PREFACE<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The authors of the book, on the completion of their work, are acutely conscious of being part of a larger academic enterprise, and wish to acknowledge their debt not only to each other, but also to the greater world of Dead Sea Scrolls scholarship. We of the new generation acknowledge the broad shoulders upon which we stand in the hope of furthering the understanding of these ancient texts. Although the names of the scholars of the first generation will become familiar as readers enter into the discussions that follow, let these take their proper places from the beginning: J. T. Milik, John Strugnell, John Allegro, and Andre Dupont-Sommer.
\nThe authors also acknowledge their indebtedness to the academic fathers at whose feet they were introduced to the intricacies\u2014and excitement\u2014of Dead Sea Scrolls studies: Norman Golb, of the University of Chicago; Emanuel Tov, of the Hebrew University; Ben Zion Wacholder, of Hebrew Union College; Stanislav Segert, of UCLA; and the late William S. Lasor, of Fuller Theological Seminary. Their influence and example is evident on every page.
\nTo our families we owe a great debt of gratitude. For the frequent occasions on which our labors were allowed to take precedence, we are thankful for their understanding. We are also mindful of their more concrete contributions. From the challenging questions (\u201cSo what?\u201d\u2014thanks, Jenny!) to the reading of chapters in the making (thanks, Cathy!), this work is richer.
\nTo our editor at Harper San Francisco, Mark Chimsky, we offer our heartfelt gratitude for shepherding this book from its inception and for improving its every page. And to Ralph Fowler and Mimi Kusch for their respective design and production editing, we thank you for going above and beyond the call of duty.
\nThe authors of this book complete their labors on the eve of the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. In the reckoning of one ancient Dead Sea Scrolls community, fifty years stood as a benchmark: the year of advancement from the strength of one\u2019s youth to the responsibilities of leadership. Yet in the history of scholarship, fifty years might not be enough time to publish an entire cache of manuscripts, much less produce definitive interpretations of them. This book, then, is more of a beginning of research on the scrolls than it is a completion. Many of the conclusions reached in the following pages will stand the test of time and become foundation stones for subsequent generations of students. Other affirmations\u2014few, we hope\u2014will be revised, overturned, and eventually forgotten. The field of Dead Sea Scrolls research is yet young, but therein lies its excitement. Out of that sense of excitement the authors offer this volume.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
June 7, 1996.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Generations are a relative thing. In the Bible, a generation represents forty years; in twenty-first-century America, most people would probably put the number closer to twenty. In Dead Sea Scrolls research, a generation is more like ten years, so rapid is the life cycle, so compressed the span from young to old, from new to outdated. This revised edition of our translation therefore appears nearly a full generation after the first, and in that time much has happened of which we are keen to take account.
\nPerhaps the most obvious change in the years since the preparation of the first edition (1994\u201395) can be stated in a single word: publication. The \u201cofficial\u201d scholarly editions of virtually all the scrolls have now appeared. When we went to press in 1995, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, vol. 10, was of recent appearance. Since then, all but one of the remaining volumes have finished their often extended gestation and come forth into the world: Discoveries now numbers thirty-nine volumes. Simple arithmetic will thus lead to two conclusions: first, everyone interested in the Bible and the biblical world, in Jesus and the New Testament, in Christianity and Judaism owes a large debt of gratitude to the many scholars who labored to produce those volumes, and most especially to the editor-in-chief of the project since the early 1990s, Emanuel Tov. We the authors owe that debt personally and especially, and so we say thank you.
\nSecond, arithmetic (or, put precisely, subtraction) reveals that we as authors lacked official editions of many of the texts in this book when we produced the first edition. We made do as best we could. We used preliminary editions and photographs and this from here and that from there, and in particular the several fascicles of the work, edited by Martin Abegg Jr. and Ben Zion Wacholder, A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls. Nevertheless, we certainly did not possess anything like the riches of texts and tools that have appeared in the past ten-year generation, and it is that richness that calls forth this revised edition.
\nThis edition continues the theme of arithmetic (or, put precisely, of addition). We have added numerous texts, partly because various critics suggested that we should, but mostly because our publisher has generously agreed that we could. Many of these appeared in some form in the German version of our book; others are making their debut. The intention in making these additions has been consistent with the intention of the first edition: completeness, so far as practical matters would allow. By \u201cpractical\u201d we mean especially so far as the interest of general readers would dictate. Not every exiguous fragment of each fragmentary text appears in this book. But if in our judgment (and our editors\u2019!) general readers would like to read it, or even just know it exists, it is here.
\nWe have revised virtually every translation and every text introduction, often substantially. These revisions are an effort to take account of a generation\u2019s worth of change in the field of Dead Sea Scrolls research, and to give account as well. Some texts had to be pulled apart and reassembled as several works. In other cases seemingly separate works needed to be combined. In every such matter we have followed our own judgment, while naturally giving considerable weight to the published ideas and conclusions of many other scholars. An expanded Bibliography makes our deepest intellectual debts explicit. We have also responded to the suggestion of numerous users of the first edition to add page headers so as to alleviate troublesome navigation through the text.
\nThus readers have a different and, we hope, better book than the first edition. Doubtless flaws of omission or commission remain despite our best efforts. We sincerely request that readers communicate to us about those flaws, so that a future edition may perhaps take advantage of those insights.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Michael O. Wise, Martin G. Abegg Jr., and Edward M. Cook
\n March 31, 2005<\/p>\n\n\n\n
I<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Prolegomena<\/p>\n\n\n\n
INTRODUCTION<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Like Shangri-la, the term \u201cDead Sea Scrolls\u201d has the power to evoke images and emotions even in those who have only a vague idea of what they are. The term is redolent of enigma, of intrigue, perhaps even of sacred mysteries; hovering in the background are images of caves, scrolls, barren deserts, and intense scholars hunched over tiny scraps of leather. A closer acquaintance with the scrolls does not dispel the air of mystery, because even when all the documents are read, translated, and explained, huge areas of uncertainty remain. Who wrote the scrolls, and when? What purpose did they serve, and what influence did they have? And what do they mean for us? Scholars still give different answers to all these questions.
\nWe, the authors of this book, feel that the right answers are closer than ever. For decades, specialists have been able to study many of the scrolls, but not all of them. They reached conclusions that did not\u2014could not\u2014take into account all of the documents, many of which remained unavailable until recently.
\nNow all of the texts are available. Some of them support, and some undermine, cherished theories about the scrolls and their origins. Some of them suggest that long-discarded hypotheses may have been amazingly accurate. Others suggest new and subtle shadings of old interpretations. Most important, the scrolls, now that we can see all of them, testify to the astonishingly rich and fertile literary culture that gave birth to the foundational religious documents of Judaism and Christianity. We find here previously unknown stories about biblical figures such as Enoch, Abraham, and Noah\u2014including a work explaining why God asked Abraham to sacrifice his only son, Isaac. A dozen writings that claim Moses as their author\u2014yet are not a part of our Bibles\u2014have come forth from the caves. Newly deciphered scrolls reveal ancient doctrines about angels, while others claim to be revelations by angels themselves, including the archangel Michael. Among the scrolls are never before seen psalms attributed to King David and to the leader of the conquest of the Holy Land, Joshua. The scrolls include extrabiblical prophecies by Ezekiel, Jeremiah, and Daniel. The last words of the patriarchs Joseph, Judah, Levi, Naphtali, and Amram, father of Moses, are here among the scrolls. Still other writings pulse with the conviction that the end of the world is at hand and describe the rise of the Antichrist.
\nYet the scrolls, like the Bible they often imitate, are more frequently honored than read. One reason for this neglect is the genuine difficulty of reading and translating texts that survive, many of them only in bits and pieces; another is that few of the published translations are intended for nonspecialists. This one is. In it we have aspired to be both responsible to the sources and understandable to the public.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Discovery and Publication<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Archaeology is the study of archaia, \u201cold things,\u201d but for a long time nobody knew that old things were interesting. The past, they thought, was pretty much the same as the present, and so in illuminated medieval Bibles King David is pictured in a medieval suit of armor. But people began to gain a sense of historical perspective during the Renaissance, and some things began to be valued because they were old. The wealthy began to collect antiquities: archaia. When Napoleon and his legions entered Egypt in the early nineteenth century, they opened up not only a new arena of cultural interchange, but a rich new source of archaia. The antiquities trade began in earnest at that time, along with colonialism, its sponsor, and a new science\u2014archaeology.
\nPrivate collectors and professional archaeologists have always vied for the same antiquities. \u201cThat belongs in a museum!\u201d is the cry of Indiana Jones and his professional colleagues as they struggle against mere collectors. Both parties, of course, are willing to pay for their antiquities under the right circumstances. An awareness of that fact led certain Bedouin tribesmen of the Taamireh tribe to preserve some old scrolls that they had found in the Judean desert in 1946 or 1947. They happened to enter a narrow cave, they said, and there they were, rolled up in stone jars. Could not someone be found to buy the manuscripts\u2014old, dirty, and tattered as they were?
\nThe original seven scrolls were early divided into two lots. One lot of four was purchased by the Syrian Orthodox archbishop of Jerusalem, Athanasius Samuel, the other lot of three by a scholar at the Hebrew University, E. Y. Sukenik. Samuel, wishing to authenticate the antiquity of his purchase through experts, eventually showed his texts to specialists at the American Schools of Oriental Research. They realized that Samuel\u2019s scrolls had been written at least two thousand years earlier, not the oldest archaia ever, but centuries older than the oldest manuscript ever discovered in the Holy Land. These excited scholars announced the discovery of the oldest known biblical manuscripts to the press on April 11, 1948, and Sukenik followed suit days later. The original seven scrolls are the Charter of a Jewish Sectarian Association (then called the Manual of Discipline, text 7 in the present collection), Tales of the Patriarchs (text 4), Thanksgiving Hymns (text 12), A Commentary on Habakkuk (text 2), the War Scroll (text 11), and two copies of the book of Isaiah.
\nSamuel took the scrolls to the United States and continued to try to sell them for years, without success. Potential buyers were aware that some scholars doubted the scrolls\u2019 authenticity and that questions lingered about the propriety of Samuel\u2019s removing the scrolls from their country of origin. Finally, in 1955, an agent of the young State of Israel paid Samuel $250,000 for his four scrolls, and the texts were reunited with Sukenik\u2019s three scrolls. Today they are the prize displays of the Shrine of the Book museum in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
But by 1955, no one really cared anymore whether Israel or the archbishop had the scrolls, because by then the industrious Bedouin had discovered nine more caves containing scrolls equally ancient. Another cave would turn up in 1956, for a total of eleven. The first astonishing discovery was succeeded by a steady stream, as the caves of Judea seemed eager to disgorge everything that had silently lain, in their depths for millennia. These eleven caves, it should be noted, were all in the general vicinity of the Wadi Qumran, near the north-west end of the Dead Sea, and their treasures do not exhaust the total number of discoveries. Ancient writings were also found in caves near the Wadi Murabba\u2018at and Nahal Hever, the Wadi Daliyeh, and in the ruins of Masada. Except for the Masada texts, the other discoveries came from times and milieux different from the Qumran texts. When people use the term \u201cDead Sea Scrolls,\u201d they sometimes mean all of these treasure troves, but more usually only the Qumran scrolls are meant. That will be our own usage in the pages that follow.
\nThe total number of scrolls, when the books were intact, may have been as high as 1,000. Some have vanished without a trace, but scholars have identified the remains of about 900 separate scrolls. Their long centuries in the earth have reduced the vast majority of them to bits and pieces, mere scraps, some no larger than a fingernail. The fourth cave alone, where the biggest cache of manuscripts was unearthed, contained an estimated 15,000 fragments.
\nThe great glut of material\u2014a bonanza that far exceeded the wildest dreams of scholars\u2014was not without its problems. The biggest was simply finding scholars equipped with enough knowledge and time to sort through the material. The government of Jordan\u2014in whose territory, after 1948, the Qumran caves lay\u2014allowed foreign scholars to form a team in the early 1950s to deal with all the incoming texts. These eight young men were to have the responsibility\u2014and the privilege\u2014of publishing everything.
\nThe scrolls team began well, publishing its first volume of texts in 1955, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, Vol. 1: Qumran Cave 1 (abbreviated as DJD 1). This book contained additional fragments from the first cave the Bedouin had entered, pieces of documents that had turned up after the first seven scrolls were removed. \u201cWork of this nature is of necessity slow,\u201d wrote G. L. Harding, director of the Jordanian Department of Antiquities, in the foreword. \u201cIt may well be a few years before the series can be completed.\u201d Harding could not have foreseen that forty years later the work would still not be complete. What explains the achingly slow pace of publication?
\nFor one thing, the work required considerably more time than originally estimated. The first seven scrolls were all more or less intact (although some were in better repair than the others). The publishing program consisted of simply publishing photographs of the texts, which were (and still are) legible to anyone who can read ancient Hebrew. But undamaged scrolls like these turned out to be the exception. Most were fragmentary, and it required considerable painstaking work even to figure out which fragments originally belonged to the same scroll. That work necessarily had to be done before even preliminary translations and interpretations could be issued. (This work, by the way, still continues, and new \u201cjoins\u201d\u2014ways of connecting the fragments\u2014are discovered from time to time. We propose a few ourselves in the pages that follow.)
\nThe work of collecting and joining fragments, then, required much painstaking work and not a little ingenuity. The original team did this phase of its work well, but in hindsight it is clear that the task was too large and the team too small. The second volume of DJD came out in 1961, with texts from Murabba\u2018at, and DJD 3 followed in 1962, containing all the texts from Caves 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 10, the so-called Minor Caves (for comparatively few scrolls were found in these caves). DJD 4 (1965) contained a single manuscript of the book of Psalms from Cave 11. Only with DJD 5 (1968) were several manuscripts from the \u201cmother lode,\u201d Cave 4, issued.
\nAt this point the already slowing pace of publication ground to a complete halt. As a result of the Six-Day War of June 1967, the Palestine Archaeological Museum, where the scroll fragments were stored, had become the property of the State of Israel. The members of the scrolls publication team\u2014most of whom held decidedly pro-Arab convictions\u2014were reluctant to continue under Israeli auspices, even after the authorities assured them they could continue their work without interference.
\nEventually the Israelis and the team worked out an agreement, and the team published DJD 6, containing a number of minor texts, in 1977. By this time, however, the scholarly community was growing increasingly unhappy with the official scrolls team. The scrolls that had already been published had revolutionized study of the Bible, early Judaism, and early Christianity. The thought that hundreds of texts\u2014more than half of what had been found\u2014had never been seen outside a small circle of privileged editors was maddening, \u201cthe academic scandal of the century\u201d in the words of Britain\u2019s Geza Vermes.
\nIn fact, after a modus operandi had been reached with Israel, there was no good reason why the rest of the texts could not be published rapidly. The team had finished most of the initial work of reconstruction by 1960. But they had come to feel that a simple publication was no longer enough. The scrolls had become an entire subdiscipline of ancient history, and a \u201cproper\u201d publication now had to include vast analyses, large syntheses, and detailed assessments placing every fragment in its place in the history of Judaism, Christianity, and humankind. This was a daunting task for a large team; for a small team, it was simply impossible. And, although the team had slowly begun to increase its size\u2014taking on a few Israeli members and select graduate students (those who studied with team members) in the 1980s\u2014it still refused to allow other scholars access to the texts. In academia, of course, knowledge is power, and the scroll editors enjoyed theirs immensely.
