \u201ccounselor,\u201d as a corruption of Hebrew \u2018yt, \u201cbird of prey\u201d (Gen. 15:11). It is rather an ironic rendering of Azazel\u2019s attempt to advise Abraham (Apoc. Ab. 13:4\u20135; cf. \u201cevil counselor\u201d of Nah. 1:11) or to conspire (another meaning of the same Hebrew word) against God. Cf. \u201cwho conspired [lit. \u2018counseled\u2019] against the Mighty One\u201d in Apoc. Ab. 14:4; cf. also Targum Neof. to Gen. 15, where \u201cthe impure bird\u201d designates \u201cthe kingdoms \u2026 [that] plot evil counsel against the house of Israel.\u201d
\n14:6. men born with the stars and clouds Obscure. The Greek text might have read: \u201cmen born after the stars and clouds.\u201d Cf. the two versions of Creation in Genesis: (1) the creation of stars (Gen. 1:16) is followed by the creation of animals and humankind (1:25\u201327); (2) a cloud is implied by \u201ca flow would well up from the ground and water the whole surface of the earth (2:6), which is followed by the creation of humankind (2:7, 22).
\n15:6. And behold, in this light a fire was kindled [and there was] a crowd of many people in male likeness Obscure. Cf. Apoc. Ab. 18:13, 2 En. 1[A]:5; and 2 En. 29[J]:3.
\n15:7. and shouting in a language the words of which I did not know On the special language(s) of angels, see T. Job 48:3; 49:2; 50:1, 2 (\u201cangelic dialect[s]\u201d); 1 Cor. 13:1 (\u201ctongues of angels\u201d).
\n16:1\u20132. the angel \u2026 said to me, \u201cRemain with me, do not fear! Fear of a visionary is attested also in 1 En. 14 and 2 Bar. 7:5.
\n16:3. in a great sound of kedushah The word combination \u201cin a great sound\u201d is widely used in descriptions of angelic sanctification (Sanctus\/Trisagion\/Kedushah) in hekhalot literature.
\n17:1. like a sound of many waters Cf. Ps. 93:4; Rev. 1:15; Ezra 2:24; 3:2. Cf. \u201clike great winds\u201d in Apoc. Ab. 15:4.
\nlike a sound of the sea in its uproar Cf. 18:2; and also Isa. 5:30; 17:12; Ps. 65:8.
\n17:2\u20133. And the angel bowed with me and worshipped \u2026 I wanted to fall facedown on the earth Box and Landsman posit that Abraham wanted to leave heaven and to fall back upon the earth. In fact, it is the third stage of the common biblical \u201cbow\u201d; cf. the bow of Joshua: \u201cand Joshua threw himself facedown to the ground\u201d (Josh. 5:14).
\n17:4. recite the song Cf. Apoc. Ab. 17:5, 6, 7; 18:1, 3; Judg. 5:12.
\n17:8\u201314 Some \u201cSong of Abraham\u201d is mentioned in many Jewish and Christian sources\u2014for example, in Gen. Rab. 43:9, Aggadat Song, hekhalot literature, and many lists of \u201cTen Biblical Songs.\u201d Philo identifies it with Gen. 14:22\u201323.
\n17:13. El, El, El, El The fourfold repetition of the transliterated Hebrew \u201cGod\u201d might have come as a substitution for the four letters of God\u2019s ineffable name (the Tetragrammaton).
\n17:14. You are he whom my soul has loved, the Guardian Cf. \u201che whom my soul has loved\u201d in Song of Sol. 1:7; 3:1\u20134. The prototext might also have contained \u201cYou are he whom I have loved, the guardian of my soul.\u201d Cf. Ps. 97:10; also Ps. 25:20; 86:2, etc.
\n17:18\u201319. You make the light shine before the morning light What we translated as \u201cmorning light,\u201d according to most of the manuscripts must be translated \u201cinner light.\u201d However, the latter, although attested in Jos. Asen. 6:6, has a meaning implausible in our context, while the former has more intertextual corroboration: it is a common biblical idiom (1 Sam. 25:34, 36; 2 Sam. 17:22; 2 Kings 7:9). The verse must refer to the midrashic motif of the \u201cspecial light of creation,\u201d by which God illuminated all that he created even before the luminaries had been made. The contradiction arising from the fact that the \u201clight\u201d first mentioned and the \u201cother light\u201d both emanate from God\u2019s face could be solved by the assumption that \u201cfrom your face\u201d in Apoc. Ab. 17:18 reproduces Hebrew milefanekha, \u201cfrom you.\u201d Cf. also Isa. 5:19\u201320; Gen. Rab. 3:4.
\n18.1\u201314 As in hekhalot literature, a song precedes a vision of the Throne of Glory. Here it is combined from details found in Ezek. 1 and 1 En. 14 with some additions: fire and \u201cthe sound of their kedushah\u201d; a chariot form of the Throne; fiery Wheels reciting songs; four Living Creatures with four different faces each carry the Throne and sing; they threaten each other and Yahoel reconciles them (again by teaching them a song).
\n18:11. And he taught them the song of peace [saying] that everything belonged to the Eternal One Probably Ps. 24:1 is meant: \u201cThe earth is the LORD\u2019s and all that it holds, the world and its inhabitants.\u201d
\n19.1\u20138. Look at the levels that are under the expanse \u2026 There are seven different words indicating \u201cheavenly surfaces\u201d in Apocalypse. Having been reconstructed to Greek, some of these words turn out to be architectural terms or at least may be interpreted as such among other possibilities; cf. \u201cheavenly dwellings\u201d in 17:19. The motif of visionary (usually heavenly) buildings\u2014palaces, sanctuaries, or towns\u2014already attested in Ezek. 40\u201348 became very popular in the Second Temple period, not to mention the later hekhalot literature. Abraham was shown the heavenly Temple in 2 Bar. 4 and in Mek. R. Ish., Yitro (Bahodesh 9).
\n19:3 The unique feature of Apocalypse is Abraham\u2019s exploration of the heavenly world in a downward direction as the heavens open below (and only from the seventh to the fifth). Other visionaries either moved from lower to upper firmaments or wandered in a horizontal dimension.
\n20:1\u20136 The \u201cpromise of seed\u201d comes in the inverse order to Gen. 15, where it happens before the sacrifice.
\n20:7. why \u2026 have you set yourself with him The verse was recognized as a gnostic interpolation reflecting a dualistic world outlook. Proper understanding of Abraham\u2019s first question to God helps to clarify the nature of this verse, as does the content of the further vision (Apoc. Ab. 21\u201323), which presents the answer to this question: having been assured that there is only \u201cone Power\u201d in heaven (cf. 19:3: \u201con no single level is there any other but the one whom you have searched for or who has loved you\u201d), Abraham wonders at the existence of Azazel in the world, since this \u201cPower\u201d has no part in heaven (\u201cwhile he is now not before you\u201d [20:7])\u2014that is, the question on the existence of evil in a monotheist world, the dualistic doctrine of \u201cTwo Powers\u201d frequently alluded to in Rabbinic literature.
\n21:1\u20137 Abraham is shown the whole earth according to Ezekiel the Tragedian.