\nThroughout the 1970s and 1980s, complaints about the slow pace of publication snowballed. Team members continued to publish individual texts from time to time, but control of the process always remained in their hands. Even when a text was published it seemed like noblesse oblige, and the perceived arrogance behind the slow pace of publication acted as a catalyst, goading \u201coutsiders\u201d to work at achieving unfettered access. New obstacles to publication had arisen as well: several members of the original team had died, and others were battling poor health.
\nFinally, in the early 1990s, the monopoly of the official team was broken, both from within and from without. In 1990, John Strugnell, head of the scrolls team since 1987, was forced to resign by the Israel Antiquities Authority for derogatory comments he made about Judaism. The Authority put Israeli scholars in charge of the project, and they began to invite more scholars to join the team, intending to speed up the pace of publication.
\nBut outside forces played the decisive role. The official team had compiled a concordance\u2014a comprehensive word list that also provides the context in which each word listed occurs\u2014of all the words in the unreleased texts. Until now they had limited use of the concordance to themselves, but before Strugnell\u2019s departure he allowed certain academic libraries to receive copies of the concordance. Since the concordance listed each word along with one or two on either side of it, theoretically one might reconstruct not only entire lines, but entire scrolls.
\nA graduate student at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Martin Abegg, with his adviser Ben Zion Wacholder, put the theory into practice. He carried out the reconstruction with the aid of a desktop computer, and the first volume of hitherto unreleased scrolls was published in September 1991. The publication was a bombshell, and it triggered another. Later that same month, the director of the Huntington Library in southern California, William Moffett, announced that the library had in its possession photographs of all of the unreleased Dead Sea Scrolls and that scholars would be allowed full access to them. These twin attacks on the monopoly of the scrolls team proved decisive. After initially threatening legal action, in November 1991 the new editor-in-chief of the official team, Emanuel Tov, announced that all scholars would have free and unconditional access to all the photographs of the Dead Sea Scrolls. This victory over scholarly secrecy and possessiveness made the book you hold in your hand possible.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
How the Dead Sea Scrolls Were Written<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What exactly are the Dead Sea Scrolls? The objects themselves are documents written with a carbon-based ink, usually on animal skins, although some are inscribed on papyrus. The scrolls were written right to left using no punctuation except for an occasional paragraph indentation\u2014no periods, commas, quotation marks, or any of the other reader helps to which we are so accustomed. Indeed, in some cases there are not even spaces between words: the letters simply run together in a continuous stream. The codex, the early form of the book with pages bound on one side, had not yet been invented, so the \u201cpages,\u201d or columns, were written consecutively on the scroll. To read them one slowly unrolled the scroll and then, to be polite, rerolled it, like rewinding a modern videotape. Not a few of the scrolls testify that the ancients failed to rewind as often as we do. The scrolls are written in several languages and half a dozen scripts, and though all are religious texts, within that category their contents are amazingly varied.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Languages Used in the Scrolls<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Prior to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the dominant view of the Semitic languages of Palestine in this period was essentially as follows. Hebrew had died; it was no longer learned at mother\u2019s knee. It was known only by the educated classes, just as educated medieval Europeans knew Latin. Rabbinic Hebrew, the written language of the Mishnah, Tosephta, and other rabbinic literature of 200 C.E. and later, was considered a sort of scholarly invention\u2014artificial, not the language of life put to the page. The spoken language of the Jews had in fact become Aramaic. Even in this tongue, literary production was thought to be meager. Accordingly, prominent scholars writing in the mid-1940s (on the eve of the scrolls\u2019 discovery) expressed doubts that the composition of a Semitic gospel was even possible. Edgar Goodspeed, for example, argued, \u201cThe gospel is Christianity\u2019s contribution to literature. It is the most potent type of religious literature ever devised. To credit such a creation to the most barren age of a never very productive tongue like Aramaic would seem the height of improbability. For in the days of Jesus the Jews of Palestine were not engaged in writing books. It is not too much to say that a Galilean or Jerusalem Jew of the time of Christ would regard writing a book in his native tongue with positive horror.\u201d*
\nThe discovery of the scrolls swept these linguistic notions into the trash bin. Here were hundreds and hundreds of texts, tangible evidence of substantial literary productivity. Apart from copies of biblical books, about one out of six of the Dead Sea Scrolls is inscribed in Aramaic. Clearly the writing of an Aramaic Gospel was eminently possible. Yet the vast majority of the scrolls were Hebrew texts. Hebrew was manifestly the principal literary language for the Jews of this period. The new discoveries underlined the still living, breathing, even supple character of that language. A few texts pointed to the use of Hebrew for speech as well as writing. These works (for example, A Sectarian Manifesto, text 100) displayed a missing-link type of Hebrew, intermediate between the form of Hebrew used in the Bible and that used by the rabbis. Rabbinic Hebrew was shown to be no invention, but simply a development from ordinary spoken Hebrew of biblical times.
\nThe scrolls have therefore proven that late Second Temple Jews used various dialects of Hebrew along with Aramaic. (These two languages are closely related\u2014Aramaic is to Hebrew as French is to Italian.) For writing, however, they generally tried to imitate biblical Hebrew, an older form of the language. The situation would be analogous to our trying to write in the style of Elizabethan English. Not all the scroll writers could perform this feat equally well, so the \u201ccorrectness\u201d of the Hebrew varies considerably. Modern scholars actually appreciate the mistakes more than the deft performances, because the mistakes arise out of the writer\u2019s own language usage. The written form teaches us about the spoken.
\nA small minority of the scrolls was written in Greek. Their discovery has vouchsafed us a further glimpse into the linguistic complexity of first-century Jewish society. Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek: each was being used in particular situations of speech and writing. We are only just beginning to discover some of the rules for those uses, to bring to bear the more sophisticated perspectives of sociolinguistics. Since, as noted above, many of the Dead Sea Scrolls have but recently become known to a wide range of scholars, we are presently at an early stage of linguistic understanding.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Scripts Used for Writing the Scrolls<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The script most commonly used to write these texts, whether Hebrew or Aramaic, has come to be called the Jewish script. Before the discovery of the scrolls, we knew relatively little about it. The Jewish script proves to be a development of an earlier script of the fourth and third centuries B.C.E., one that has been known to scholars since the nineteenth century. Perhaps surprisingly, that script had originally been used only for Aramaic, not for Hebrew. In the time of the scrolls it came to be used for Hebrew as well. Whereas Hebrew won the battle of the languages, when it came to script Aramaic was the victor. The scrolls reveal various forms of the Jewish script: beautiful, careful chancellery hands decorated with serifs, informal varieties, cursive and extremely cursive (i.e., illegible and extremely illegible!) types. From this script later developed the medieval scripts used to write Hebrew, and one descendant became that most often used in modern printed Hebrew Bibles and books.
\nAlso surviving among a small group of the scrolls, however, is a developed form of the ancient Hebrew script that the Aramaic form had supplanted among the Jews. This script had been the standard in the days of David and Solomon and on down to the time of Jeremiah. In our period this form of writing, known as Paleo-Hebrew, was especially used for copies of the books of Moses (Genesis through Deuteronomy) and of Job. Presumably the scribes who chose it regarded those books as the oldest of the Hebrew Scriptures; Paleo-Hebrew was therefore most appropriate. The scrolls have shown, then, that the Jews of Jesus\u2019 day used scripts descended from both earlier Aramaic and earlier Hebrew scripts.
\nIn addition, three different cryptic, or secret, scripts have emerged. Before the discovery of the scrolls, we had never seen these forms of writing. Although cryptic writing as a concept goes back as far as the third millennium B.C.E. in ancient Mesopotamia, these are the oldest forms associated with Hebrew ever discovered. The most important of these secret scripts has come to be called Cryptic Script A. Perhaps fifty scrolls use Cryptic Script A either entirely or for marginal notes (see especially the Sage to the \u201cChildren of Dawn,\u201d text 65, and the Phases of the Moon, text 69).
\nAs Edgar Allan Poe once noted in an essay, \u201cA Few Words on Secret Writing\u201d: \u201cFew persons can be made to believe that it is not quite an easy thing to invent a method of secret writing which shall baffle investigation. Yet it may be roundly asserted that human ingenuity cannot concoct a cipher which human ingenuity cannot resolve.\u201d Cryptic Script A, likewise, has yielded up its secrets to modern scholars, who have discovered that it is a simple substitution cipher\u2014that is, each symbol of the cryptic alphabet corresponds to one symbol of the regular Hebrew alphabet.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Contents<\/p>\n\n\n\n
As noted, all the scrolls, with a few minor exceptions, are Jewish religious texts. In a way, the fact that all the writings are religious is surprising. Why are there no copies of works on agriculture or animal husbandry\u2014on secular, practical topics? The Jews in this period were an agricultural people. Wouldn\u2019t they want to read such secular books? Immediately, then, as we consider the contents of the scrolls, we begin to perceive an element of intentionality in their being gathered and hidden in the caves. This is not a random collection of \u201cwhat there was\u201d\u2014not a chance sweeping from this bookshelf and that.
\nThese religious writings are of two different kinds: the biblical and the non-biblical. The biblical texts are copies of the Hebrew Bible (the religiously neutral term for the Christian Old Testament), forming about one-quarter of the total number of scrolls in the collection. The caches included a copy of every one of the books of the Jewish Bible, except, apparently, the book of Esther.
\nThe \u201cDead Sea Bible\u201d is the oldest group of Old Testament manuscripts ever found\u2014at least a thousand years older than the traditional Hebrew texts from the early medieval period that have been the basis of all our modern Bible translations. In many cases, the scrolls have supported the traditional text of the Bible, but, in others, what they say in particular verses (their \u201creadings\u201d) agrees with nontraditional versions like the Septuagint. (The Septuagint is the ancient translation of the Old Testament into Greek that was used among Egyptian Jews.) Sometimes the scrolls preserve readings we never knew existed.
\nAt other times, the scrolls contain differences more profound than the readings of individual verses. They preserve \u201ceditions\u201d of entire biblical books that differ from the traditional text. For example, two forms of the book of Jeremiah have emerged from the caves, one agreeing with that usually printed and translated in modern Bibles, the other about 15 percent shorter and with the contents in a different order. Several versions of the book of Psalms have likewise come to light. These versions differ strongly from one another, in particular from Psalm 90 onwards. Psalms 90\u2013150 are arranged in different orders, and what is more, some of the manuscripts include additional, previously unknown, psalms. The content and form of the book of Psalms was manifestly in flux in the period when the scrolls were written. (To read some of these additional Psalms, attributed to David, turn to Apocryphal Psalms, text 17, and Apocryphal Psalms of David, text 151).*
\nIn a similar vein, the discovery of the scrolls has uncovered the existence in this period of anthologies of biblical excerpts, of \u201crewritten Bibles,\u201d and of lost sources used, perhaps, by the writers of the biblical books. The first two of these categories were apparently methods of interpreting the Bible; in both, material was added to the biblical texts quoted. The additions were intended to give a particular spin to the biblical portions they were interpreting. Whether people understood these types of texts as less authoritative than the Bible itself is a legitimate question, given that the final contours of the Bible were not yet fixed, the Healing of King Nabonidus (text 47) is an example of a scroll manuscript that has preserved a source that may have inspired a biblical writer, in this case the author of Daniel. Healing is a more primitive version of a story about the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar that is familiar to modern readers from Daniel 4.
\nIn short, the scrolls have proven that the Jews of Jesus\u2019s day knew and used more than one form of many biblical books, and it seems not to have disturbed them or driven them to resolve the differences. There was as yet no agreed-upon canon of the Bible. Which books would be included in the Bible and in what form or edition had not yet been decided. Doubtless different Jews and groups of Jews would have made different selections of authoritative books. Many of the Dead Sea Scrolls, though not a part of our Bible today, were certainly regarded as holy and authoritative by at least some Second Temple Jews. Only later, after 100 C.E., did a standard version of the Bible emerge.
\nThe nonbiblical texts are, simply, copies of religious texts not found in the Bible. Based on our ignorance, these can be further subdivided into two categories. There are nonbiblical texts that were known before the discovery and others that were completely unknown until the scrolls were read.
\nThe previously known nonbiblical texts are religious works like Jubilees, 1 Enoch, and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. Although Jews wrote them (or some early form of them) in Aramaic and Hebrew in ancient times, these writings did not survive in Jewish circles. They survived only among Christians, who adapted them and republished them as edifying literature, even sometimes adopting them as part of Holy Writ. Both Jubilees and 1 Enoch survived, translated into the ancient language of Ethiopia, as components of the Old Testament of the Ethiopian church. The Testaments are extant only in Greek. Another example is Tobit. Translated into Greek in ancient times, it became a part of the Roman Catholic Old Testament canon. Until the Qumran finds, however, it was unknown in its original language. Copies in both Hebrew and Aramaic have turned up. These manuscripts in themselves would be enough to earn the title of Greatest Find of the Century.
\nBut it is the texts that no one knew existed that give the Qumran collection its special quality, and they defy easy summary by their sheer variety and richness. They are the texts that are translated here, and the best way of finding out about them is just to read them. They include works of poetry and prose, and in them we find astrology, magic, and apocalyptic dreams of worldwide domination. There are biblical commentaries, descriptions of messiahs and Antichrists, stories about angels and giants; there is even a list of buried treasure\u2014actual, not imaginary, treasure (A List of Buried Treasure, text 16). Yet even this part of the collection can be thought of as comprising two kinds of texts: the sectarian writings and the nonsectarian writings.
\nSuch a division is much more controversial, and some scholars would rush to deny the validity of it. Yet even a rough-and-ready perusal of the materials shows that some texts presuppose a particular kind of organization and share a distinctive set of doctrines, a unique theological vocabulary, and a special perspective on history, things absent from other Qumran texts and other sorts of Judaism in general. Quite a few works advocate or presuppose an unorthodox calendar. Perhaps 40 percent of the nonbiblical Dead Sea Scrolls fall into this subgroup. These texts, it seems clear, were the central documents of the group or groups behind the Dead Sea Scrolls, and these are the ones we would designate as sectarian. Those to whom they belonged, who wrote most of them, called themselves the Yahad, a Hebrew word meaning \u201cunity.\u201d This is the term we shall use for them throughout the book.
\nOf the many controversies surrounding the scrolls, probably the most lasting has been over the identification of the group responsible for the sectarian documents. This controversy continues as we write. It is quite rightly felt that if one could securely make such an identification, most of the other questions surrounding the scrolls and their nature would fall in line. Unfortunately, the identity of the sect has been, and remains, a knotty problem\u2014although some of the newly available scrolls suggest new solutions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls<\/p>\n\n\n\n
It is not true that within a month after the discovery of the scrolls everyone thought Essenes wrote them, although in retrospect it may seem that way. The Essenes were one of the major groups among the Jews at the turn of the era. It is true that the initial press release in April 1948 mentioned them and both popular and academic studies of the first scrolls argued for Essene authorship. As the studies piled up, though, the \u201cEssene hypothesis\u201d did not have the field to itself.
\nWhy did, and do, the Essenes look so attractive to those looking for the group behind the Dead Sea Scrolls? This question leads us in several directions.
\nFirst, it is important to understand the dating of the scrolls. Though a number of contracts and other nonliterary materials of uncertain provenience (probably not from Qumran) may have internal dates, none of the literary Dead Sea Scrolls is dated internally. Unlike medieval scribes, for example, their copyists did not use colophons (summarizing statements praising God and giving the date) to identify themselves. Relatively few works refer to identifiable historical events, and none of these writings was among the initial discoveries. The men who first saw the archbishop\u2019s scrolls guessed, on the basis of the letter shapes, that the scrolls were penned in the first century B.C.E., and almost all of the studies of the scroll writing since have confirmed that initial impression. In fact, the Qumran texts have so galvanized the science of paleography\u2014the study of ancient writing and its evolution\u2014that some proponents claim to be able to date a text within twenty-five years on that basis alone. Others (including the authors) are less confident, although few would argue with the broader view that paleography can date a text to within about a century. On that evidence, then, a few scrolls would date from the second century B.C.E., the vast majority from the first century B.C.E., and a smaller number from the first century C.E.
\nBeyond paleography, carbon-14 analysis provides another strand of evidence for dating. The carbon-14 atom, found in all life, decays to nitrogen-14 by releasing an electron\u2014which produces the \u201ctick\u201d on a Geiger counter. Analysis of the extent of this decay can indicate a general date for objects made of organic material. In 1951, some of the linen scroll covers from Cave 1 were tested, and yielded a date between 60 B.C.E. and 20 C.E. Swiss scientists made additional tests in 1991, the technique having been refined in the interim to allow individual texts to be tested. Further tests, on different texts, were conducted in Arizona in 1994. All the Qumran texts tested fell between the parameters established by the broader view of paleography.
\nFinally, a few texts from Cave 4 actually refer to historical individuals by name. These references, though isolated, are of enormous importance, as will be seen below. For now, it is enough to state that the individuals so named are the Syrian king Demetrius Eukairos (r. 95\u201378 B.C.E.), King Alexander Jannaeus of Israel (r. 103\u201376), Queen Salome Alexandra of Israel (r. 76\u201367), King John Hyrcanus II (r. 63\u201340), and the Roman general Aemilius Scaurus (active in Israel 65\u201363). In addition, the Commentary on Habakkuk and the Commentary on Nahum make transparent references to the Roman invasion of Israel in 63 B.C.E. All of these individuals and events fall within the first century B.C.E., again broadly confirming the first centuries B.C.E. and C.E. as the time when the scrolls were put down in writing.
\nArtifacts found in or around the scroll caves also provide supporting evidence for dating the scrolls. Researchers found pottery in several caves, and pottery styles are the basis of most kinds of archaeological dating. Although dating by pottery types is subject to the same kinds of reservation as paleographical dating, archaeologists estimate that the Qumran pottery types are typical of the period 150 B.C.E.\u2013100 C.E.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In short, there are good\u2014indeed, overwhelming\u2014reasons to locate those who wrote and copied the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Israel of the period ca. 200 B.C.E. to, say, 100 C.E. As it happens, we have only one comprehensive contemporary source for the history of Israel during that period: the writings of the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. Josephus was a generation younger than the apostle Paul and spent the later years of his life under the patronage of the Flavian family in Rome writing about his own people. He wrote two books that tell us almost everything we know (or think we know) about Israel during that time: the Jewish War (abbreviated War), describing the Jewish revolt against the Romans from 66 to 73\/74 C.E. and the events leading up to it, and the Antiquities of the Jews (abbreviated Ant.), a sweeping chronicle of Jewish history from creation to Josephus\u2019s own time.
\nIn both books, Josephus describes what he calls three Jewish \u201cschools of philosophy\u201d that existed in his time: the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes. It is what Josephus says about the Essenes that made the Essene hypothesis of the scrolls\u2019 origins so appealing. Particularly noteworthy in this respect is the correspondence between his description of the Essenes and the text we call the Charter of a Jewish Sectarian Association (text 7).
\nSome of the correspondences are as follows. Josephus says that \u201cthose entering the sect transfer their property to the order\u201d (War 2.122); the Charter says that new members must give their property to the Overseer (6:19; see also 1:11\u201312; 5:1\u20132). Essenes emphasize the role of fate, or divine providence, in all things, unlike the Pharisees and Sadducees, who allow some scope for free will (Ant. 13.171\u2013173); the doctrine of predestination is common in the scrolls (see the Charter 2:13\u20134:26 for its most notable expression). The Essenes allow new members to join only after a period of one trial year, when the novice shows his aptitude for the Essene way of life, followed by two years as a probationary member with some privileges (War 2.137\u2013138); according to the Charter, the would-be initiate must also pass a trial year as a member, and then a second year (note: not two more years) under probation (6:13\u201323) before becoming a full member.
\nThere is also some striking agreement in details. For instance, Josephus mentions (and it says volumes about ancient mores that he considers it worth mentioning) that Essenes \u201cavoid spitting in the midst of the group or on the right side\u201d (War 2.147); the Charter also stipulates that \u201canyone who spits into the midst of a session of the general membership is to be punished\u201d (7:13).
\nThese data in themselves would naturally make anyone consider the Essenes as possibly the sect of the scrolls; but another description of the Essenes from an ancient travelogue clinched the matter for many. The Roman writer Pliny wrote in his Natural History that a sect called the Essenes lived \u201cwithout women, sex, or money\u201d by the shores of the Dead Sea, south of Jericho and north of En-gedi\u2014an area corresponding to the region where the Dead Sea Scrolls were found. For many, that settled the matter: the Qumran group were Essenes. That view still prevails today, but it is facing new challenges.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Standard Model<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Essene hypothesis is one leg of an influential three-legged theory about the Qumran texts that we shall call the Standard Model. There are two other legs to it, which will here be called the anti-Hasmonean hypothesis and the \u201cmother house\u201d hypothesis. The anti-Hasmonean hypothesis has to do with the historical origins of the Essene movement; the \u201cmother house\u201d hypothesis concerns the connection of the scrolls to the Khirbet Qumran ruins located near some of the caves. It will be convenient to consider each of the three legs in turn, starting with what we know about the Essenes.
\nJosephus goes into some detail about the beliefs and customs of the Essenes, but he says\u2014and probably knew\u2014nothing about their origin or how they came to have their beliefs. The scrolls, if they are of Essene origin, tell us more, although in veiled terms. The Damascus Document (text 1) and the commentaries, particularly the Commentary on Habakkuk (text 2), mention some of the prominent people and events involved in the founding of the group. Ordinarily such information would be of tremendous historical value. In the scrolls, however, there is a catch: most of the dramatis personae are named only under symbolic pseudonyms. Thus the apparent founder of the group is called only the Teacher of Righteousness; the prominent member of the group or groups opposing him is called the Man of the Lie (or sometimes the Spewer of Lies), who may be the leader of a sinister cabal called the Flattery-Seekers; and the sect\u2019s chief persecutor is designated only as the Wicked Priest. There is another ruler called the Lion of Wrath, and there is a menacing foreign power known as the Kittim.
\nA story can be pieced together from the various texts. The Teacher of Righteousness was a priest exceptionally gifted in religious insight; indeed, he had been granted special revelations from God about the true meaning of Scripture and the proper interpretation of the Law of Moses. Although he succeeded in gaining a following among other priests and righteous Jews, he was opposed by the Man of the Lie, who by his cunning rhetoric was able to dissuade many from submitting to the Teacher\u2019s precepts. The Flattery-Seekers also opposed the ministry of the Teacher. The Wicked Priest, however, initially seemed to be favorable to the Teacher; but \u201cwhen he ruled in Israel\u201d he showed himself to be irreligious, greedy, corrupt, and violent. He harried the Teacher and his followers, drove them into exile, and on at least one occasion made an attempt to have the Teacher killed\u2014apparently without success. The Wicked Priest was threatened by Gentile powers and was captured and mistreated by them. There is no certain indication that the Teacher died a violent death, although that is possible.
\nThe texts often combine elements of this story of the Teacher with imprecations on his and the group\u2019s enemies. In particular the imminent coming of the rapacious \u201cKittim\u201d is understood to be divine punishment on the nation for its rejection of the Teacher of Righteousness and his followers.
\nScholars have ransacked the turbulent history of Israel in the second and first centuries B.C.E. to find scenarios that match the synopsis above. Very briefly, that history goes like this: after the Jews had thrown off the yoke of the Greek kings of Syria in 165 B.C.E., they were ruled by the priestly family of the Hasmoneans (also known as the Maccabees), leaders of the revolt. For slightly less than a century (152\u201363 B.C.E.), Judea was independent under Hasmonean rule, and even expanded its territory to something like its boundaries under David and Solomon. At the same time, however, the country was riven by religio-political factions, of which the two main ones were the Pharisees and the Sadducees.
\nThe origins of both groups are obscure. Josephus first mentions them as existing, with the Essenes, during the reign of the early Hasmonean high priest Jonathan Maccabee (152\u2013142 B.C.E., Ant. 13.171). It is certain that the Pharisees, largely a lay movement and the liberals of their day, generally opposed the Hasmoneans. The Sadducees, on the other hand, were composed primarily of priests and as the conservatives supported the Hasmoneans.
\nThe Pharisees were distinguished in particular for their oral law, an unwritten adjunct to the Scriptures that claimed to provide the correct interpretation of Holy Writ. As Josephus wrote, \u201cThe Pharisees have imposed on the people many laws from the tradition of the fathers not written in the Law of Moses\u201d (Ant. 13.297). These traditions of the fathers were the genius of the movement, for they spelled flexibility, enabling the Pharisees to adjust to new situations and to recast old laws as new circumstances required. Naturally, to the Sadducees and other non-Pharisaic groups among the Jews these same traditions were anathema. The Pharisees were nevertheless often able to impose their will because they were the group that enjoyed the most support among the general populace. They were the forebears of the rabbis, and rabbinic literature contains a fair number of laws and traditions that go back to the Pharisees. The Pharisees were also the group most often depicted in the Gospels as opposing Jesus and his interpretations of the Law, although in many respects Jesus stood close to their position. (Our strongest arguments are often within our own family.) Josephus further tells us that the Pharisees believed in resurrection and the existence of angels and spirits, whereas according to the New Testament (Acts 23:8) their principal competitors for power, the Sadducees, denied both.
\nWhether the Sadducees actually did deny these doctrines pure and simple, especially the existence of angels, is problematic. Angels appear in the books of Moses, after all, and every Jew embraced those writings. As a priestly party, the Sadducees may, however, have questioned the resurrection, since the ancient priestly doctrine of the afterlife\u2014as found in the Hebrew Bible and in the apocryphal book of Sirach, for example\u2014held that a shadowy existence in Sheol follows death. This ill-defined existence was much less desirable than earthly life. For the ancient priests true life after death consisted primarily in the continuation of one\u2019s name through children and grandchildren, and in leaving behind a \u201cblessed memory.\u201d In any case, what is certain is that the Sadducees, whose primary support lay with the Jerusalem elite, denied the Pharisaic understanding of these matters. That denial was part conviction, part political necessity.
\nDuring the tenure of Alexander Jannaeus (103\u201376 B.C.E.) the Pharisees helped invite the Greek king of Syria, Demetrius III, to mount a military campaign against Alexander\u2014for which they were severely punished when the revolt failed. Alexander later received very bad press from Josephus, who depicted him as a drunken, war-besotten monarch whose greatest pleasure, outside of drink and war, was consorting publicly with his many concubines. But as we shall see, not everyone among the Jews would have accepted Josephus\u2019s characterization, and the other side finds a voice among the scrolls.
\nAlexander and the Pharisees were for six years on opposite sides of a civil war among the Jews, and it was in this context that, desperate to remove Alexander, the Pharisees turned to the traditional Syrian Greek enemies of the Jews for help. Later, after Alexander\u2019s death, his widow, Salome Alexandra, came under Pharisaic influence and allowed them to suppress dissenting views. She was thus the antithesis of her husband. Whereas he had embraced, and been embraced by, the Sadducees and other priestly groups, she allied herself with the Pharisees. The reason for the switch was purely political. Knowing that she could not hope to appeal to both Sadducees and Pharisees, Salome (depicted by Josephus as a prudent and energetic queen, if a bit naive) simply calculated which group\u2019s support would most strengthen her own position.
\nAfter Salome\u2019s death (67 B.C.E.) yet another civil war broke out between her two sons, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, partisans of the Pharisees and Sadducees, respectively. Thus the militant disputes between the principal religious factions among the Jews continued for yet another generation. Hyrcanus had already been the high priest while his mother reigned. Upon her death he simply assumed the royal mantle as well. But Hyrcanus was weak and had no real stomach for war or the other duties that monarchs of that period were expected to perform (at least, that\u2019s the way Josephus tells it). He abdicated the throne in favor of his much more ambitious brother, Aristobulus, but later, at the instigation of members of the Jerusalem elite, had second thoughts. War broke out between the brothers. The war ended only when the Romans invaded and added Judea to the list of Roman provinces in 63 B.C.E.
\nQumran pseudonyms can be correlated with Judean history in two cases: the Kittim and the Wicked Priest. The Kittim, conquerors of nations, are pretty clearly the Romans; and the Wicked Priest, who was also a ruler of Israel, must have been one of the Hasmoneans. But which one? Rather than focus on the period from Alexander Jannaeus to the coming of the Romans, most proponents of the Standard Model look to an earlier time and favor early members of the family: either Jonathan Maccabee or his brother and successor, Simon (142\u2013134 B.C.E.). Why?
\nOne main reason is archaeological, and that leads us to the \u201cmother house\u201d hypothesis. The Standard Model stipulates that the Khirbet Qumran site (see below, on the archaeology of Khirbet Qumran) was the central headquarters of the Essene movement and the main dwelling place of the Teacher and his disciples after their rejection by the establishment. Proponents then proceed to read out a chronological framework for Essene history from the settlement history of the ruin. Since the site\u2019s history has been understood to begin around the middle of the second century B.C.E., the Wicked Priest must have been the Hasmonean then holding office\u2014Jonathan or Simon.
\nThat conclusion is then further buttressed by a certain reading of the Damascus Document:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
When in their treachery Israel abandoned Him, He turned away from Israel and from His sanctuary and gave them up to the sword; but when He remembered the covenant of the forefathers, He left a remnant to Israel and did not allow them to be totally destroyed, but in a time of wrath\u2014three hundred and ninety years when He put them into the power of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon\u2014He took care of them and caused to grow from Israel and from Aaron a root of planting to inherit His land and to grow fat on the good produce of His soil. They considered their iniquity and they knew that they were guilty men, and had been like the blind and like those groping for the way twenty years. But God considered their deeds, that they had sought Him with a whole heart. So He raised up for them a Teacher of Righteousness to guide them in the way of His heart. (A 1:3\u201311)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Standard Model understands this passage to be, in a nutshell, the history of the founding of the sect. The ambiguous statement about 390 years is interpreted so that the 390 years follow rather than precede (as is possible in the original Hebrew) the conquest of Nebuchadnezzar, which happened in 586 B.C.E. Subtraction yields the date 196, and an additional twenty years leads to 176 as the beginning of the Teacher\u2019s ministry. Since his activity could have lasted some thirty years, the Teacher and Jonathan Maccabee could easily have been contemporaries.
\nBut what made Jonathan so wicked? There is no indication in Josephus or other sources that he was notably corrupt or violent. Here the model baldly asserts that Jonathan\u2019s great sin was precisely in accepting appointment as high priest of Israel under the auspices of the Syrian Greek king Alexander Balas in 152 B.C.E. The Hasmonean family, although of priestly stock, did not belong to the descendants of David\u2019s high priest Zadok, from whom alone many Jews thought the high priest could come. Of course, if this act was what made Jonathan wicked, then his successors to the high-priestly throne\u2014in short, all the Hasmoneans\u2014must likewise have been odious to the Essenes.
\nIn turn, so the theory goes, their opposition to Hasmonean rule made the Essenes obnoxious to the government and to some other Jews, and they were hounded by Jonathan (or his successor, Simon) into exile in the Judean desert, where they built a settlement. There they remained for at least two centuries, isolated and insulated from the evil regime of the Hasmoneans, from the Roman successors to the Hasmoneans, and from the corrupt society of Judea, which had rejected the holy verities of the Teacher of Righteousness. During the Jewish revolt against the Romans in 66\u201373\/74 C.E., they fell afoul of the Roman legions and their settlement was destroyed\u2014but not before they were able to conceal a precious library in the nearby caves.