\n21:2. likeness of heaven Or \u201cimage of heaven.\u201d Cf. \u201cpicture\u201d (obrazovanie) in 22:1, 3, 5; 23:1, and many other instances; \u201clikeness of heaven\u201d (Massekhet Hekhalot, MS Parma 5a, 21); cf. also Job 4:16 MT and LXX. Hebrew mar\u2019eh was widely used with the meaning of \u201cprophetic vision\u201d in the books of Ezekiel and Daniel. Most of the vision is shown to Abraham on a kind of a \u201cvisionary screen\u201d (or pargod, \u201cveil,\u201d as it was called in hekhalot literature).
\n21:4. Leviathan and his spouse Literally, \u201cLeviathan and his domain,\u201d however Ginzberg suggests that the Hebrew qn\u2019tw, \u201chis spouse,\u201d might have been confused with qnynw, \u201chis domain.\u201d See comment on Apoc. Ab. 10:10.
\n21:5. rivers and their overflows Cf. \u201coverflow of the Jordan\u201d (Jer. 12:5; 49:19; 50:44; Zech. 11:3) or \u201coverflow of your waves\u201d (Job 38:11).
\n21:6. the tree of Eden and its fruits In the Bible there is only the plural \u201ctrees of Eden\u201d (Ezek. 31:9). Here the Tree of Life must be meant.
\n21:6. those who act righteously Or: \u201cthose who do justice\u201d; cf., for example, Gen. 18:19; Jer. 9:23; Ps. 106:3; 119:121. The translation may vary depending on whether this definition relates to men who \u201cdo justice\u201d (as in Apoc. Ab. 31:4, or to the highest powers who \u201cdo justice\u201d: in the Bible osei tzedakah is used both with God and humans.
\n22:2. This is my will for existence in design The idea of pre-creation might be meant; cf. the continuation of the verse and Pr. Jos. A.1.
\n22:4. who are destined to be after you similar to \u201cthat are set apart for you\u201d of Apoc. Ab. 24:1, which definitely relates to \u201cthe peoples \u2026 from your progeny\u201d (24:1). Cf. \u201cyour offspring to come\u201d of Gen. 17:7\u20138. Our verse might speak on the division of peoples into two groups, and Apoc. Ab. 22:5 provides details on the second group. This verse 4 may be translated also as follows: \u201cThese who are on the left side are a multitude of tribes who were before and [those] are destined to be after you: those for judgment and justice, these for revenge and perdition at the end of the age.\u201d Understood this way, the text says that all the heathen will be punished. The following translation is also syntactically possible: \u201cThese who are on the left side are a multitude of tribes who were before. And after you they are destined: some for judgment and justice, others for revenge and perdition at the end of the age.\u201d But in this case there is a double indication of the time of judgment: \u201cafter you\u201d and \u201cat the end of the age.\u201d
\n23:7. a serpent in form, but having \u2026 wings on its shoulders: six on the right side and six on the left Sammael (Satan), often identified with a serpent, had 12 wings according to Pirke R. El. 13.
\n23:10. This is the reason of men, this is Adam, and this is their desire on earth, this is Eve Apocalypse might refer here to an allegorical conception very close to Philo\u2019s, according to which Adam and Eve symbolize correspondingly \u201creason\u201d and \u201cpassion\u201d; see Philo, Alleg. Interp. 2.10.14; Heir 11. This dichotomy is found also in 4 Macc. 2. For another of Philo\u2019s conceptions reflected in Apocalypse, see comment on 6:3. Other examples of allegorical exegesis occur in chapters 24\u201325.
\n24:8. bareheaded men against me This has also been translated as \u201cnaked men, the foreheads against each other.\u201d On the basis of this interpretation, the verse is understood as speaking of the nakedness of Adam and Eve or alternatively condemning homosexuality.
\nand their shame and the harm against their fellows This may be translated as \u201cthe passion toward each other.\u201d Kugel posits a corruption at the Hebrew stage of transmission: erom (\u2018rwm), \u201cnaked,\u201d from edim (\u2018dym), \u201cwitnesses,\u201d which allows verses 24:5\u20139 to be seen as referring to the violation of the last five prohibitions of the Ten Commandments (murder, adultery, theft, false witness, and covetousness).
\n25:1 This verse is a combination of Ezek. 8:5 and 40:3 (according to LXX or rather Dan. 10:6).
\nas a likeness of a craftsman\u2019s [work] Cf., for example, Exod. 35:35 or Jer. 10:9; Hos. 13:2. There is a contradiction in the text: the idol is described as a \u201ccraftsman\u2019s work\u201d being at the same time \u201cof shining copper.\u201d The lost Greek text must have contained tekton, \u201ccraftsman\u201d (Hebrew harash), with a meaning much wider than \u201ccarpenter.\u201d
\ncopper Or bronze.
\n25:4. the sanctification of the name of my glory As separate phrases, \u201cthe sanctification of the name\u201d and \u201cthe name of glory\u201d (cf. Ps. 72:19; Neh. 9:5) are each well attested, denoting important concepts of Rabbinic thought. The first, \u201csanctification of the name,\u201d in addition to more general meanings may refer to the Trisagion from Isa. 6:3, as well as the whole third benediction of the Amidah containing the Trisagion (see, e.g., M. RH 4:5). The word \u201chonor\u201d (kavod) occurs in the Trisagion itself, as well as in the second response of the third benediction (Ezek. 3:12). The original might have contained \u201cthe sanctification of my name and my glory\u201d (possibly relating to the first two responses of sanctification; cf. J. Ber. 5:4 speaking about the morning Shema benedictions in which only the first and the second responses are introduced).
\nprayer of men Literally, \u201cprayer of male.\u201d Cf. Num. 24:3, 15; 2 Sam. 23:1, and Prov. 30:1.
\ngathering of kings and prophets Cf. \u201cband of prophets\u201d in 1 Sam. 10:5, 10; 19:20.
\n25:6. a testimony of the close of the judgment in the end of the creation Or \u201cthe appointed time of the final judgment.\u201d Cf. \u201cthe time appointed for the end\u201d (Dan. 8:19).
\n26:5. so also the will desired by me is inevitable in coming days that you will not know in advance Cf. Eph. 1:11: \u201cpredestined according to the purpose of him who does all things according to the will desired by him.\u201d We are dealing here with the Rabbinic conception of free will combined with the inevitability of God\u2019s will (predetermination); cf. M. Avot 3:5: \u201cEverything is predestined, but freedom is given.\u201d The same idea is probably reflected also in Pss. Sol. 9:4; cf. also the testimony of Josephus on Pharisaic beliefs in J.W. 2.8.14.
\n27:1. a heathen people went out from its left side The left side in Hebrew is regularly associated with the north. Hebrew sm\u2019ol, \u201cleft,\u201d is connected to \u201cnorth\u201d both etymologically and semantically, according to its use in the MT. Babylon is called a \u201cnorthern land\u201d in the books of Jeremiah and Zechariah, as a rule, in the context of the destruction of the First Temple and Babylonian exile. The definition of the campaign of Nebuchadnezzar as an invasion from the north is a theme of the book of Jeremiah..
\non the right side Or \u201cin the right land.\u201d
\n27:3. four hosts Cf. Apoc. Ab. 28:4. There is a midrashic story of four angels burning the First Temple. Four angels represent four kingdoms in Lev. Rab. 29:2 and parallels; and the four kingdoms carry out or mark God\u2019s punishment of Israel in Abraham\u2019s vision according to Tg. Neof. to Gen. 15:12. \u201c[Angelic] camps of Shekhinah\u201d and particularly \u201cfour camps of Shekhinah\u201d are found in 3 En. 18:4; 37:1.
\ncarried away Or \u201cplundered.\u201d The former meaning of the verb is more appropriate if those carrying away the holy things are \u201cangels\u201d and not \u201cheathens.\u201d This interpretation corresponds to the accounts of 2 Bar. 6:7; 4 Bar. 3; 2 Macc. 2:4\u20138; etc., in which holy accessories of the destroyed Temple were carried away by angels.
\n27:5. And some they are killing, and others they are holding as sojourners Cf. the descriptions of the \u201cBabylonian captivity\u201d in 2 Kings 25:11; Jer. 39:9; 52:15. There are further descriptions in this chapter that are characteristic only of the First Temple destruction (cf. comments on Apoc. Ab. 27:1). They are especially interesting in the light of the attempts to date the document based on the assumption that these verses speak of the destruction of the Second Temple. In 27:4 Israel is \u201cbrought away by the multitudes of peoples,\u201d while the participation of neighboring peoples in the destruction of the First Temple is commonly reported not only in the Bible, but also in Rabbinic literature. In Apoc. Ab. 27:7, it is stated that the Temple was destroyed \u201cbecause of the idol and the murder that you saw in the picture in the temple of jealousy.\u201d On the destruction of the First Temple because of idolatry, murder, and fornication (in contrast to the Second Temple, which was destroyed for other reasons), see B. Yoma 9b; B. Ta\u2019an. 5a\u2013b; and other Rabbinic sources. In some sources, specifically the murder of prophets, which happened in the Temple itself (esp. Zechariah), is meant (cf. Apoc. Ab. 27:7: \u201cthe murder \u2026 in the temple of jealousy\u201d). This motif is developed also in Christian tradition, based on Matt. 23:35. For more internal evidence on the date of Apocalypse, see comments on 1:9 and 9:9.
\n27:10\u201312 The verses are very obscure. They speak, apparently, of the varying generations of righteous kings and their unrighteous descendants (cf. 9:9 and comment there).
\n28:5. agreement Or \u201creproach.\u201d
\n29:8. laxity Or \u201cwillfulness.\u201d \u201cRelief\u201d or \u201cliberation\u201d is also possible. The word is a key definition of the messianic figure appearing in this chapter. Previous interpretations of the word were conditioned by the belief that most of the chapter is a Christian interpolation, and the figure introduced in it is Jesus. The negative terms might relate to a pseudo-messiah; cf. \u201claxity [= neglect] of the Law\u201d (Lam. Rab. 1:4) or \u201claxity of hands in upholding the Law\u201d (Midr. Tanh., Be-shallah 25). We suppose that the eschatological scenario of Apoc. Ab. 29 might have the well-known Jewish eschatological duo-messianic structure (in this case: anti-messiah versus true messiah). This assumption helps to remove contradictions in the description of the messianic figure: in 29:4\u20138 the text speaks of an anti-messiah (known as Beliar, Belial, or Malki-Resh\u2019a in the Pseudepigrapha and Qumran documents; as Armilus in Tg. Isa. 11:4 and later Jewish sources; and as Antichrist in the New Testament); \u201cgoing out from the left side of the heathen\u201d (Apoc. Ab. 29:4) and \u201cworshiped by the heathen with Azazel\u201d (29:7), while in 29:9 and in the first clause of 29:10 the true messiah \u201cfrom your [Abraham\u2019s] seed\u201d is meant. Our translation of 29:10 is also based on this assumption. For other attempts to reject Christian interpolations in Apocalypse, see Licht and Hall.
\n29:13. tempt Or \u201ctest\u201d without negative connotations.
\n29:17. by number Literally, \u201cin number.\u201d It may mean \u201cby [exact] count\u201d (Deut. 25:2; 2 Sam 2:15; etc.) or \u201cin [prescribed] number\u201d (Num. 29:18; Ezra 3:4).
\n29:18. sustained by the sacrifices and the offerings of justice and truth Cf. \u201csustain with food\u201d (e.g., Judg. 19:5, 8; Ps. 104:15) and \u201csacrifices of justice\u201d (Deut. 33:19; Ps. 4:6; 51:21). This means that \u201cthe righteous men\u201d (Apoc. Ab. 29:17) will feed on the sacrifices like priests\u2014an interpretation that goes well with other manifestations of the special importance of the Temple and sacrifices for the author of Apocalypse (cf. 1:2\u20133; 9:9; 25:4; 27:1\u20137).
\n30:4. violence Or \u201cneed.\u201d \u201cViolence\u201d occurs in the description of 12 plagues in 2 Bar. 27:11.
\n30:5. their native land Literally, \u201cthe inhabited world of their kin.\u201d Cf., for example, Gen. 31:13; Ruth 2:11; Jer. 22:10; Ezra 2:15.
\n30:6. in their domains Or \u201camong their rulers.\u201d
\n31:5. in the womb of the Evil One\u2014the belly of Azazel An alternative interpretation is \u201cin the womb of the cunning worm Azazel,\u201d influenced apparently by 31:3 (\u201cthe contents of a worm\u2019s belly\u201d). Actually, Satan\/Azazel is called \u201cserpent\u201d (Rev. 20:2) or \u201cdragon\u201d (Rev. 12:9), but never \u201cworm.\u201d Hades as a dragon\u2019s belly appears in 3 Bar. 4:4 (see comment on Apoc. Ab. 10:11). The epithet \u201cEvil One\u201d (cf. \u201cEvil Adversary\u201d in 24:5) as a common substitute for Satan in early Christian sources (e.g., Matt. 13:19, 38) is familiar also in Jewish tradition; cf. \u201cEvil One\u201d of 1 En. 69:15 and B. Bava Batra 16a, where it is stated that \u201cevil\u201d in Job 9:24 refers to Satan.<\/p>\n
Melchizedek<\/p>\n
Joseph L. Angel<\/p>\n
Melchizedek is a fragmentary exegetical work from the Dead Sea Scrolls collection (11QMelch) that may be classified as a thematic pesher. The author quotes or alludes to biblical passages and reveals their true hidden meaning in connection with his main theme: the eschatological victory of good over evil. The best preserved and most important of the three extant columns (column 2) portrays Melchizedek\u2014a figure known from only two passages in the Hebrew Bible\u2014as a celestial high priest, judge, and savior aided by a heavenly retinue. On the Day of Atonement at the time of God\u2019s final judgment, he will rescue God\u2019s people, the Sons of Light, from Belial, the demonic leader of the forces of darkness. Column 1 contains barely any legible material. The sparse remains of column 3 speak of the final extermination of Belial and perhaps allude to the structures of a new Jerusalem. Unfortunately, the original length of the document is unknown, as is the position of the preserved columns in relation to the rest of the work.<\/p>\n
Authorship and History<\/p>\n
Melchizedek is a product of the Qumran community. This conclusion is virtually guaranteed by the text\u2019s particular mode of exegesis, its use of the term pesher, and the appearance of the common sectarian themes of the battle between good and evil, the end-time salvation of the Sons of Light (a frequent designation in sectarian texts for the members of the Qumran community), and the punishment of Belial.