\nSuch, in brief, is the understanding of the historical background of the Dead Sea sect that many scholars hold today. It would be pointless to deny the element of truth in the Standard Model, but is also fair to say that it has had much too easy a time of it in scholarly circles. There are significant gaps in this theory, and some of the new texts have the effect of spotlighting these gaps. Also, there are many weaknesses in the notion that the ruin was once the headquarters of the Essenes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Site of Khirbet Qumran<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Khirbet Qumran lies on the northwest coast of the Dead Sea, within easy walking distance of Jericho and not difficult to reach from Jerusalem. (khirbet is the Arabic word for \u201cruin,\u201d and the name means \u201cruin of Qumran\u201d; generally scholars use the shorthand reference \u201cQumran.\u201d) When the scrolls were discovered, their caves seemed to radiate north and south from this site, so early investigators thought it reasonable to suppose there might be some connection. Believing that an understanding of Khirbet Qumran could clarify the human situation behind the scrolls, they decided to excavate. The Department of Antiquities of Jordan, the Palestinian Archaeological Museum, and the \u00c9cole Arch\u00e9ologique Fran\u00e7aise de J\u00e9rusalem undertook joint campaigns beginning in 1951 and continuing through 1956. Unfortunately, Father Roland de Vaux, who led the excavations, never published the results scientifically. (Some have now appeared, and preparations to publish the rest are now ongoing, two generations later.) De Vaux did, however, publish a variety of preliminary reports, as did some of the others who had helped in the work. De Vaux also lectured widely on the findings, culminating in the Schweich Lectures of 1959, published as Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls.
\nDe Vaux distinguished four basic occupational levels (periods of habitation): one in the seventh century B.C.E., and, after a long hiatus, three others beginning about 135 B.C.E. and ending shortly after 70 C.E. The fourth and final period represented a few years of Roman occupation, so the two periods between 135 B.C.E. and 70 C.E. were the important ones in terms of the scrolls. De Vaux and other early proponents of the Standard Model linked these two periods to the sectarian scrolls. The group that had produced them was imagined to have lived on the site in those years. A layer of ash pointed to fiery destruction at the end of that time, the walls around the site being mined under in the fashion of Roman siege warfare. Iron arrowheads were also associated with this level. De Vaux argued that in 68 C.E., when their forces invested Jericho, the Romans had destroyed a resisting Qumran. De Vaux\u2019s view, therefore, was that a community lived in this abandoned region for a period of almost two centuries.
\nThe excavators went on to equate Qumran with the Essene habitation on the shores of the Dead Sea described by Pliny. The findings of the excavations now fed into and became a crucial element of the Standard Model, bolstering the Essene hypothesis. Qumran, the theory held, had been the center of Essene activity, the \u201cmother house\u201d of the sect. To shore up this equation, de Vaux and others tended to push the resettling of the site in the Second Temple period back even earlier than 135 B.C.E. Archaeological findings offered no real support, but the move was necessary because they could hardly position Qumran as the center of the Essenes unless it had come into existence about when the Essenes had. As noted above, Josephus had written of the Essenes as existing before 135 B.C.E.
\nEstimating that between a hundred and fifty and two hundred people could inhabit the site itself, de Vaux and the members of his team theorized that numerous others must have lived in the nearby caves\u2014not only in the ones where manuscripts were discovered, but also in the many others in the region where signs of habitation had turned up. Additional members of the community, they suggested, probably lived in huts and tents that they would have set up around Qumran. Common meals would have been held at the mother house, as shown by the hundreds of bowls and pitchers found in one of the rooms dubbed the \u201crefectory.\u201d (Note the monastic terminology: the excavation team was led and dominated by Catholic priests. One cannot but suspect that in interpreting the excavation they peered down into the well of time and there beheld\u2014themselves.)
\nThe excavators were particularly excited about the discovery at Qumran of plastered tables. Here, they urged, were the very tables upon which the Dead Sea Scrolls had been inscribed, copied out by generation after generation of monkish scribes. The tables were found on the ground amidst rubble that had piled up with the collapse of a second-story room. The archaeologists reasoned that the tables had likewise fallen from that vanished room and named this room the scriptorium, \u201cthe room of the writing\u201d (more monastic terminology). The unearthing of an elaborate waterwork system transversing the site led to the notion that these channels and pools served for elaborate Essene ablutions. All of these interpretations of the archaeological findings found their way into countless articles and books on the scrolls and, like other aspects of the Standard Model, were repeated so often that the mist of theory congealed and became solid fact.
\nIn the past several years, however, a growing number of scholars have begun to question the nature of the connection between the scrolls and Khirbet Qumran. The discoveries at the site were not, after all, facts; archaeology seldom yields those. What archaeology yields is not facts, but artifacts\u2014which then have to be interpreted. Those interpretations, no matter how convincing they may seem, are not facts. Thus, Pauline Donceel-Vo\u00fbte (one of those who has been responsible for full publication of the de Vaux excavations) argues that the principal evidence for the scriptorium\u2014the plastered \u201ctables\u201d\u2014points rather to a Roman-period triclinium, or dining room. The Romans did not sit down to eat, but instead reclined on cushioned couches. During the years of the Second Temple period, the Jews came to do likewise. She says the tables were actually couches. Suddenly the idea of the scriptorium no longer seemed self-evident, although it still continues to have its defenders.*
\nBefore it could recover from this blow, the Standard Model\u2019s romantic image of sustained scribal activity at Qumran suffered yet another challenge with the release of all the scrolls in late 1991. Now that scholars could examine the totality of the manuscript evidence for themselves, a puzzling fact became evident: hundreds of different scribes appeared to have written the scrolls. Since each writer had a distinct handwriting, just as we do, it was possible to isolate individual scribes and determine which scrolls each had copied. Not only were hundreds of different scribes responsible for the texts, but very few seemed to have written more than one scroll. Only about a dozen \u201crepeats\u201d have been identified. Needless to say, this situation does not square very well with the theory-now-fact that Qumran scribes produced the scrolls at the site. If that theory were correct, what one would have expected to find is a limited number of hands, with many more texts traceable to each scribe. This is precisely what we do find at analogous sites, such as the ancient Jewish military colony at Elephantine, Egypt. Presumably a given scribe, laboring for a generation at Qumran, would have produced numerous manuscripts. At Elephantine, for example, which boasted a population some fifty times greater than that estimated for Qumran, one or two full-time scribes labored for each generation from about 500 to 400 B.C.E. Even allowing for the fact that some of the Qumran scrolls would have perished before being discovered in our century, release of the manuscripts has revealed a notably different profile. The logical inference is that most of the scrolls come from elsewhere. Indeed, once that much has been conceded, the burden shifts and it becomes necessary to prove that any of the scrolls were written at Qumran.
\nOther questions have arisen regarding the notion of Qumran as an Essene laura, or mother house. Recent investigation by Joseph Patrich and other Israeli archaeologists has uncovered no network of paths converging on the supposed communal center. Medieval monasteries always display such a network connecting the church and dining room to the dispersed cells. Moreover, Patrich has been unable to locate any traces of the hypothesized huts and tents, although in the case of desert archaeology such traces should still be evident. Ancient Bedouin temporary encampments in the desert are readily identifiable centuries later. Qumran was supposedly no mere temporary encampment, but a site occupied more or less continuously for two centuries. Yet there are no traces of any surrounding habitats. At most, then, about fifty people inhabited the site, only those who could fit within its walls. Consequently, most of the hundreds of communicants populating the picture drawn by de Vaux and the Standard Model have now been called into question.
\nAerial photography has likewise revealed no paths linking the caves where the scrolls were discovered to the site of Qumran. The movement back and forth that would have produced a path evidently did not occur. Thus the caves could not have functioned as separate libraries or repositories to which sectarians would repair for reading and reflection.*
\nNevertheless, still under the sway of the Standard Model, the archaeologists continued to attach the Essenes to the site, simply recalculating their existence there to a later date. Based on no particular evidence, they hypothesized that Herod the Great, put on the throne by the Romans, gave Qumran to the Essenes shortly after taking power from the Hasmoneans in 37 B.C.E. They apparently did not perceive how badly their reassessment of the site would cripple the Standard Model they invoked. By lowering the date of Essene occupation to 37 B.C.E., these investigators have kicked out the chronological underpinnings of the model\u2019s view of Essene beginnings. Qumran could hardly have been founded as the center of a breakaway new movement if that movement had already existed for a century. Nor could the Teacher of Righteousness have come here if it was a fortress under the control of the Hasmoneans, who, according to the model, were his bitterest enemies. In her recent full-scale treatment of the archaeology of Qumran, Jodi Magness, while not affirming Hasmonean construction, has agreed that the site was probably only founded later, between 100 and 50 B.C.E. Other respected archaeologists of Roman Palestine, such as Magen Broshi, have also adopted Magness\u2019s dating.
\nMore and more, then, it is becoming clear that the archaeology of Qumran cannot bear the weight of a theory that it has too long been forced to support. Even the strongest proponents of the Standard Model are beginning to admit as much. One former staunch adherent, Jonas Greenfield, conceded a few years ago, \u201cThe problem is we all bought de Vaux\u2019s version hook, line, and sinker.\u201d One can no longer reasonably argue for a strong connection between the site and the scrolls, though the two may have a weak connection; that is, though the site may have been used by the sect, it cannot have been their main location.*<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Further Problems with the Standard Model<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Not only is the connection of the ruin to the scrolls unsure, but the Essene hypothesis leg of the Standard Model is itself vulnerable to criticisms of one kind and another. As noted, the parallels between some of the scrolls, especially the Charter, and Josephus\u2019s description of the Essenes are striking. But the scrolls give no evidence of other notable characteristics of the Essenes. For instance, Josephus and Pliny and the Jewish philosopher Philo all describe the Essenes as celibate\u2014indeed, it is perhaps their most arresting trait. But the scrolls contain no command to be celibate; on the contrary, numerous passages presuppose the opposite, that the group members will be married.
\nPhilo also says that the Essenes pursued only peaceful occupations\u2014and yet the War Scroll (text 11) gives detailed prescriptions for the conduct of a very real, though future, armed conflict against the powers of darkness.
\nPhilo and Josephus also agree that the Essenes rejected slavery\u2014and yet the Damascus Document has rules governing the treatment of slaves (11:12; 12:10\u201311). Another writing, called here Ordinances (text 19), further regulates slavery. Josephus mentions, among other things, the white garments of the Essenes\u2014of which the scrolls say nothing.
\nIf the classical sources describe the Essenes in ways that conflict or lack support from the contents of the scrolls, the opposite is also the case. The scrolls stress beliefs that Josephus and Philo say nothing about. The doctrine that God had commanded Israel to follow a 364-day solar calendar instead of a 354-day lunar calendar was a key tenet of the Qumran group. This peculiar calendar unifies the scrolls more than any other single sectarian element. Yet Josephus and Philo say nothing of the calendar. The scrolls strongly emphasize the role of priests in the group leadership; but again, Josephus says not a word about priestly dominance, although he himself came from a priestly family and claims to have studied with the Essenes as a youth. Josephus also fails to mention the Teacher of Righteousness in his extensive descriptions of the Essenes.
\nThere are ways to finesse all of these objections, and some of them are more or less convincing. For instance, Josephus, living so long after the Teacher, might not have heard of him, especially if, over the years, the Essenes had changed and were no longer so attached to the Teacher. Also, Josephus does allude to a sect of \u201cmarrying Essenes\u201d (War 2.160\u2013161)\u2014and that could perhaps account for the lack of interest the scrolls show in celibacy. But the Essene hypothesis, however appealing, is hardly airtight.
\nA part of the difficulty may be in too ready acceptance of Josephus\u2019s oversimplifying division of the Jews into Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. We know from other sources, both Jewish and early Christian, that there were more than three groups among Second Temple Jews. In fact, Josephus himself mentions others in passing or in detail, including Zealots and sicarii, and describes various movements that centered on charismatic leaders such as John of Gischala or Simon bar Giora. Trying to apply Josephus\u2019s three labels to a complex historical reality is like trying to use only the categories of \u201cCatholic,\u201d \u201cProtestant,\u201d and \u201cJew\u201d to understand every shade of religious opinion in the United States in our own day. Which one was David Koresh, leader of the Branch Davidian group at Waco? Well, if forced, you would probably say \u201cProtestant\u201d\u2014but such a label would prove singularly unhelpful for anyone studying Koresh and his followers. The same may well be true of the Teacher of Righteousness and his flock.
\nFinally, the idea that the Qumran group\u2014Essenes or some other persuasion\u2014originated in the second century B.C.E. out of opposition to the Hasmonean takeover of the high-priesthood is crumbling. The newly released scrolls offer this notion no support. In both old scrolls and new there are indeed many references to the corruption of Israel\u2019s rulers\u2014to their rapacity, to their greed, to their complicity in the profanation of holy sites\u2014but not a single passage objects to the high priest\u2019s line of descent. In fact, a close reading of Josephus will reveal that only the Pharisees ever objected to a Hasmonean as such holding the high-priesthood (Ant. 13.288\u2013292).
\nIn short, the Standard Model, while an elegant idea, has become less convincing, not more, as additional evidence has come forth from archaeology and the texts. The situation is reminiscent of Thomas Huxley, who in a very different context decried the great tragedy of \u201cthe slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact.\u201d Various ugly facts are now making themselves known, and many come from the new texts.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A New Proposal for Scroll Origins<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Not only is there no evidence that the Dead Sea group objected to the Hasmonean pontificate as such, the newly available texts actually show the opposite: they held some of the Hasmoneans in high regard. One such writing is the so-called In Praise of King Jonathan (text 114), technically referred to as 4Q448. The difficult script on this scrap of leather has been brilliantly deciphered by Ada Yardeni. It is a poem in honor of a king of Israel known as Jonathan; the vital opening portion reads \u201cFor Jonathan the king\u201d and goes on to say \u201cand all the congregation of Your people Israel that is (dispersed) to the four winds of the heavens, let peace be on all of them and Your kingdom\u201d (2:2\u20138). Yardeni and her colleagues, Hanan and Esther Eshel, believe that the text refers to the Hasmonean ruler Alexander Jannaeus (Hebrew name: Jonathan), who was the first Hasmonean officially to style himself as \u201cking.\u201d If they are correct, as we believe they are, then In Praise of King Jonathan undermines the idea that the Teacher and his followers were on principle opposed to the Hasmoneans. Not only were they not opposed to them, they supported one of the most ill-famed of the family, for Alexander, as noted, was described by the historian Josephus as an extraordinary villain. (Proponents of the Standard Model have labored to explain In Praise of King Jonathan. Lawrence Schiffman, for example, can do no better than saying, \u201cIt may have happened that a text presenting an opposing view simply ended up there [in the collection]\u2014an exceptional occurrence, but not impossible.\u201d* Indeed.)
\nAt least one new text, then, has provided a big surprise. But as often with new discoveries, it has sent us back to the old texts with new eyes. One of the old texts, already published in the 1950s, is the Commentary on Nahum. The ancient Qumran group liked to pore over the ancient prophecies of the Hebrew Bible looking for foreshadowings of their own history. One result of this activity was a commentary on the prophet Nahum from Cave 4 (text 23); it was the first published scroll to refer to identifiable historical figures. One of them was Alexander Jannaeus, the \u201cLion of Wrath.\u201d Alexander, according to the writer, \u201cused to hang men alive [\u2026 GAP \u2026] in Israel in former times, for to anyone hanging alive on the tree, [the verse app]lies: \u2018Behold, I am against [you, says the LORD of Hosts\u2019]\u201d (Frags. 3\u20134 1:7\u20139).