\nPaleographic analysis dates the single manuscript of Melchizedek to the middle of the 1st century BCE or slightly later. A likely reference to the book of Daniel (11QMelch 2:18) sets the composition of the work after 164 BCE. The text is written in Hebrew with the full orthography characteristic of many other Qumran scrolls. With the exception of spelling and a couple of variants, biblical citations follow the Masoretic Text (MT).<\/p>\n
Significance<\/p>\n
The lofty depiction of Melchizedek in this manuscript stands at a considerable distance from the scant information provided by the two allusions to this figure in the Hebrew Bible. According to Gen. 14:18\u201320, Melchizedek is the king of Salem and \u201ca priest of God Most High,\u201d who blesses Abram after his military victory over Chedorlaomer. In Ps. 110, an exalted king of Israel vanquishes and judges his enemies and is promised by God: \u201cYou are a priest forever, according to the order of Melchizedek\u201d (v. 4). While both passages refer to Melchizedek\u2019s priestly credentials, neither alludes to his heavenly or eschatological status. Moreover, neither passage is explicitly referred to in Melchizedek, and their influence on the composition is not entirely clear.
\nThe scroll\u2019s portrait of Melchizedek as cosmic redeemer stands in a line of speculation with broader roots than the Qumran movement that influenced later Jewish, Christian, and gnostic tradition. Already in the pre-Qumran Aramaic text Visions of Amramb (4Q544; early 2nd century BCE or earlier), Melchizedek likely appeared as one of the three names of the righteous angel embroiled in conflict with the wicked angel Melchiresha. Davila suggests that Melchizedek may appear as a chief angelic priest, perhaps prosecuting the eschatological battle, in the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, which may or may not have originated at Qumran. Further evidence of Jewish speculation on Melchizedek as a heavenly being appears (with Christian interpolations) in 2 Enoch.
\nIn one instance, New Testament tradition appears to have been influenced by related speculation. In the Epistle to the Hebrews, Jesus is pictured as the eternal cosmic high priest \u201caccording to the order of Melchizedek\u201d (Heb. 5:6; 6:20; 7:1, 10\u201311, 17), who redeemed mankind from the power of sin through his service in the celestial sanctuary (see Heb. 9\u201310). A further connection in New Testament tradition with 11QMelch may appear in Luke 4:16\u201321, where Jesus reads Isa. 61:1\u20132 publicly, and declares that \u201ctoday this Scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing.\u201d As will be seen in the commentary below, the association of this passage from Isaiah with Melchizedek is integral to 11QMelch\u2019s portrait of Melchizedek as cosmic redeemer of the end-time.
\nThe Melchizedek legend also influenced gnostic thought, which identifies Melchizedek as eschatological redeemer, carrier of light particles (i.e., souls) to heaven, and identical with Jesus. Interestingly, Epiphanius (Pan. 55) reports on a heretical group called the Melchizedekians. Hippolytus (Haer. 7.36) relates that a group led by one Theodotus the banker (Rome, 2nd century CE) revered Melchizedek as a heavenly power superior to Christ.
\nRabbinic tradition identifies Melchizedek with Noah\u2019s son Shem (Targum Pseudo-Jonathan; Gen. 14:18; B. Ned. 32b) and claims that his priesthood was taken away from him and given to Abraham because he did not bless God before Abraham (Lev. Rab. 25; B. Ned. 32b). The archangel Michael, not Melchizedek, appears as celestial high priest (B. Hag. 12b; B. Zev. 62a; B. Men. 110a). This may reflect a reaction against Christian association of the superior priesthood of Jesus with that of Melchizedek. Nevertheless, a positive portrayal of Melchizedek as an eschatological savior does occur in Song of Sol. Rab. 2.13 \u00a74 (cf. B. Suk. 52b). Moreover, vestiges of his celestial high priestly status are preserved in medieval Jewish literature, which identifies Melchizedek with Michael.<\/p>\n
SUGGESTED READING<\/p>\n
Aschim, Anders. \u201cMelchizedek the Liberator: An Early Interpretation of Genesis 14?\u201d Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers 35 (1996): 243\u201358.
\nDavila, James. \u201cMelchizedek, Michael, and War in Heaven.\u201d Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers 35 (1996): 259\u201372.
\nFitzmyer, Joseph. \u201cFurther Light on Melchizedek from Qumran Cave 11.\u201d In Essays on the Semitic Background of the New Testament, 245\u201367. London: G. Chapman, 1971. Repr. from Journal of Biblical Literature 86 (1967): 25\u201341.
\nGarc\u00eda Mart\u00ednez, Florentino, Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, and Adam S. van der Woude. \u201c11QMelchizedek.\u201d In Manuscripts from Qumran Cave 11 (11Q2\u201318, 11Q20\u201330), 221\u201341. Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 23. Oxford: Clarendon, 1998.
\nHorton, Fred L. The Melchizedek Tradition: A Critical Examination of the Source to the Fifth Century A. D. and in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
\nKobelski, Paul. Melchizedek and Melchire\u0161a\u2019. Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 10. Washington DC: The Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1981.
\nMason, Eric. \u201cYou Are a Priest Forever\u201d: Second Temple Jewish Messianism and the Priestly Christology of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 74. Leiden: Brill, 2008.
\nMilik, Josef T. \u201cMilk\u00ee-\u1e63edeq et Milk\u00ee-re\u0161a\u2019 dans les anciens \u00e9crits juifs et chr\u00e9tiens.\u201d Journal of Jewish Studies 23 (1972): 95\u2013144.
\nPearson, Birger. \u201cMelchizedek in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Gnosticism.\u201d In Biblical Figures Outside the Bible, edited by M. E. Stone and T. Bergren, 176\u2013202. Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 1998.
\nXeravits, G\u00e9za G. King, Priest, Prophet: Positive Eschatological Protagonists in the Qumran Library. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 47. Leiden: Brill, 2003.<\/p>\n
COMMENTARY<\/p>\n
2:1 The damaged state of the scroll makes it difficult to decipher the words on this line.
\n2:2 as for what he said A common formula used to introduce biblical citations in sectarian exegesis. See, for example, Pesher Habakkuk (1QpHab 6:2; 7:3; 12:2). It appears again in 11QMelch 2:11, 25.
\nIn [this] year of jubilee [each \u2026 to his land holding] Quoting Lev. 25:13, which mandates the return of ancestral land holdings to their original possessors every 50th year (yovel, or \u201cjubilee\u201d).
\n2:2\u20134. And th] is is \u2026 a remission of Go[d A citation of Deut. 15:2, which decrees the release of borrowers from their debts every seventh year (shemitah). Apparently, the sabbatical release is equated here with that of the jubilee year mentioned in Lev. 25.
\n2:4. Go[d Hebrew El. Here, Melchizedek deviates from the MT, which has the Tetragrammaton. This variant reflects a desire on the part of the Qumranites to avoid using the divine name, and is part of a larger trend in Second Temple literature toward an increased veneration of the divine name.
\nIts interpretation] for the final days Similar to other pesher interpretations, the biblical verses are brought to bear on the final days of history. The Qumran community viewed itself as living in this period, which would witness the great turning point of God\u2019s judgment of the wicked and the beginning of the eternal salvation of the Sons of Light.
\ncaptives Considering the frequent allusions to Isa. 61 in the rest of the column, this is likely a reference to the captives mentioned in Isa. 61:1. There, the messenger of good is sent by God to \u201cproclaim release\u201d (cf. Lev. 25:10) to the captives, that is, the exiles from Judah who have been banished from their land holdings and brought to Babylonia. In the present context, the captives are those held under the power of evil until the eschatological redemption.
\n2:4\u20135. whose teachers have been hidden and kept secret This reading is poorly preserved and uncertain.
\n2:5. the inheritan[ce of Melchize]dek Referring to the group to be saved by Melchizedek in the final judgment, that is, the Sons of Light (cf. 11QMelch 2:8). Perhaps the phrase is an adaptation of the biblical notion of Israel as the inheritance of God. This would jibe with the later substitution of God with Melchizedek (line 9; cf. line 13) and underscore his supernatural status.
\nMelchizedek According to popular Second Temple period etymology, the name means \u201cking of righteousness.\u201d This explanation is reflected in Philo (Alleg. Interp. 3.79), Josephus (Ant. 1.180), and Heb. 7:2. Josephus explains that on account of his righteousness, Melchizedek was made priest of God.
\n2:5\u20136. who will make them return The subject is likely Melchizedek, who will make the captives return. The verbal root for \u201creturn\u201d (sh-w-b) appears also in Lev. 25:13 (quoted above in line 2), according to which \u201ceach of you shall return to his holding\u201d (cf. Lev. 25:10). In light of the concern for freedom from \u201call their iniquities\u201d in 2:6, it is notable that the root sh-w-b can also mean \u201crepent.\u201d
\n2:6. liberty shall be proclaimed Cf. Lev. 25:10 and Isa. 61:1.
\nfree them from \u2026 their iniquities The economic release mandated for the jubilee and sabbatical years is understood as a metaphor for spiritual liberation from sin at the end-time.
\n2:7. the first week That is, the first week of years, or seven years. The division of a jubilee into seven Sabbaths (i.e., weeks) of years goes back to Lev. 25:8. Weeks of years also appear in the apocalyptic periodization of history in texts such as Dan. 9:24\u201327.
\nD[ay of Atone] ment According to Lev. 25:9\u201310, the release of the jubilee year is declared on this day. This strengthens the text\u2019s association of economic release with liberation from sin. See also the comment on 2:6, free them from \u2026 their iniquities.
\ntenth [ju] bilee Redemption will be achieved at the end of the 10th jubilee. The division of history into a set number of jubilees, during which the power of sin will dominate, appears in Jubilees (see esp. 50:5), T. Levi 17:2\u20139 and 4Q387 2:3\u20134. The last text shares a chronological scheme very similar to Melchizedek, according to which the divine wrath will be directed against Israel for 10 jubilees, or 490 (49 \u00d7 10) years. This figure matches that announced in Dan. 9:24\u201326 as the amount of time determined for bringing Israel\u2019s sin to completion.
\n2:8. Sons of [Light A common designation for Qumran community members. See, for example, Rule of the Community (1QS 1:9; 3:13). See also the comments above on 11QMelch 2:4, Its interpretation] for the final days, and on 2:5, the inheritance of Melchizedek.
\nthe lot of Mel[chi]zedek The human and angelic followers of Melchizedek. In Qumran theology, the cosmos is divided into two predestined groups (including both humans and supernatural beings) representing the spirits of good and evil (see especially 1QS 3:17\u20134:26). The former belong to God while the latter belong to Belial. Melchizedek\u2019s possession of the lot of good here underscores his divine status, and puts him on par with other exalted angelic figures mentioned in sectarian literature, such as the \u201cGreat Hand of God\u201d (4Q177 4:14), the \u201cPrince of Light\u201d (1QS 3:20), the \u201cangel of His truth\u201d (1QS 3:24), and Michael (1QM 17:6\u20138).
\n2:9. the year of grace of Melchizedek Citing Isa. 61:2, but with the very striking substitution of Melchizedek for the name of the LORD.
\nthe nati]on [of] the holy ones of God This may refer to angelic beings, humans, or both. In War Scroll, angels and humans fight together against the demonic powers in the eschatological struggle.
\n2:10. songs of David According to Psalms Scrolla found at Qumran (11Q5 25:10), David wrote a total of 4050 poetic compositions, including psalms (tehillim) and songs (shirim). Although songs are referred to here, the following citations derive from the canonical Psalms 82 and 7.
\nElohim \u2026 shall judge Quoting Ps. 82:1, where God (= Elohim) pronounces judgment in the divine assembly. This image of God is likely transferred here to Melchizedek, who is to act as eschatological judge. See also the comment on 11QMelch 2:9.
\n2:10\u201311. And] above \u2026 God shall judge the nations Citing Ps. 7:8\u20139, which refers to God\u2019s judgment of the nations. Again, \u201cGod\u201d is to be understood as referring to Melchizedek. See also the previous comment.
\n2:11. God See comment to line 4.
\n[\u201cHow long will you] \u2026 [Se]lah\u201d A reference to Ps. 82:2, which accuses the divine council of perverting justice.
\n2:12. it concerns Belial and the spirits of his lot Belial and his minions are identified with the divine beings of Ps. 82:2, who allow wickedness to flourish.
\ntur[ning] away from God\u2019s commandments Evil is viewed in terms of disobedience to divine law.
\n2:13. carry out the vengeance of Go[d]\u2019s judgments An allusion to Isa. 61:2, according to which Melchizedek is pictured as an agent of divine vengeance. Cf. the role of Michael in War Scroll (1QM 17:5\u20138).
\n2:14. all the gods \u2026 are in his assistance That is, the angelic beings of the lot of Melchizedek help their leader subdue Belial and his lot.
\n2:15. the day of the [peace Reconstruction based on Isa. 52:7, which is quoted at the end of this line and into the following one. That verse refers to the peace that will reign at the time of redemption.
\n2:15\u201316. [\u201cHow] beautiful \u2026 your God [is king\u201d] Citing Isa. 52:7. In the present context, the \u201cmessenger\u201d is likely to be understood as an eschatological prophet, and not Melchizedek.
\n2:17. \u201cthe mountains\u201d [are] the prophet[s] The interpretation does not seem to have the biblical prophets in view. Perhaps it speaks of multiple eschatological prophets.
\n2:18. \u201cthe messenger\u201d i[s] the anointed of the spir[it] An allusion to Isa. 61:1. The Damascus Document refers to the prophets as those \u201canointed in his holy spirit\u201d (CD 2:12). The present figure is to be identified as a prophet distinguished from those mentioned in the previous line. He is the chief eschatological prophet, perhaps engaged in the work of publicizing the coming reign of Melchizedek. Cf. Luke 4:16\u201321, where Jesus reads Isa. 61:1\u20132 in the synagogue at Nazareth, and afterward declares that \u201ctoday this Scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing.\u201d
\nas Dan[iel] said [\u2026 The earliest known citation of the book of Daniel. Daniel 9:25 has been restored here due to its appropriate content and length.
\n2:20. To comfo[rt] the [afflicted An allusion to Isa. 61:2.
\nto [in]struct them in all the ages of the w[orld The prophet\u2019s revelation of the periods of history and the coming redemption would serve as a comfort to the righteous that their suffering was part of the divine plan and almost finished.
\n2:22. has turned away from Belial The subject of this line is unclear. Since the verbs are feminine, it may be Zion, which is personified in Isa. 52:7.