\nThe crucial gap was initially filled in so as to yield \u201c[which had never been done] in Israel in former times,\u201d expressing outrage at the act of crucifixion. But when another scroll, the Temple Scroll (text 155), was published in 1977, it became clear that, under certain circumstances, the scroll writers did approve of crucifixion: \u201cIf a man is a traitor against his people and gives them up to a foreign nation, so doing evil to his people, you are to hang him on a tree until dead\u201d (64:7\u20138). It so happens that Alexander did crucify eight hundred men for the crime of siding with the Greek king Demetrius III and inviting him to invade Judea. With the publication of the Temple Scroll, it now seemed that the proper restoration of the gap was that suggested by Yigael Yadin: \u201cThe Lion of Wrath used to hang men alive, [as it was done] in Israel in former times.\u201d
\nNow, according to the Commentary on Nahum, some of those that the Lion of Wrath crucified were the Flattery-Seekers, and they are known in other historical sources as the Pharisees. We already knew that the Qumran sect hated the Pharisees, but it is now apparent that Alexander, the sworn enemy of the Pharisees during his reign, was a hero to the sect. The sect, in other words, heartily approved of Alexander\u2019s crucifying eight hundred Pharisaic rebels.
\nIf the Teacher\u2019s group could side with Alexander Jannaeus, then clearly they need not have disapproved of any Hasmonean ruler on principle. This new chain of evidence makes it very unlikely that the group originated in a dispute concerning the high-priestly succession in the mid-second century B.C.E. Moreover, not only does this newly possible combination of evidence change our ideas about the origin of the sect; it suggests that they were fully involved in the internal politics of Israel in the first century B.C.E. They supported Alexander and opposed the Pharisees. One of the effects of the Standard Model was to distance the scroll writers geographically and ideologically from the Judean mainstream: they were insular monastic dropouts. But the new model suggested here brings the group back into the flow of history.
\nKing Alexander, as we know from other sources, was himself sympathetic to the group known as Sadducees. What did the Qumran group think of the Sadducees?<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Another newly published text sheds some light on that question. Although known to the tiny group of official scroll editors since the late 1950s, it was only in the 1980s that the existence of the work now called Miqsat Maase ha-Torah (MMT, for short), or the Sectarian Manifesto (text 100), was revealed. The Manifesto is a position paper of some kind and juxtaposes the views of three parties: a \u201cwe\u201d group, a \u201cyou\u201d individual who is a ruler, and a \u201cthey\u201d group who are doing things in the Temple that the \u201cwe\u201d group condemns. The \u201cwe\u201d group further tries to persuade the \u201cyou\u201d ruler to support them in this condemnation. Who are these three parties?
\nCertain scholars, most notably Schiffman of New York University, early recognized that the positions of the \u201cwe\u201d group sometimes bore a striking resemblance to laws of the Sadducees described in rabbinic literature\u2014so much so that Schiffman now leaps to redefine the Qumran sect as being itself Sadducees. We may prefer to look before we leap with him, but we can walk as far as the cliff\u2019s edge: if the \u201cwe\u201d group are Sadducees (or a Sadducean subgroup or priestly sympathizers), then logically the opposing \u201cthey\u201d group are Pharisees. The royal \u201cyou\u201d to whom the text is addressed must be one of the Hasmonean rulers. The connections with rabbinic literature thus point to a tentative identification of the three parties, at least in general terms.
\nThe social setting implicit in the Manifesto permits further deductions. Strugnell argues that the text was written against the background of the Sadducean loss of power over the Temple and the concomitant rise of Pharisaic control there: \u201c[The Manifesto] was sent by a priestly faction that was later to evolve, under the influence of the Teacher of Righteousness, into the Qumran sect. Further, it was sent to keep the then High Priest of Israel faithful to those Sadducean priestly laws that were shared at that time by him and them.\u201d*
\nYet the idea that Sadducees wrote the sectarian scrolls is vulnerable in some of the same ways that the theory connecting them to the Essenes is. The \u201cSadducean theory\u201d does not easily square with important aspects of what we know about the Sadducees from other sources. According to Josephus, for example, the Sadducees of his day had no use for the doctrine of predestination. The New Testament further says that they did not believe in an afterlife or in angels (Acts 23:8). In contrast, we know from their writings that the authors of the sectarian scrolls strongly held all these convictions.
\nThe evidence suggests, then, that the scrolls group resembled the Sadducees in some ways and the Essenes in others. Yet there are major obstacles to identifying the group straightforwardly as one or the other.
\nApart from this problem of labeling the group, so far we can say the following. In Praise of King Jonathan, the Commentary on Nahum, and the Manifesto, taken together, seem to imply that the sect (whoever they were) took sides in the intra-Jewish political conflicts of the first century B.C.E. They favored Alexander over his opponents, the Pharisees, and favored Sadducean law over its opponents, also the Pharisees. The Sectarian Manifesto in particular seems to point to an era when the tide was turning away from Alexander\u2019s partisans\u2014including the scroll writers\u2014and in favor of his old enemies, the Pharisees. Josephus describes only one possible period of rising Pharisaic power in the Hasmonean period: the reign of Salome Alexandra, the widow of Alexander.
\nThe Commentary on Nahum fits very well into this watershed era. Its author considers the activity of the Lion of Wrath to be past, while the \u201cdominion of the Flattery-Seekers\u201d is a tragic reality at the time he is writing. Since, as we have seen, the Lion was Alexander, the writer must have been living in the period after Alexander\u2019s death in the year 76 B.C.E. Salome Alexandra followed him in power, and she favored the Pharisees, granting them unprecedented sway over the internal affairs of the nation.
\nJosephus wrote of this turn of events with thinly veiled disapproval, and of Salome Alexandra\u2019s allowing it with outright disdain. The Pharisees, he noted,<\/p>\n\n\n\n
are a certain sect of the Jews that appear more religious than others, and seem to interpret the laws more accurately. Now [Salome] Alexandra hearkened to them to an extraordinary degree.\u2026 These Pharisees artfully insinuated themselves into her favour by little and little, and became themselves the real administrators of the public affairs: they banished and reduced whom they pleased; they bound and loosed men at their pleasure: and they had the enjoyment of the royal authority.\u2026 While [Salome Alexandra] governed other people, the Pharisees governed her.
\n (War 1.110\u2013112)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Another reason for focusing on the first century B.C.E. rather than the second rests in other newly published texts, collected here under the title Fragmentary Historical Writings (text 74). What gives these works special significance is their occasional mention of historical events in plain terms, without using the ciphers that commonly appear in the Qumran texts. Unfortunately, since the works are very fragmentary, mere phrases survive, but they are enough to tell us to what era they are referring. The phrases include \u201cShelamziyon secretly came,\u201d referring to Queen Salome Alexandra by her Hebrew name; \u201cHyrcanus rebelled against Aristobulus,\u201d referring to the sons of Salome and Alexander, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II; and \u201cAemilius killed,\u201d referring to the Roman general Aemilius Scaurus, who led the armies of Pompey into Judea in the 60s of the first century B.C.E.
\nAs noted above, Salome reigned from 76 to 67 B.C.E., during which time her eldest son, Hyrcanus, was high priest. Aristobulus was king and high priest from 67 to 63 B.C.E., when the Romans arrived. A confused period ensued, with Roman dominion overlaying first civil war, then continuing general discord between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus and their followers. This confusion continued until 37 B.C.E. with the rise of Herod the Great. The Fragmentary Historical Writings seem to refer only to events in the first half of the first century B.C.E.\u2014not to later events, and most particularly not to earlier ones. Conspicuous by their absence are any events of the second half of the previous century, when the Standard Model would locate the rise of the sectarians.
\nThe prominence of the period 76\u201363 B.C.E. in the Fragmentary Historical Writings has not escaped the notice of adherents of the Standard Model, nor have they failed to see the implications. Forced to offer alternate explanations, they either fall silent or are reduced to a response something like Schiffman\u2019s: \u201cThese names designate heavenly bodies rather than actual people.\u201d* Schiffman offers no support for his proposal, and we have otherwise no reason to believe that heavenly bodies were known to the Jews of this period by human names.
\nJust as In Praise of King Jonathan sent us back to the Commentary on Nahum with a new perspective, so the Fragmentary Historical Writings send us back to another commentary with new appreciation, the Commentary on Habakkuk (text 2).
\nAs noted earlier, the Commentary on Habakkuk was one of the first seven scrolls found in Cave 1. For over fifty years it has been the subject of intense scrutiny. The Qumran writer interpreted the biblical prophet\u2019s Chaldeans as the Kittim, \u201cwho are swift and mighty in war.\u2026 attacking and pillaging the cities of the land.\u2026 From far away they come, from the seacoasts, to eat up all the peoples like an insatiable vulture\u201d (2:12\u201313; 3:1, 10\u201312). Scholars are agreed today that the term \u201cKittim\u201d refers to the Romans, and that the advent of the Roman armies in the 60s of the first century B.C.E led to the highly colored account of the commentary. There seems to be no good reason why the personalities of the commentary should be drastically separated in time from the Roman invasion, as required by the Standard Model. The Roman invasion is portrayed as a punishment for the sins of the Wicked Priest and the Man of the Lie. What makes most sense is that the Wicked Priest should have been active in the first decades of the first century B.C.E., and so also the Teacher of Righteousness.
\nIf the Wicked Priest is from the first century B.C.E., there are only two candidates for the position: Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. Hyrcanus was supported by the Pharisees, Aristobulus by the Sadducees; hence, in view of the anti-Pharisaic cast of the scrolls, Hyrcanus II is the best suggestion for the Wicked Priest.
\nAs for the Man of the Lie, it appears from a close reading of the sources that he was probably the head of the Pharisaic party. Rabbinic sources preserve the name of a prominent Pharisaic leader of the first century B.C.E., a man who was noted both for his violence and for his success in winning approval for his views: Shimeon ben Shetah. He may have been a brother or more distant kinsman of Salome Alexandra. Ben Shetah is known only from later rabbinic literature, but the legends told of him there match up with what we know of Pharisaic power from Josephus. Shimeon was able and apparently willing to sentence people to death, and one story tells of his hanging eighty women in Ashkelon for witchcraft. From the Pharisaic perspective, the era was remembered as that of \u201cShimeon ben Shetah and Queen Salome,\u201d and it is said that during this golden age \u201cwheat grew to the size of kidneys, barley to that of olive berries, lentils to that of gold denarii.\u201d Although it can be no more than a suggestion, it is interesting to speculate that the Man of the Lie may have been this proto-rabbinic figure. If he was, it would fit well with the idea that the Wicked Priest was Hyrcanus II. We are not the first to propose equating Ben Shetah with the Man of the Lie; F. F. Bruce argued the possibility as early as 1956. This is an example of what we meant when we spoke above of the newly released materials sometimes bringing us back to long-discarded hypotheses.
\nFinally, what of the Teacher of Righteousness? We know little about him, other than that the Wicked Priest persecuted him\u2014an undertaking that would fit well, by the way, within the Pharisaic reign of terror described by Josephus during the reign of Salome Alexandra:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[The Pharisees] became the real administrators of the public affairs; they banished and reduced whom they pleased; they bound and loosed men at their pleasure: and, to say all at once, they had the enjoyment of the royal authority.\u2026 Now she [Salome] was so superstitious as to comply with their desires, and accordingly they slew whom they pleased themselves. (War 1.111\u2013113)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Josephus goes on to say that Aristobulus prevailed upon the queen to allow the enemies of the Pharisees to be banished from Jerusalem instead of executed, \u201cso they were suffered to go unpunished, and were dispersed all over the country.\u201d And we are reminded that the Wicked Priest, according to the Commentary on Habakkuk, followed the Teacher to his \u201cplace of exile.\u201d
\nIn short, we suggest a scenario markedly different from that of the Standard Model: the Teacher of Righteousness began his ministry late in the second or early in the first century B.C.E., perhaps during the reign of Alexander. After the Pharisees came to power under Salome, they persecuted the Teacher\u2019s group, which was sympathetic to the Sadducean establishment, eventually hounding the Teacher into exile. When Hyrcanus II became king, he renewed his efforts to destroy the Teacher and his group. The Roman intervention ended the Jewish civil war of Pharisee versus Sadducee, Hyrcanus versus Aristobulus. All of the verifiable historical references within the scrolls, and the apparent attitudes of the scroll writers to those references, fit this model exceedingly well. Of the approximately thirty-five identifiable references in the scrolls to people, processes, and events, virtually all of them fall in the first century B.C.E. This is not what one would expect if the Teacher and his group had existed fifty to seventy-five years before the dawn of that century. We should have historical references in texts identifiably inscribed in the second century, and we do not.
\nWhat, then, became of the Teacher and his group after this period? We have been using the Josephan categories of Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes as if these were distinct and different entities in the first century B.C.E., and indeed that is how Josephus presents them. But he was writing toward the end of the first century C.E., nearly two hundred years later, and the three parties he knew did not necessarily exist in the same form in the first century B.C.E. How much are today\u2019s Democrats and Republicans like the Whigs and Tories of two hundred years ago? In other words, the Qumran group may have been (or been part of) the ancestor movement of more than one group that existed in the first century C.E. We should consider a distinction seldom raised in research on the scrolls: those who write a text may have little or no direct connection with those who later read it. People may read a work because they find something attractive in it that was not necessarily foremost in the mind of the work\u2019s author. Sociologists refer to groups who adopt another\u2019s ideology as \u201ccarrier groups.\u201d Various carrier groups may well have been reading the scrolls in the century after the Teacher.
\nThe Dead Sea Scrolls taken as a whole give evidence of a diverse movement, although not so diverse that it could accommodate just any point of view. This is a judgment supported both by the works we have called sectarian and by those that seem to be nonsectarian texts. This movement was clearly favorable to priests, inclined to support those rulers who submitted to priestly direction, and was violently averse to Pharisaism\u2014perhaps because that ideology allowed lay teachers, the later rabbis, to revise traditional laws. The movement arose among the religious conservatives of its day, whereas the Pharisees were more liberal. In addition to supporting old legal positions against Pharisaic innovation, the Teacher\u2019s group held to a calendar that they claimed\u2014and probably believed\u2014was very old. This is the mind-set of conservatives. The Teacher\u2019s group supported conservative politicians such as Alexander Jannaeus and his son Aristobulus II, at the same time opposing those under liberal domination.
\nAfter the Romans came to power, the situation changed. The movement could no longer hope to influence the political course of events directly, although the priests could still attempt, by collaborating with the occupying powers, to control the religious practices of the people. We can guess that some in the movement did exactly that, while others were not willing to cooperate with the Romans. The uncooperative group still had two further choices to make: to seek the violent overthrow of Roman power or to wait quietly for the intervention of God. Some chose the latter option, and they may have been described by Josephus under the umbrella term \u201cEssenes.\u201d
\nWe know that many others chose the way of violence, and bands of Zealots and sicarii played a role in igniting the Jewish revolt in 66 C.E. Both these groups could have drawn inspiration from the primarily first-century B.C.E. texts now known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, for there they would have read of a group much like themselves, organized for holy war. That such freedom-fighting groups were reading these texts is more than speculation. The Dead Sea Scroll we have called A List of Buried Treasure (text 16) is a list of treasure trove from Herod\u2019s Temple, compiled as part of an effort to hide the gold, silver, and other valuables from the Romans, should the Temple fall. Logically, the compilers of the list must have been in control of the treasures they wanted to save. According to Josephus, it was freedom fighters and Zealots who seized the temple when the war broke out in 66, and they never relinquished control during the subsequent years of war against Rome and against other Jewish groups. Who but they could have drawn up this list? Thus, when it was found in Cave 3 among other Dead Sea Scrolls, we cannot but conclude that not only the List, but the other scrolls as well, may have been hidden by the same people.