\n2:23. about him Likely Melchizedek.
\n2:23\u201325. [\u201cZi]on\u201d i[s] [the congregation \u2026 \u201cyour G[o]d\u201d is [Melchizedek Further interpretation of Isa. 52:7. It appears that Zion is equated with the elect redeemed community, and Melchizedek with God.
\n2:24. who] establish the covenant A fundamental responsibility for the members of the Qumran community. See Rule of the Community (1QS 5:21\u201322; 8:10); cf. the Rule of the Blessings (1QS 5:23).
\nwho avoid \u2026 the people Cf. Isa. 8:11. Similar phrases are found in Florilegium (4Q174 1\u20133 i 14\u201318) and the Damascus Document (CD 8:16; 19:29).
\n2:25. And you shall blow the ho[rn Possibly an allusion to Lev. 25:9.
\n3:7. with fire The judgment of the chief demon and his wicked followers by fire is a common image in pseudepigraphic literature.
\n3:9. ramparts of Judah Cf. the phrase \u201cgates of Judah\u201d (sha\u2018arei yehudah) in the recently published text known as Gabriel\u2019s Vision (A.27).
\n3:10. a wall \u2026 a column This line may refer to the structures of a new Jerusalem.<\/p>\n
Aramaic Levi Document<\/p>\n
Michael E. Stone and Esther Eshel<\/p>\n
The Aramaic Levi Document (ALD) is one of the earliest Jewish writings outside the Bible, and it served as a source document for Jubilees and the Damascus Document from Qumran, as well as for the Testament of Levi included in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. It is one of the oldest Pseudepigrapha. It is significant for its religious ideas, which illuminate the early postbiblical period, for the light it throws on early priestly practice, for its understanding of wisdom, and for its stress on the transmission of ancient learning.
\nTwo copies of this document from the Dead Sea Scrolls contain variant, shorter texts than the Genizah Aramaic manuscript. Moreover, the ALD probably inspired two other works found at Qumran, Testament of Kohath (4Q542) and Visions of Amram (4Q543\u201348). Thus a series of writings developed that were attributed to the fathers of the priestly line, of which the ALD is the oldest and the inspiration.<\/p>\n
Authorship and History<\/p>\n
The ALD was apparently written in the 3rd century BCE or the early 2nd century BCE at the latest. Two fragments of it were first discovered in the early part of the 20th century among the Cairo Genizah fragments. These Aramaic fragments were related to the Testament of Levi and to an insertion in one Greek manuscript of the Testament of Levi found at Mount Athos. Seven fragmentary copies of the work have been identified among the Dead Sea Scrolls. In 1955, Milik published one manuscript (1Q21) in DJD 1 and further fragments from Cave 4, containing the Prayer of Levi, while in 1976 he published further fragments. Greenfield and Stone discerned that the Cave 4 fragments came from six manuscripts and therefore renumbered Milik\u2019s manuscripts. All the manuscripts are in scripts typical of late Hasmonean or early Herodian writing. No explanation has been proposed for the striking coincidence that all the Qumran copies come from the same period of time. A few scholars maintain that a Hebrew original was translated into Aramaic in antiquity, but it is much more likely that the ALD was originally written in Aramaic.
\nNot unexpectedly, the ALD says nothing about its provenance. It employs a solar calendar resembling that of 1 Enoch, Jubilees, and the Qumran sectarian writings, but unlike 1 Enoch and Jubilees, no polemics envelope its use of that calendar. Moreover, the ALD contains distinctive ideas about two spirits, apotropaic prayer (prayer against demons or illness), and demonology, as well as \u201copposition\u201d views about the priesthood, including the unusual idea of an exclusively Levitical messiah. It does not use Qumran sectarian terminology, however, and stems from the wing of 3rd-century Judaism, from which, among others, the Qumran sectarians descended.
\nWe can reconstruct the original order of the various fragments to determine the sequence of events in part of the original document. It is, however, incomplete in several respects.
\nEvidence from other sources indicates that the ALD was substantially longer than the surviving Genizah-Athos material: (1) the Prayer of Levi, inserted in Greek at 3:2, also occurs in a fragmentary Dead Sea Scroll (4QLevib ar), which contains other material from the ALD; (2) some other Qumran fragments overlap with material known from the Genizah, but numerous Qumran Aramaic fragments from the same manuscripts have no parallel in the Genizah-Athos material and must derive from other, lost parts of the ALD; (3) Ammonas (floruit ca. 350 BCE), a successor of St. Anthony, cites a text attributed to Levi, which, if from the ALD, is from some part other than the surviving Greek and Aramaic fragments; and (4) Puech claims that 4Q450\u201351, which show certain parallels with T. Levi 18, also belong to the ALD. This is uncertain, and only those manuscripts with some textual overlap with the Genizah-Athos material should be regarded as being certainly copies of the work.<\/p>\n
Significance<\/p>\n
The ALD is an important document of early, postbiblical Judaism. It reflects attitudes to the priesthood that differ strongly, for example, from those of another slightly later work, the Wisdom of Ben Sira. It gives a detailed enumeration of sacrificial ritual, but it is unclear whether this reflects actual practice or is an ideal construct. This cultic practice differs substantially from Rabbinic and biblical regulations. One such difference relates to the butchering and offering of the parts of a sacrificial animal as found in M. Tamid and M. Yoma 2:3. The offering starts from the head, according to the biblical order (Lev 1:8\u20139, 12\u201313), and then the remaining parts are offered in order of size, from the largest to the smallest. The description in ALD 8:3\u20134 reflects a different order in which the parts of the animal are to be put on the altar in the same order in which they would have been encountered, looking from head to tail. This general order is in agreement with the view of R. Joshua expressed in M. Yoma 2:3. Moreover, the view of the ALD that the animal is offered in the same way in which it is butchered is in complete agreement with the view of R. Akiba as recorded in a baraitha in B. Yoma 25b.
\nFor the ALD, the hortatory and wisdom dimensions of the Levi figure are particularly significant. It links wisdom concepts to the priesthood and to the figure of Joseph, and it also stresses the transmission of the cultic commandments from Noah to Abraham and from him to Levi. The status and authority of the Levitical priesthood are thus anchored in the actions of Noah, who founded postdiluvian humanity, and related already to his first sacrifice offered on exiting the ark. The actual cultic instructions are unparalleled in detail and are one of the very earliest examples of postbiblical Jewish law. They are legitimated by an appeal to ancient tradition, perhaps, one might maintain, because the Mosaic revelation had not taken place at the time assumed by the pseudepigraphic framework of the book. These teachings are anchored in a book of Noah, which may have been an actual document.
\nYet the stress laid upon literacy and teaching, as on the transmission of this teaching (particularly in the later Testament of Kohath), raises the question whether there may be more at stake here than merely providing a legitimacy for priestly teaching anterior to the revelation at Sinai. It may reflect views of the function of the priesthood in the eyes of the author, that were also of contemporary relevance.<\/p>\n
GUIDE TO READING<\/p>\n
The translation here is based on the correlation of all ALD\u2019s sources and is plagued by missing phrases and pages. Neither the work\u2019s beginning nor its end survive.<\/p>\n
The surviving fragments of the ALD deal with the following topics:<\/p>\n
Levi\u2019s prayer and vision (Prayer of Levi)
\nLevi\u2019s investiture and recognition of his priesthood by Jacob, Isaac, and Abraham
\nIsaac\u2019s exhortation and cultic instructions delivered to Levi
\nthe birth of Isaac\u2019s children and chief events of his life
\nIsaac\u2019s deathbed address to his children in the form of a wisdom poem<\/p>\n
This was not the end of the work, as is clear from two fragments of 4QLevia that overlap with the end of the poem and contain an eschatological exhortation. Moreover, several other substantial fragments of 4QLevia and 4QLevib, as well as a considerable number of other Qumran fragments, do not fit into the continuous text but contain hortatory text, the Dinah incident, some eschatological words, and other material. Our reconstruction follows the framework of the continuous text and adds the unattached narrative fragments at thematically appropriate points.<\/p>\n
SUGGESTED READING<\/p>\n
Drawnel, H., An Aramaic Wisdom Text from Qumran: A New Interpretation of the Levi Document. JSJ Sup 86. Leiden: Brill, 2004.
\nGreenfield, J. C., M. E. Stone, and E. Eshel. The ALD. Studia in Veteris Testamenti pseudepigrapha 19. Leiden: Brill, 2004.
\nJonge, M. de. \u201cNotes on Testament of Levi II\u2013VII.\u201d In Travels in the World of the Old Testament, edited by M. S. H. G. Heerma van Voss, P. H. J. Houwink ten Cate, and N. A. van Uchelen, 132\u201345. Assen: Van Gorcum, 1974. Also available in M. de Jonge, ed., Studies on the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigraphia 3. Leiden: Brill, 1975.
\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Testament of Levi and \u2018Aramaic Levi.\u2019 \u201d RevQ 13 (1988): 376\u201385. Examines the relationship of the Greek and Aramaic documents.
\nKugler, Robert A. From Patriarch to Priest: The Levi-Priestly Tradition from Aramaic Levi to Testament of Levi. SBL Early Judaism and Its Literature 9. Atlanta: Scholars, 1996. Important study also containing full edition and translation of the texts.
\nStone, M. E. \u201cEnoch, Aramaic Levi, and Sectarian Origins.\u201d JSJ 19 (1988): 159\u201370. Role of Aramaic Levi in early postbiblical Judaism.
\nStone, M. E., and J. C. Greenfield. \u201cThe Aramaic Levi Document.\u201d In The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs: A Commentary, edited by H. W. Hollander and M. de Jonge, 457\u201369. Leiden: Brill, 1985 (English translation).<\/p>\n
COMMENTARY<\/p>\n
1:1. according to the manner of all people [] to do according to the Law in all The incident of Dinah is the subject (see Gen. 34). The author is probably referring to some kind of customary marriage agreement or dowry, promised by Hamor for the marriage of Dinah and Shechem (see Targum Neofiti on Gen. 34:12; cf. T. Levi 6:3).
\n1:2. and we said The subjects of this verb are probably Simeon and Levi.
\nbrothers and friends Since it is clear from Gen. 34 that there was a commercial dimension to the relationship between the sons of Jacob and the Shechemites, it is possible that this expression means brothers and partners (contrast the phrase in Genesis).
\n1:3. circumcise your fleshly foreskin, and look like us Assuming that \u201ccircumcision of flesh\u201d is contrasted with \u201ccircumcision of heart,\u201d the sons of Jacob meant that the Shechemites would have only a fleshly circumcision, not a spiritual one. This in turn might explain the odd phrase \u201cyou will look like us,\u201d that is, externally. In contrast with this, the biblical text in Gen. 34:15 says \u201cyou will become like us.\u201d The shift from the biblical phrase \u201cone people\u201d to \u201cbrothers and friends\u201d might be a further indication of the same tendency.
\nsealed Circumcision as a sealing is broadly attested in Rabbinic texts, but the ALD here is the first occurrence of this idea (e.g., Exod. Rab. 19). Sealing expresses ownership.
\n2:1. to the east of Asher Asher is probably not the name of Jacob\u2019s son but a place name. Eusebius identified Asher, mentioned in Josh. 17:7 with Taya-si-r, 15 miles northeast of Shechem, on the road to Scythopolis, mentioned later by the Bordeaux Pilgrim (333 BCE). See also Jub. 13:1.
\n2:2\u20133 Shlm in Gen. 33:18 has usually been understood by ancient and modern interpreters as an adverb, \u201cin peace\u201d or \u201csafely.\u201d The Septuagint translated it as \u201cto Salem,\u201d while Jub. 30:1 incorporated both interpretations. Since this is Levi\u2019s story (ALD 2:4), not Jacob\u2019s, this fragment might fit somewhere after the Shechem episode, probably after additional wars of the sons of Jacob with the Amorites and with the sons of Esau, some of which might be alluded to in ALD 2:1.
\n2:4. in pure water Levi washes his clothes in pure water and himself \u201cin living water.\u201d These expressions are related to cultic, particularly priestly, purification (the phrase \u201cpure water\u201d also occurs in Ezek. 36:25; Jos. Asen. 18:8\u20139; and T. Levi 8:5).
\n3:1\u20132. I lifted up my eyes and my countenance to heaven \u2026 and I stretched out the fingers of my hands and my hands These acts all belong in a prayer context. Similar terminology appears in Ps. 123:1\u20133; 4QpapTobita (4Q196) (eyes and countenance); and Ps. 28:2; 11QPs (4Q83) 24:3\u20134 (hands).
\n3:4. and now my children are with me The mention of Levi\u2019s children seems out of place here, and the reason for their introduction is unclear. Such a mention might have been more appropriate in the context of 3:15.
\npaths of truth The use of paths, combined with the two spirits ideas it implies, might provide a background upon which duo viae ideas developed. Other early references to the two ways concept are found in 1 En. 91:4, 19; 94:1\u20134. This notion also occurs in 1QapGen 6:3\u20135, where \u201cI walked in the paths of eternal truth\u201d is contrasted with \u201cthe path of falsehood that lead(s) to darkness \u2026 all the ways of lawlessness.\u201d Neither the ALD nor the Genesis Apocryphon is a product of the Qumran sect. Such ideas were later connected with the dualistic worldview of the Qumran sect, which developed an understanding of two spirits, one of truth and the other of falsehood (1QS 3:13\u20134:26; as Mek. R. Ish. 6:14\u201316).
\n3:5, 10. make far from me, my LORD, the unrighteous spirit, and evil thought and fornication \u2026 and bring me forward, to be your servant The Prayer of Levi shows striking similarities to, and indeed shares some elements with, other apotropaic prayers, including a later Jewish prayer recited before the morning service: \u201cKeep us far from a bad man and a bad companion. Cause us to cleave to good inclination and to good works.\u201d
\n3:9. and let not any satan have power over me At this point the prayer turns to a plea for divine protection. The designator \u201csatan\u201d as a category of evil spirits and not a proper name seems to reflect a very early stage of the development of Jewish apotropaic prayers.
\n3:11\u201312 Similar expressions are found in the Jewish liturgy. The image of a wall as a protection is found on incantation bowls from Nippur.
\n3:13\u201314 A series of blessings of significant weight in the biblical narrative are associated with Levi.