\nAnother clue to the identity of some first-century readers comes from the finds at Masada. The story of the Masada excavations is, wearily, much like that of the Qumran texts. In both cases, materials discovered in the late 1950s and early 1960s have only recently come to be fully available. The Masada finds present a profile similar to those of Qumran: various different handwritings, similar types of literary works (seventeen were found). The salient difference is that in the case of Masada we possess ancient eyewitness testimony as to who had collected these scrolls. Josephus was involved with the freedom fighters in the first stages of the war, and he gives us a name: the sicarii. This group, named for their penchant for using a sica, or short dagger, to assassinate collaborators with Rome, seized control of Masada at the time the war broke out. They made numerous forays against the Romans and collaborating Jews in the years that followed, and at the last, about to be overcome by Roman forces, they committed mass suicide.
\nAmong the writings they left behind was a copy of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice. This work also appears among the Dead Sea Scrolls, in fully nine copies (see text 101). Perhaps the most significant aspect of the Songs in the present connection is that it adheres to the 364-day calendar we have previously mentioned and that had been so important to the Teacher\u2019s followers more than a century earlier. This calendar was integral to what made the work so attractive for the sicarii, for it was an antiestablishment, conservative symbol as much in their own time as in the Teacher\u2019s. Indeed, for all the importance of the calendar to the scrolls, the only group of ancient Jews that followed it to whom the ancient sources give a name is the sicarii, the last defenders of Masada.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Dead Sea Scrolls Today<\/p>\n\n\n\n
We are immigrants from the past,\u201d writes Jack Miles in God: A Biography. For both Christians and Jews, Palestine in the first century C.E. is our homeland, our Old Country. We have immigrated from the world of the Dead Sea Scrolls, so it is only natural that, though they are two thousand years old, they still have much to say to us.
\nFor Jews, the Qumran texts say, \u201cOur family was larger than you knew.\u201d The watchword is diversity. Modern Judaism comes from Pharisaism, but in the first centuries B.C.E. and C.E. there were also other kinds of Judaism, and it was not obvious that the Pharisees would be the ones still standing at the end of the day. Understanding the world of the first century C.E. now means understanding the fact of diversity, and the scrolls have helped cultivate a sense of the historical complexity of the matrix of Judaism and of early Christianity. The scrolls teach, indirectly, a message the scroll writers themselves would have repudiated; that is, that there are different ways of being authentically Jewish. Any effort to \u201creclaim the scrolls for Judaism\u201d must acknowledge that truth.
\nFor Christians, the texts say, \u201cYou are more Jewish than you realized.\u201d There are many individual parallels between passages in the scrolls and the New Testament, and we point out some of these in the body of the book. But those connections are less important than certain broad views that the two groups of documents share: a pervasive dualism expressed as Light versus Darkness; the necessity of conversion; the idea that God\u2019s purposes are secrets revealed only to those who accept certain teachings; the high estimate placed on poverty\u2014all are traits of early Christian belief that scholars used to attribute to the influence of Greco-Roman culture, not to Jewish background. Yet all are now attested in the scrolls. Early Christianity, we learn, was not a hybrid of Judaism and Hellenism\u2014it was rooted in the native soil of Palestine.
\nFor both Jews and Christians, the Dead Sea Scrolls group are the cousins we never knew we had; the scrolls themselves are lost letters from home. When they tell us about our forebears, they tell us about ourselves. Like all lost letters from home, they beckon to us, draw us irresistibly to hear their message. Like all letters from home, they are well worth reading.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A Dead Sea Scrolls Timeline<\/p>\n\n\n\n
READING A DEAD SEA SCROLL<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In order to read a Dead Sea Scroll with proper appreciation and a modicum of critical acumen, it\u2019s important to know what you are reading. That may seem trite, but it\u2019s true. How does one go from a hugger-mugger of over 15,000 tiny scraps of skin and ink to about 900 full-blown manuscripts, and from there to published texts and translations? You should have some idea of the various steps involved in the process. Only then can you begin to think for yourself about what you will be reading in the following pages. Understanding the process by which the scrolls have been put together will help you to avoid the reader\u2019s cardinal sin\u2014trusting an author too much. If we have certain ideas to present, we want you to be persuaded, not simply take our word for it. We want you to know just how much reconstructing the scrolls can be a matter of judgment (possibly mistaken) and uncertainty. We also want you to be able to make sense of the various sigla, brackets, and other paraphernalia that decorate the translations in this book.
\nAs noted in the Introduction, the first seven Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered more or less intact. That can be said of very few of the hundreds of works that came to light subsequently. The early members of the scrolls editorial team found themselves facing an enormously complex jigsaw puzzle. After a short time, they worked out a modus operandi. Thousands of fragments were spread out on the tables of the Palestine Archaeological Museum, flattened under glass. The editors would walk from table to table, scrutinizing the fragments and trying to match them with this or that grouping they had already isolated. One of the editors, John Allegro, has described the guiding principle of those early efforts:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
One of the saving factors has been that of the four hundred [later, eight hundred] or so manuscripts we have had to deal with, surprisingly few were written by the same scribe, so that by recognizing the idiosyncrasies of one\u2019s own scribes one could be fairly sure that the piece belonged to his document.*<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Handwriting was thus the foremost criterion that the editors used to separate fragments into piles and then into manuscripts. A second important guide was the skin on which the texts were inscribed. The treated hides of goats, ibex, and even gazelle used for the scrolls are not uniform in thickness or color. Each skin is, so to speak, its own animal: one might be thick, another thin; one might have a reddish cast, another could be nearly black. Study of the differences in the skins was therefore important for figuring out how to group fragments. But the skins could sometimes be misleading. Though they might have been uniform shortly after they were first placed in the caves, when they came out of the caves as manuscript fragments, they could differ markedly in appearance. The reason: the variable conditions in which they had spent the past two millennia. Some fragments were exposed to more light than others, some to more moisture or a different soil chemistry. Still, in general, handwriting and the appearance of the skins were reasonably trustworthy as dual criteria guiding the early work of separating out scrolls. For the hundred or so texts written not on skin, but on papyrus, scrutiny of the patterns of the plant fibers in the papyrus helped in the separating.
\nWork on proper identification of the fragments continues to this day. Although the early editors did their work of sorting admirably well, they were not infallible. Sometimes they made mistakes; in fact, we suggest a few that we think we\u2019ve caught in the pages that follow (for example, see Assorted Manuscripts, text 121). Scholars continue to assess older conclusions. Advancing technology holds the promise of new approaches, although, since in most cases there is little doubt about the sorting, help will come mostly \u201cat the margins.\u201d In this vein, researchers at Brigham Young University have recently begun to extract DNA from some of the fragments. Extraction does minimal damage to the materials, and DNA analysis makes it possible to identify the individual animal from which each fragment came. Where there is some question about a given fragment, or where fragments have never been assigned to any manuscript (there is a fairly sizable group of such pieces, all extremely tiny), this new approach may accomplish a modest breakthrough.
\nOnce the early editors had grouped the fragments of a given manuscript together on one or more plates, they had photographs taken. Also, each manuscript was assigned a \u201cQ-number,\u201d indicating which cave it had come from. For example, 4Q242 means Cave 4 of Q(umran), the 242nd manuscript from that cave. (This system did not yet exist when the first seven scrolls were discovered, so they have no number. They are designated by abbreviations of their names; e.g., 1QS means: Cave 1 of Q(umran), Serek [Hebrew for \u201corder\u201d].) As work progressed and new fragments were identified, or it became clear that questionable assignments were in fact mistaken and fragments were removed, the shape of a given manuscript changed, and new photographs were taken. Today we can study the entire sequence of photographs for each manuscript. For the most part, these photographs were taken under infrared light. Time had so blackened many of the fragments that the writing on them was nearly invisible to the naked eye. Infrared photography rendered the invisible visible. The use of infrared explains why you seldom see color photographs of the more fragmentary manuscripts; in the 1950s, color infrared photography was not yet possible (now it is).
\nBecause these photographs were usually so much more legible than the manuscripts themselves, the early editors worked mostly with the photographs, and subsequent scholars have continued this practice. Autopsy of the original manuscript is still important, for it can resolve uncertainties (is this odd mark ink or just a spot on the skin?), but research on the scrolls centers on the photographs. Here too technology promises to improve our understanding in the future. Photographic methods developed for aerial reconnaissance have been brought down to earth and are now being applied to the scrolls. Researchers are beginning to use infrared imaging systems enhanced by electronic cameras and computer image-processing technology. Like the magical liquid we applied as children to reveal invisible ink, this method has brought out writing on fragments so dark that nothing was visible before, even in conventional infrared photographs. \u201cWe were using infrared photography like a blunt instrument,\u201d Bruce Zuckerman, one of the pioneers in applying the new techniques, has said. \u201cNow we can sharpshoot, be precise and push technology beyond anything we\u2019ve done before.\u201d So far the method has been applied to the Tales of the Patriarchs (text 4), with salutary results.
\nWorking with the photographs today, a scrolls scholar will attempt to reconstruct the original manuscript as much as possible. (The early editors, overwhelmed as they were with multiple lifetimes of material, usually attempted more limited reconstruction. Thus, the fragments in the early volumes of DJD were often simply arranged by size from largest down to smallest.) Usually a scholar will not choose an ordinary photograph, but rather a transparency made from the photographic negative. The transparency is placed on a light table, the sort you often see in camera stores for use with slides. The scholar may work with two copies of the transparency simultaneously, sliding one on top of the other to try joining fragments, or checking an uncertain letter by sliding well preserved options for the letter underneath it, to see how the remaining bits of ink line up. Magnification is helpful to a degree. A jeweler\u2019s loupe, with a strength of 8x\u201312x, works best; too much magnification results in pixilation (all you see are dots). In recent years, great strides have been made with computer digital imaging of the texts. Many scholars today view high-resolution digital images of the scrolls on desktop computers, using software such as Adobe Photoshop to magnify, manipulate, and enhance the ancient letters.*
\nA guiding principle for manuscript reconstruction is the recognition of congruent patterns of damage. Consider: as a scroll lay decomposing on the floor of its cave, it rotted away layer by layer, from the outside in. The scroll might also have been visited by insects or rats, which would eat away at the edges or at a fold. Worms could bore into the scroll. Assuming that the vermin ate through more than one turn of the scroll, more than a single thickness of skin, the damage pattern of the outer layer will continue some distance into the interior layers. An analogy would be the patterns of damage in your rolled-up morning newspaper left by the teeth of your overeager dog that brought it to you. The puncture marks and tears go several layers deep, right into the sports section.
\nScholars study these patterns of damage, for they can help determine how surviving fragments of a scroll were positioned when it was intact. If two fragments manifest a congruent pattern, then they must once have been in some physical relation to one another. Perhaps one fragment originated near the center of the rolled scroll, and the other came from an outer layer overlying the first fragment. If the scholar can identify fragments that come from three contiguous columns, he or she is off to the races. He or she need merely measure the distance between fragments. The distance between consecutive layers of a rolled scroll will change by a mathematically predictable amount, decreasing as you move toward the center. Having identified three consecutive fragments, you can then calculate the diameter of the scroll at the point where the fragments stood, using the mathematical formula for the geometric shape of a regular spiral. (If you picture a scroll edge-on, you will see that from that perspective it actually is a tight spiral. If it\u2019s not too late, have a look at your damaged rolled newspaper, edge-on.)
\nAt this juncture in the editing process a scholar will usually make a scale drawing of the scroll showing the proposed relation between the fragments. The photographs will not depict such relations, of course, so a drawing is needed. Now begins in earnest the difficult process of reading the words and trying to figure out what might have been lost in the portions of the scroll that have perished. The researcher copies or traces all the fragments and words from the photographs. In most cases the result is a series of legible letters or words that breaks off because of damage to the scroll, only to pick up a bit farther on. If the scholar is to have any chance of understanding a fragmentary scroll, he or she must try to imagine what was happening in the damaged, lost sections. How do the preserved portions relate? What is the flow of thought? Here the scale drawing helps, for one can lightly draw in a few tentative words, tracing letters so as to use the very handwriting that appears in the scroll. It\u2019s important to use the ancient scribe\u2019s actual letter forms, because the size of ancient handwriting varied as much as modern handwriting does. A break large enough for ten letters in one hand may support only five in another, larger, handwriting.
\nOf paramount importance is determining the width of the original column. Unfortunately, the full width is only occasionally preserved in some of the fragments of a manuscript, so certainty on this question is often elusive. On a good day one gets a little help. The scholar may recognize a broken biblical quotation, for example, or a broken quotation from a known extrabiblical writing, even another Dead Sea Scroll. Filling out the broken quotation may reveal the column\u2019s width. The quotation of Zechariah 2:8 works that way in frag. 2 of An Aramaic Text on the Persian Period (text 148), for example. Knowing the width is crucial, for with that information, one also knows how much text is missing, how much preserved. The resulting parameters will guide the reconstruction of ideas. If, say, half a line is missing, then it\u2019s unlikely that the idea or statement in the preserved half can simply be extrapolated into the next preserved section. Too much is missing. But if only one or two words are missing, the flow of ideas is generally not too badly disrupted, and confident reconstruction is possible.
\nConstant interaction goes on between the scholar\u2019s mind\u2014his or her \u201ctheory of the text\u201d\u2014and what can be read and understood in the fragmentary manuscript. Imagination is important, but so is the opposite pole, restraint. Reconstructing a Dead Sea Scroll, for all it may resort to technology and sophisticated methods, is no science. It is an art. Like all art, it requires inspiration, intuition, and the clamp-jawed determination of a pit bull. An intractable problem may gnaw at the mind for months, and then suddenly, in a moment, the solution becomes obvious. Yet paradoxically, when done best, this art is not creative, for the result is no new creation. The goal is to re-create an ancient writer\u2019s work.
\nHaving done as much reconstruction of the fragmentary manuscript as he or she can (someone else may later do better; scholarship is cumulative), the scholar prepares a transcription. This is the term for a rendering of the text into standard Hebrew or Aramaic book-style lettering. If you were to type out a handwritten note from a friend, that would be a transcription. The scholar does the same with the ancient text. He or she also labels fragments and columns using a standard system. A fragment can, of course, contain parts of more than one column. Labeling will then indicate \u201cFrag. 1 Col. 1\u201d and \u201cFrag. 1 Col. 2,\u201d for example. At other times a column may be composed of several fragments joined together. The label might then read \u201cCol. 1 (Frags. 1+2+3).\u201d Lines in the transcription are numbered, reading from the top of the column to the bottom. Numbering does not necessarily begin with 1. Several lines may be known to be missing, and the first line might be l. 4, or l. 15. Much of this labeling carries over into the next step, the translation. We have included such labels in our translations throughout the following pages.
\nThe transcription indicates uncertain letters in the text with standard sigla, which also signal the degree of uncertainty. And scholars use different types of brackets to communicate additional types of information. Square brackets [ ], for example, surround reconstructed words. We have ourselves used square brackets for that purpose throughout the book. Square-bracketed portions may be simple guesses, calculated probabilities, or virtually certain: broken biblical quotations filled out, for example, or wording that overlaps with another scroll. If you see square brackets, you should be cautious about the words inside. Portions in square brackets do not actually appear in the scroll.
\nSimultaneously with the transcription one prepares a translation. Note: not the translation\u2014a translation. There is no single translation equivalent for many words, not to speak of phrases or entire texts. Some words have many possible rough equivalents. Other words, phrases, and idioms in one language lack exact counterparts in another language. For example, none of the European languages possesses an exact equivalent for the English phrase \u201cbend over backward.\u201d The unfortunate inhabitants of Germany, Italy, and France, among others, must make do with a translation equivalent like \u201ctry very hard.\u201d A little thought, however, will convince you that \u201ctry very hard\u201d does not really convey the entire meaning or any of the nuance of the other phrase. In fact, exact translation between two languages is impossible. To truly read Goethe, you must learn German. So scholars prepare a translation of each transcription.
\nEssentially, that is what you will be reading in the following pages: translations of transcriptions that we have prepared for each Dead Sea Scroll in the book. Translation is the last step in an intricate and frequently uncertain process of reconstruction. In the process we have consulted and profited from the work of many colleagues worldwide (see the Bibliography). We have done our best to present flowing, idiomatic translations, so far as that has been possible given the frequently fragmentary materials. Throughout our work we have been mindful of the Italian apothegm: \u201cTraduttore traditore\u201d (\u201cThe translator is a traitor\u201d). Translators betray both what they translate and the readers of their translation. By their very effort they violate the original. Yet we are not unduly concerned, nor in the least repentant. Any damage is for a worthy cause and is not irreparable. Much of the beauty, the concision, the power of the Hebrew and Aramaic in which the scrolls are couched will continue to reside, untranslatable, where nature has decreed it must. And we are not really traitors to you, the reader, for we have drawn your attention to our betrayal from the very first. Forewarned, you go forward fully armed. If we have perhaps transported at least most of the meaning of the words across time, space, and linguistic distance, we shall have succeeded in a principal aim.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
HOW TO READ THIS BOOK<\/p>\n\n\n\n
II<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Texts<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Geniza A + B, 4Q266\u2013272<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Jewish scholar Solomon Schechter first discovered portions of the Damascus Document among manuscripts from the Cairo Geniza and published them in 1910 under the title Zadokite Fragments. The name is derived from the frequent mention of the \u201csons of Zadok\u201d in the text. Schechter believed that the writing originated in a Jewish sect of about the first century B.C.E., although the two manuscripts he published (Geniza texts A and B) were themselves medieval copies dating from the tenth and twelfth centuries C.E., respectively. The dating of the Zadokite Fragments remained an issue for decades. Many scholars agreed with Schechter, but many others dismissed his theory, preferring to date the Document centuries later.
\nThe discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls settled the question in Shechter\u2019s favor. The texts from Cave 1, especially the Charter of a Jewish Sectarian Association (text 7), clearly stemmed from the same circles that composed the Damascus Document and used much of the same religious terminology. When fragments of the Document itself were found in Caves 4 and 5, then, the discovery simply confirmed what most scholars had already concluded: the Dead Sea sect was the source of the Damascus Document. Moreover, it was to all appearances one of the group\u2019s most important texts, containing clues to its history, theology, and conception of its role in history.
\nReading the Damascus Document can be a frustrating experience. Although many broad themes are easy to notice\u2014the greatness of God and his covenant with Israel, the perfidy of apostates, the necessity of obeying the rules of God and the group, and so on\u2014the train of thought rambles from subject to subject, with many digressions, asides, and pauses to explain a difficult or important quotation from Scripture. Apparently the Document was expanded at different times, often without care for the lucidity of the discourse.
\nDespite its occasional obscurities, however, the book can be easily divided into two broad sections: the \u201cExhortation\u201d and the \u201cLaws.\u201d The Exhortation is a sermon or perhaps a collection of sermons describing how God has always judged the wicked and rewarded the faithful throughout the history of Israel. In view of this pattern, the author exhorts his listeners to be faithful to God, to be particularly careful of obeying his laws, and to avoid living by the principle of selfishness he calls, from a biblical phrase, \u201cthe willful heart.\u201d
\nTwo kinds of material comprise the Exhortation: the sermon proper and biblical commentary. While the sermon itself is based on biblical themes and sometimes quotes verses from the Bible, the commentary sections go into particular passages in great depth, picking out certain phrases for symbolic or allegorical expansions that relate to the life of the sect. These distinctive passages seem to have been added after the original Exhortation was composed, as they sometimes interrupt the train of thought.
\nThe section on the Laws, a rule book similar to the Mishnah of later centuries, is more tightly written than the Exhortation, and details the kinds of behavior\u2014moral, legal, and cultic\u2014that the Exhortation urges in more general terms. The rules themselves fall into two groups: the rules for \u201cthose living in cities\u201d (A 12:19), paraphrasing or expanding biblical laws, and the rules for \u201cthose living in camps\u201d (A 12:22\u201323), i.e., sectarian enclaves. The camp rules are oriented to communitarian life; they describe the internal lines of authority of the camp and specify sanctions to be carried out against violators of particular rules, quite in the manner of the Charter and sometimes with verbatim parallels to it.
\nIt is likely that sectarian authors added the commentaries embedded in the Exhortation and the camp rules of the Laws some time after the original Damascus Document was written. As originally conceived, the Document was less sectarian than it was later made to appear, consisting of the Exhortation originally addressed to all Israel and the city rules, also, in intent, binding on all religiously serious Israelites. This first version might have been composed as early as the third century B.C.E., although it is impossible to tell for sure. Later, members of the Yahad, finding the text\u2019s warnings against apostasy and call to obedience thoroughly in line with their own thinking, revised and expanded it to reflect their views, perhaps adding additional glosses and explanatory comments to both the Exhortation and the Laws with the passage of time. Scholars have been able to detect editorial expansions between the A and B Geniza texts, and perhaps there was never a final, canonical, version of the Document.
\nBesides the two Geniza texts (A contains sixteen columns, B two), which preserve the longest consecutive sections of the text, the remains of seven copies were found in the Qumran caves. Only the sections that are not paralleled in the Geniza texts are translated here. The translation attempts to use all of the available material to restore as much of the Document in its original order as possible, but the sequence of many of the sections in the Laws is uncertain. The order given here generally follows the outline established by the current official editor of the Cave 4 manuscripts of the Document, Joseph Baumgarten.
\nThe text, in its final form, is addressed to \u201cthose entering the new covenant in the land of Damascus\u201d (A 6:19). Whether a literal Damascus is meant or whether the name is instead another of the symbolic pseudonyms known from other Dead Sea Scrolls is uncertain, and much debated; but such references have given the book its modern name. The letters \u201cCD\u201d (for \u201cCovenant of Damascus\u201d) are the most common abbreviation used to refer to this text.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Exhortation<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Only fragments remain of the opening paragraphs of the Damascus Document. The translation that follows is pieced together from 4Q266 and 4Q268. Enough can be recovered to tell that several of the themes of the entire work are foreshadowed in the introductory paragraphs: the necessity of obedience to God, the perfidy of the wicked, the insight of the pious into the future, the importance of observing the proper times of worship, the special revelation given to the \u201cChildren of Light.\u201d This portion probably comes from the sectarian reworking of the document.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q266 Frag. 1 1[\u2026 the Children of Light to avoid the wa[ys of evil \u2026] 2[\u2026] until the time appointed for punishment is past [\u2026] 3[\u2026] God [saw] all her deeds, that they brought all [\u2026] 4[\u2026] to the Boundary-Shifters and all of it will be done [in the era of] 5wickedness [\u2026 listen] to me, for now I shall make known to you [\u2026] 6the awesome [\u2026] His wonderful [miracles] I shall relate to y[ou, hidden] 7from humanity [\u2026] heavens, who lives [\u2026] 8in the deepest [\u2026] 9he has sealed [\u2026] 10\u201313[\u2026] 14in the commandments [\u2026] 15in the offering [\u2026] and they did not obey 16the voice of Moses [\u2026] they went about spread]ing 17lies about His laws and from God\u2019s covenant [they strayed \u2026] 18both small and great [\u2026] 19Please tell us about [your ways \u2026] 20your conversation [\u2026] 21you appeared and understood [\u2026] 22they shall restore the [\u2026 and I am dust] 23and ashes [\u2026] 24give he[ed \u2026] 4Q268 Frag. 1 (= 4Q266 Frag. 2 Col. 1) 1[\u2026] later [generations] for surely they will come to pass [\u2026] 2[\u2026] what is its beginning and what its ending [\u2026] 3[\u2026 be]fore it comes upon them [\u2026] 4[\u2026 for it is not permitted] to celebrate th[eir] holidays too early or too late. [\u2026] 5[\u2026 Yes,] periods of God\u2019s w[rath] are decreed [for a people who know him not] 6[and He has established times of] favor for those who seek His commandments and to [those who live blamelessly in] 7the proper way. [He uncovered their] e[yes] to the hidden things and opened their ears that [they might hear deep things] 8and understand future events before they happen to them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This epigraph sets the tone for what is to follow: an exposition of how God punishes the wicked while leaving a righteous remnant to live exemplary lives. The Geniza manuscript A begins at this point.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Geniza A Col. 1 1So listen, all you who recognize righteousness, and consider the deeds of 2God. When He has a dispute with any mortal, He passes judgment on those who spurn Him.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A description of Israel\u2019s sin resulting in exile, and God\u2019s mercy on the generation that returned from exile.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
3For when Israel abandoned Him by being faithless, He turned away from Israel and from His sanctuary 4and gave them up to the sword. But when He called to mind the covenant He made with their forefathers, He left a 5remnant for Israel and did not allow them to be exterminated. In the era of wrath\u2014three hundred 6and ninety years at the time He handed them over to the power of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon\u20147He took care of them and caused to grow from Israel and from Aaron a root of planting to inherit 8His land and to grow fat on the good produce of His soil. They considered their iniquity and they knew that 9they were guilty men, and had been like the blind and like those groping for the way 10twenty years. But God considered their deeds, that they had sought Him with a whole heart. 11So He raised up for them a teacher of righteousness to guide them in the way of His heart. He taught 12to later generations what God did to the generation deserving wrath, a company of traitors. 13They are the ones who depart from the proper way. That is the time of which it was written, \u201cLike a rebellious cow, 14so rebelled Israel\u201d (Hos. 4:16).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Man of Mockery. This paragraph, which introduces the principal religious opponent of the sect, appears to have been added later.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
When the Man of Mockery appeared, who sprayed on Israel 15lying waters, he led them to wander in the trackless wasteland. He brought down the lofty heights of old, turned aside 16from paths of righteousness, and shifted the boundary marks that the forefathers had set up to mark their inheritance, so that 17the curses of His covenant took hold on them. Because of this they were handed over to the sword that avenges the breach of 18His covenant.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The sins of the generation of wrath and their punishment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
For they had sought flattery, choosing travesties of true religion; they looked for 19gaps in the law; they favored the fine neck. They called the guilty innocent, and the innocent guilty. 20They overstepped covenant, violated law; and they conspired together to kill the innocent, for all those who lived 21pure lives they loathed from the bottom of their heart. So they persecuted them violently, and were happy to see the people quarrel. Because of all this God became very angry Col. 2 1with their company. He annihilated the lot of them, because all their deeds were uncleanness to Him.
\n 2So now listen to me, all members of the covenant, so I can make plain to you the ways 3of the wicked (4Q267 adds: so you can leave the paths of sin). God, who loves true knowledge, has positioned Wisdom and Cleverness in front of Him; 4Cunning and True Knowledge wait on Him. He is very patient and forgiving, 5covering the sin of those who repent of wrongdoing.
\n But Strength, Might, and great Wrath in the flames of fire 6with all the angels of destruction shall come against all who rebel against the proper way and who despise the law, until they are without remnant 7or survivor, for God had not chosen them from ancient eternity. Before they were created, He knew 8what they would do. So He rejected the generations of old and turned away from the land 9until they were gone.
\n He knows the times of appearance and the number and exact times of 10everything that has ever existed and ever will exist before it happens in the proper time, for all the years of eternity. 11And in all of these times, He has arranged that there should be for Himself people called by name, so that there would always be survivors on the earth, replenishing 12the surface of the earth with their descendants. He taught them through those anointed by the holy spirit, the seers of 13truth. He explicitly called them by name. But whoever He had rejected He caused to stray.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A homily on the willful heart.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
14So now, my children, listen to me that I may uncover your eyes to see and to understand the deeds of 15God, choosing what pleases Him and hating what He rejects, living perfectly 16in all His ways, not turning away through thoughts caused by the sinful urge and lecherous eyes.
\n For many 17have gone astray by such thoughts, even strong and doughty men of old faltered through them, and still do.
\n When they went about in their willful 18heart, the Guardian Angels of Heaven fell and were ensnared by it, for they did not observe the commandments of God. 19Their sons, who were as tall as cedars, and whose bodies were as big as mountains, fell by it.
\n 20Everything mortal on dry land expired and became as if they had never existed, because they did 21their own will, and did not keep the commandments of their Maker, until finally His anger was aroused against them.
\n Col. 3 1By it the sons of Noah and their families went astray, and by it they were exterminated.
\n 2Abraham did not live by it and was considered God\u2019s friend, because he observed the commandments of God and he did not choose to follow 3the will of his own spirit; and he passed them on to Isaac and to Jacob and they too observed them. They too were recorded as friends 4of God and eternal partners in the covenant.
\n But the sons of Jacob went astray by them and were punished for 5their errors. In Egypt their descendants lived by their willful heart, too obstinate to consult 6the commandments of God, each one doing what was right in his own eyes. They even ate blood; and the men were exterminated 7in the wilderness. them at Kadesh \u201cGo up and possess their spirit; and they did not listen 8to their Maker\u2019s voice or the commandments of their teacher; instead they grumbled in their tents. So God became angry 9with their company.
\n Their sons perished because of it. Their kings were exterminated because of it. Their heroes 10perished because of it. Their land was devastated because of it, and because of it the members of the forefathers\u2019 covenant committed sin, and so were handed over 11to the sword because they abandoned the covenant of God, and chose their own will, and followed their own willful 12heart, each man doing his own will.
\n But when those of them who were left held firm to the commandments of God 13He instituted His covenant with Israel forever, revealing 14to them things hidden, in which all Israel had gone wrong: His holy Sabbaths, His glorious festivals, 15His righteous laws, His reliable ways. The desires of His will, which Man should carry out 16and so have life in them, He opened up to them. So they \u201cdug a well,\u201d yielding much water. 17Those who reject this water He will not allow to live.
\n And although they had wallowed in the sin of humanity and in impure ways 18and said, \u201cSurely this is our business,\u201d God in His mysterious ways atoned for their iniquity and forgave their transgression. 19So He built for them a faithful house in Israel, like none that had ever appeared before; and even 20at this day, those who hold firm to it shall receive everlasting life, and all human honor is rightly theirs, as 21God promised them by Ezekiel the prophet, saying, \u201cThe priests and the Levites and the sons of Col. 4 1Zadok who have kept the courses of My sanctuary when the children of Israel strayed 2from Me, they shall bring Me fat and blood\u201d (Ezek. 44:15).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This interpretive comment appears to be a later addition.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u201cThe priests\u201d: they are the repentant of Israel, 3who go out of the land of Judah and the Levites are those accompanying them; \u201cand the sons of Zadok\u201d: they are the chosen of 4Israel, the ones called by name, who are to appear in the Last Days.