\n3:13. and let me, myself, be raised to you This might be taken to express a type of religious experience that Levi expected to undergo as a result of his repentance, purification, and prayer. Indeed, following this prayer he receives a vision of the heavens (see ALD 4:4\u20136).
\n3:18. and I became silent still continuing to pray Other Jewish sources of the period regard silent prayer as unusual. It is noteworthy, therefore, that the ALD stresses the silent prayer that follows the voiced prayer here.
\n4:2. Abel Mayyin Levi leaves Abel Mayyin before receiving his vision (4:4) and no further information about Abel Mayyin is given in the ALD. This place might be identified with Bet el-Ma\u2019 (House of Water), a spring sacred to the Samaritans, 1.5 km. from Shechem. In the parallel account in T. Levi 2:3, 5 the rare Abel Mayyin is identified with the more common Abel-Beth-Maacah in the north (cf. 1 Kings 15:2 and 2 Chron. 16:4). As a result, the high mountain is moved from Levi\u2019s vision into the description of the geography and was identified with Sirion\/Si\u2019on and thus with Mount Hermon.
\n4:7\u20138 Here we observe the combination of royal and priestly qualities in the presentation of Levi and his descendents and the preeminence of the priestly.
\n4:9 The first part deals with priesthood and contrasts with the second part describing the travails associated with the kingdom of the sword. This is part of an address to Levi by one or all of \u201cthose seven\u201d angels who appeared to him in a dream vision (4:12).
\n4:10 The angelic address continues with a prophecy about different periods, written as contrasting positive and negative times (see Eccles. 3).
\n4:11. and how we gave you the anointing of eternal peace This is the conclusion of the angelic prophecy about the installation of Levi as high priest.
\n4:13. this too This expression seems to imply that the vision of the seven angels is a second vision.
\n5:2. in accordance with his vow No vow is mentioned in the surviving text of the ALD, nor does any hint of a vow occur in the Testament of Levi, but there is a vision of Levi\u2019s destined priesthood, as a result of which Jacob pays him tithes. It is not unreasonable, therefore, to speculate that the ALD also originally had a dream vouchsafed to Jacob before this point in the story and that this was the context of the missing vow.
\n5:4. and he \u2026 consecrated me Literally \u201che filled my hands,\u201d the technical term for priestly consecration (Exod. 28:41). This expression is misunderstood by the author\/redactor of the Testament of Levi, who translates it \u201cand filled my hands with incense\u201d (T. Levi 8:10). This misappraisal indicates that a Semitic text lies ultimately behind this section of the Testament of Levi and that the Semitic idiom was misunderstood.
\nand I blessed my father during his lifetime and I blessed my brothers Levi\u2019s act of blessing here, which follows his offering of sacrifices on behalf of his father and brothers, serves to assert and confirm his priestly status.
\n5:6 From a study of the chief locations and movements of the heroes of the tale, it is clear that, where the texts run parallel, the story in Jub. 31\u201332 is much abbreviated. Certain incidents, occurring in ALD 4:9\u20135:8 and T. Levi 8:1 and 9:1\u20136 at the present juncture, occur earlier in the story in Jubilees.
\n5:8. Most High God See Gen. 14:22; 1QapGen 20:12\u201313; and Ps. 110:4, which later also refers to Melchizedek. In Heb. 7 the argument is made for the superiority of the priesthood of Melchizedek over that of Levi. Is the attribution to Levi of a title used of Melchizedek intentional, just as the Judah language was deliberately used of Levi?
\nLORD of heaven This might be a Judaization of the Phoenician title b\u2019l shmyn, which was current in Aramaic throughout the first millennium BCE and into the first millennium BCE (see Dan. 5:23; 1QapGen 7:7).
\n6:4. my family Other texts of the time encourage endogamy and it is rife in the endogamous marriages recorded on the Genealogical Table. In the antediluvian genealogies in Jubilees we find that sibling unions shift to cousin unions. In Visions of Amram (4Q545) 1 a 1:5\u20136 Uzziel, Amram\u2019s younger brother, married Amram\u2019s daughter Miriam endogamously when she was 30 years old.
\n7:1. the Sanctuary Literally, \u201cthe house of God.\u201d This reading may be influenced by the place name Bethel, which has already been mentioned in the text (5:5\u20136).
\n7:4. examine The term serves in Rabbinic literature for the examination of sacrificial animals. The wood used for sacrificial purposes was to be wormless and free of rot.
\n7:6\u20137 The list of trees resembles that found in Jub. 21:12\u201315 with some differences. No such list of the wood to be used on the altar for burning the sacrifices is known from the Bible or from Rabbinic halakhah. M. Tam. 2:3 says that all kinds of wood are fit for the fire on the altar except the olive and the grapevine. Thus, for the ALD worm-free and fragrant wood was a most desirable commodity, essential for the offering of sacrifices.
\n8:4 According to the ALD the parts of the animal should be put on the altar in the same order in which they would have been encountered, looking at the animal from head to tail (for an alternative order, see Lev. 1:8\u20139, 12\u201313; cf. New Jerusalem [11Q18] frag. 13). The same view is quoted in the name of Rabbi Joshua (M. Tam. 3:1; M. Yoma 2:3).
\n8:6. due order The semantic fields of the word serekh in Qumran Hebrew and Greek taxis, which is found in the Greek translation here, are similar.
\n9:17. and a third of a saton Saton is the usual Greek word for a seah. Actually, a seah is one third of an ephah, so perhaps we should read \u201cand the saton is a third of an ephah.\u201d
\n10:1 The ALD\u2019s hortatory language is based on Pentateuchal phraseology.
\n10:10. of the book of Noah concerning the blood The book is connected with the commandment about blood in Gen. 9:4\u20136 (cf. Lev. 17:13; 4Q543 1 a\u2013c:1). Noah made the first animal sacrifice under the new, postdiluvian order, and he also received the commandment about blood (1QapGen 5:29).
\n11:1 The chapter opens with the double date of Levi\u2019s marriage to Melka, formulated by week (i.e., of years). To the information known from other sources, the ALD adds that Melka was \u201cdaughter of Bathuel, son of Laban, my mother\u2019s brother\u201d (see Jub. 34:20).
\n11:2. And I called his name Gershom \u2026 We are sojourners as now in the land that is reckoned ours\u201d The two elements of this onomastic midrash originate from another Gershom, the son of Moses (Exod. 2:22; 18:3), and were applied here to Gershom son of Levi.
\n11:3. and concerning the youth, I saw in my dream that he and his seed will be cast out of the high priesthood This might be regarded as another explanation of the name, in a dream form and not as an etymology, yet it is difficult to see quite how. The function of the verse is to explain (or justify) the selection of the descendants of Levi\u2019s second son, Kohath, as the high priestly line rather than those of his eldest son, Gershom.
\n11:5. according to the proper time of women These words stress the absolute properness and regularity of Kohath\u2019s birth.
\n11:6\u20137 The text offers two explanations of Kohath\u2019s name: (1) that to him would be \u201can assembly of all [the people and that] he would have the high priesthood\u201d; and (2) that he and his seed will be<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
18:16. in the year of mystery This appears to be a corruption of the Greek version, \u201cfor ten thousand years\u201d (see 21:6). Although the stars have transgressed the cosmic order, their punishment does not equal that of the Watchers. Unlike the Watchers, they are not imprisoned until the Judgment Day; they are released after a … <\/p>\n