\n This is the precise account 5of their names by their generations, and the time they appeared, the number of their troubles and the years of 6their sojourn and the precise account of their deeds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The section that now begins explains that the \u201cpresent age\u201d is under the power of Belial, that is, Satan. Part of the beginning has been lost.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
<\u2026> holiness <\u2026> whom God atoned 7for, and they acquitted the innocent and condemned the guilty, as well as all who come after them 8who act according to the interpretation of the Law by which the forefathers were taught, until the age is over, 9that is, the present time. Like the covenant God made with the forefathers to atone 10for their sin, so shall God atone for them. When the total years of this present age are complete, 11there will be no further need to be connected to the house of Judah, but instead each will stand on 12his own tower; \u201cthe wall is built, the boundary removed\u201d (Mic. 7:11).
\n But in the present age 13Belial is unrestrained in Israel, just as God said by Isaiah the prophet, the son of 14Amoz, saying, \u201cFear and pit and snare are upon thee, dweller in the land\u201d (Isa. 24:17).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The three traps of Belial. This section, explaining the text just quoted, discloses some important ethical principles of the Qumran group that, in its members\u2019 eyes, differentiated them from other groups: their opposition to polygamy, to the amassing of wealth, to defiling the Temple in Jerusalem, and to marriage between uncles and nieces.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The true meaning of this verse 15concerns the three traps of Belial about which Levi son of Jacob said 16that Belial would catch Israel in, so he directed them toward three kinds of 17righteousness.
\n The first is fornication; the second is wealth; the third is 18defiling the sanctuary. Who escapes from one is caught in the next; and whoever escapes from that is caught 19in the other.
\n The Shoddy-Wall-Builders who went after \u201cPrecept\u201d\u2014Precept is a Raver 20of whom it says, \u201cthey shall surely rave\u201d (Mic. 2:6)\u2014they are caught in two: fornication, by taking 21two wives in their lifetimes, although the principle of creation is \u201cmale and female He created them\u201d (Gen. 1:27) Col. 5 1and those who went into the ark \u201cwent into the ark two by two\u201d (Gen. 7:9). Concerning the Leader it is written 2\u201che shall not multiply wives to himself\u201d (Deut. 17:17); but David had not read the sealed book of the Law 3in the Ark; for it was not opened in Israel from the day of the death of Eleazar 4and Joshua and the elders who served the goddess Ashtoret. It lay buried 5 revealed until the appearance of Zadok. Nevertheless the deeds of David were all excellent, except the murder of Uriah 6and God forgave him for that.
\n They also defile the sanctuary, for they do not 7Separate clean from unclean according to the Law, and lie with a woman during her menstrual period. Furthermore they marry 8each man the daughter of his brother and the daughter of his sister, although Moses said, \u201cUnto 9the sister of your mother you shall not draw near; she is the flesh of your mother\u201d (Lev. 18:13). But the law of consanguinity is written for males 10and females alike, so if the brother\u2019s daughter uncovers the nakedness of the brother of 11her father, she is the flesh .
\n Also they have corrupted their holy spirit, and with blasphemous language 12they have reviled the statutes of God\u2019s covenant, saying, \u201cThey are not well-founded.\u201d 13They continually speak abhorrent things against them. \u201cAll of them are kindlers and lighters of brands\u201d (Isa. 50:11); \u201cthe webs of 14a spider are their webs and the eggs of vipers are their eggs\u201d (Isa. 59:5). Whoever touches them 15shall not be clean. The more he does so, the more he is guilty, unless he is forced.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
After the interpretive section, the train of thought continues: just as the present age is an age of wickedness, God\u2019s ways in the past reveal how he punishes sin and provides for the faithful of Israel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
For in times past, God punished 16their deeds and His wrath burned against their misdeeds, for \u201cthey are a people without insight\u201d (Isa. 27:11); 17\u201d they are a people wandering in counsel, for there is no insight in them\u201d (Deut. 32:28). For in times past 18Moses and Aaron stood in the power of the Prince of Lights and Belial raised up Yannes and 19his brother in his cunning when seeking to do evil to Israel the first time.
\n 20In the time of destruction of the land the Boundary-Shifters appeared and led Israel astray 21and the land was devastated, for they had spoken rebellion against the commandments of God through Moses and also Col. 6 1through the anointed of the spirit; and they prophesied falsehood to turn Israel from following 2God. But God called to mind the covenant of the forefathers; and He raised up from Aaron insightful men and from Israel 3wise men and He taught them and they dug the well: \u201cthe well the princes dug, the nobility of the people 4dug it with a rod\u201d (Num. 21:18).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The symbolic interpretation of the verse last quoted.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Well is the Law, and its \u201cdiggers\u201d are 5the repentant of Israel who went out of the land of Judah and dwelt in the land of Damascus; 6because God had called them all princes, for they sought him and 7their honor was not denied by a single mouth. And the \u201crod\u201d is the interpreter of the Law of whom 8Isaiah said, \u201che brings out a tool for his work\u201d (Isa. 54:16). The \u201cnobility of the people\u201d are 9those who come to \u201cdig the well\u201d by following rules that the Rod made 10to live by during the whole era of wickedness, and without these rules they shall obtain nothing until the appearance of 11one who teaches righteousness in the Last Days.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The continuation of the exhortation. These paragraphs read like a conclusion, and they may have occurred at the end of an earlier form of the text. The author summarizes the way of life expected of those who enter the sect.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
None who have been brought into the covenant 12shall enter into the sanctuary to light up His altar in vain; they shall \u201clock 13the door,\u201d for God said, \u201cWould that one of you would lock My door so that you should not light up my altar 14in vain\u201d (Mal. 1:10). They must be careful to act according to the specifications of the Law for the era of wickedness, separating 15from corrupt people, avoiding filthy wicked lucre taken from what is vowed or consecrated to God 16or found in the Temple funds. They must not rob \u201cthe poor of God\u2019s people, making widows\u2019 wealth their booty 17and killing orphans\u201d (Isa. 10:2). They must distinguish between defiled and pure, teaching the difference 18between holy and profane. They must keep the Sabbath day according to specification and the holy days 19and the fast day according to the commandments of the members of the new covenant in the land of Damascus, 20offering the holy things according to their specifications. Each one must love his brother 21as himself, and support the poor, needy, and alien. They must seek each the welfare of Col. 7 1his fellow, never betraying a family member 2according to the ordinance. Each must reprove his fellow according to the command, but must not bear a grudge 3day after day. They must separate from all kinds of ritual impurity according to their ordinance, not befouling 4each his holy spirit, just as God has told them so to do. In short, for all who conduct their lives 5by these laws, in perfect holiness, according to all the instructions, God\u2019s covenant stands firm 6to give them life for thousands of generations (Geniza B adds: as it is written, \u201cHe keeps the covenant and loyalty to those who love Him and keep His commandments for a thousand generations\u201d [Deut. 7:9]).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
An addendum on marriage. This paragraph might have been misplaced in antiquity; it belongs with the laws. Some have taken these words, apparently providing for the special needs of married members, to imply the presence also of unmarried or celibate members of the sect.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
But if they live in camps according to the rule of the land (Geniza B adds: which existed in ancient times) and marry 7women (B adds: as is the custom of the Law) and beget children, then let them live in accordance with the Law, and by the ordinance 8of vows according to the rule of the Law, just as it says, \u201cBetween a man and his wife, and between a father and his 9sons\u201d (Num. 30:17).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The fulfillment of prophecy, indicating the inevitability of punishment on those who reject God\u2019s laws. Geniza B has a different version of this passage. Note the interpretive section embedded in this paragraph.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
But all those who reject the commandments and the rules . When God judged the land, bringing the just deserts of the wicked 10to them, that is when the oracle of the prophet Isaiah son of Amoz came true, 11Which says, \u201cDays are coming upon you and upon your people and upon your father\u2019s house that 12have never come before, since the departure of Ephraim from Judah\u201d (Isa. 7:17), that is, when the two houses of Israel separated, 13Ephraim departing from Judah. All who backslid were handed over to the sword, but all who held fast 14escaped to the land of the north, as it says, \u201cI will exile the tents of your king 15and the foundation of your images beyond the tents of Damascus\u201d (Amos 5:27). The books of Law are the tents of 16the king, as it says, \u201cI will re-erect the fallen tent of David\u201d (Amos 9:11). The \u201cking\u201d (4Q266: the images) is 17the congregation and the \u201cfoundation of your images\u201d is the books of the prophets 18whose words Israel despised. The star is the Interpreter of the Law 19who comes to Damascus, as it is written, \u201cA star has left Jacob, a staff has risen 20from Israel\u201d (Num. 24:17). The latter is the Leader of the whole nation; when he appears, \u201che will shatter 21all the sons of Sheth\u201d (Num. 24:17). They escaped in the first period of God\u2019s judgment, Col. 8 1but those who held back were handed over to the sword.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The fulfillment of prophecy, alternate version (Geniza B).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Col. 19 7When the oracle of the prophet Zechariah comes true, \u201cO sword, be lively and smite 8my shepherd and the man loyal to Me\u2014so says God. If you strike down the shepherd, the flock will scatter. 9Then I will turn My power against the little ones\u201d (Zech. 13:7). But those who give heed to God are \u201cthe poor of the flock\u201d (Zech. 11:7): 10they will escape in the time of punishment, but all the rest will be handed over to the sword when the Messiah of 11Aaron and of Israel comes, just as it happened during the time of the first punishment, as 12Ezekiel said, \u201cMake a mark on the foreheads of those who moan and lament\u201d (Ezek. 9:4), 13but the rest were given to the sword that makes retaliation for covenant violations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The lesson to be drawn from the fulfillment of prophecy: be faithful!<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Col. 8 1And such is the verdict on all members of the covenant who 2do not hold firm to these laws: they are condemned to destruction by Belial. That is the day 3on which God shall judge (4Q268 adds: as He has said), \u201cThe princes of Judah were those (B: like Boundary-Shifters) on whom I shall pour out wrath (B adds: like water)\u201d (Hos. 5:10). 4Truly they were too sick to be healed; every kind of galling wound adhered to them (B adds: Truly they had entered the covenant repenting) because they did not turn away from traitorous practices; 5they relished the customs of fornication and wicked lucre. Each of them vengefully bore a grudge 6against his brother, each hating his fellow; each of them were indifferent to their closest relatives 7but drew near to indecency; they vaunted themselves in riches and in ill-gotten gains; each of them did just what he pleased; 8each chose to follow his own willful heart. They did not separate from the people (B adds: and their sin), but arrogantly threw off all restraint, 9adopting the customs of the wicked, of whom God had said, \u201cTheir wine is venom of snakes, 10the cruel poison of vipers\u201d (Deut. 32:33).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A pause for interpretation of the verse quoted. The \u201cchief of the kings of Greece\u201d may refer to Antiochus Epiphanes, the Gentile ruler of Palestine at the time of the Maccabean rebellion. The sect believed that their opponents did not understand that the persecutions of that time were caused by the nation\u2019s disobedience.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u201cThe snakes\u201d are the kings of the Gentiles, and \u201ctheir wine\u201d is 11their customs and \u201cthe poison of vipers\u201d is the chief of the kings of Greece, who comes to wreak 12vengeance on them. But the \u201cShoddy-Wall-Builders\u201d and \u201cWhite-washers\u201d understood none of these things, for 13one who deals in mere wind, a spewer of lies, had spewed on them (B reads slightly differently: one who walks in wind, and who deals in storms, one who preaches lies to men), one on whose entire company God\u2019s anger had burned hot.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Despite the nation\u2019s perfidy, God will remain faithful to his covenant.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
14But as Moses said (B adds: to Israel), \u201cIt is not for your righteousness or the integrity of your heart that you are going to dispossess 15these nations, but because He loved your ancestors and because He has kept his promise\u201d (Deut. 9:5; 7:8). 16Such is the verdict on the repentant of Israel, those who turn away from the usages of the common people. Because God loved 17the forefathers who bore witness (B adds: to the people) following Him (B: following God), so too He loves those who follow them, for to such truly belongs 18the covenant of the fathers. But against His enemies, the Shoddy-Wall-Builders, His anger burns. (B: But He hates and despises the Shoddy-Wall-Builders and His anger burns hot against them and all who follow them.)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A summary of the \u201cmoral\u201d of the exhortations. The reference to Jeremiah (only in the A manuscript) is obscure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
So there is one fate for 19everyone who rejects the commandments of God and abandons them to follow their own willful heart. 20This is the word that Jeremiah spoke to Baruch son of Neriah, and Elisha 21to Gehazi his servant.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The B manuscript\u2019s version of the \u201cmoral\u201d of the exhortations. The version of the Damascus Document of which the B manuscript is a later copy was more thoroughly revised to reflect the outlook of the sect. Thus two distinct versions of the text circulated in ancient times, and taken together the Geniza copies preserve both versions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
B Col. 19 33So it is with all the men who entered the new covenant 34in the land of Damascus, but then turned back and traitorously turned away from the fountain of living water. 35They shall not be reckoned among the council of the people, and their names shall not be written in their book from the day 20 1the Beloved Teacher dies until the Messiah from Aaron and from Israel appears. Such is the fate for all 2who join the company of the men of holy perfection and then become sick of obeying virtuous rules. 3This is the type of person who \u201cmelts in the crucible\u201d (Ezek. 22:21).
\n When his actions become evident he shall be sent away from the company 4as if his lot had never fallen among the disciples of God. In keeping with his impiety 5the most knowledgeable men snail punish him until he returns to take his place among the men of holy perfection. 6When his actions become evident, according to the interpretation of the Law which 7the men of holy perfection live by, no one is allowed to share either wealth or work with such a one, 8for all the holy ones of the Almighty have cursed him.
\n Such is the fate for all who reject the commandments, whether old or 9new, who have turned their thoughts to false gods and who have lived by their willful 10hearts: they have no part in the household of Law.
\n 11They will be condemned along with the Men of Mockery, because they have uttered lies against the correct laws and rejected 12the sure covenant that they made in the land of Damascus, that is, the New Covenant. 13Neither they nor their families shall have any part in the household of Law.
\n Now from the day 14the Beloved Teacher passed away to the destruction of all the warriors who went back to 15the Man of the Lie will be about forty years. Now at that time 16God\u2019s anger will burn against Israel, as He said, \u201cNeither king nor prince\u201d (Hos. 3:4) nor judge nor 17one who exhorts to do what is right will be left. But those who repent of the sin of Jacob have kept God\u2019s covenant. Then each will speak 18to his fellow, vindicating his brother, helping him walk in God\u2019s way, and God shall listen 19to what they say, and hear it, and \u201ca record-book has been written f[or him] of those who fear God and honor 20his name\u201d (Mal. 3:16) until salvation and righteousness are revealed for those who fear God. \u201cAnd you shall again know the innocent 21from the guilty, those who serve God and those who do not\u201d (Mal. 3:18). \u201cHe keeps faith [with thousands] of those who love Him 22and to those who keep him for a thousand generations\u201d (Exod. 20:6).
\n As for those separatists who left the city of the sanctuary 23and relied on God in the time of Israel\u2019s unfaithfulness, but defiled the Temple: they shall return again 24to the way of the people in a few matters [\u2026] Each of them shall be judged in the holy council according to his spirit.
\n 25But all of the members of the covenant who breached the restrictions of the Law, when 26the glory of God appears to Israel they shall be excluded from the midst of the camp, and with them all who did evil in 27Judah when it was undergoing trial.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The end of the exhortations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
But all who hold fast to these rules, going out 28and coming in according to the Law, always obeying the Teacher and confessing to God as follows: \u201cWe have wickedly sinned, 29we and our ancestors by living contrary to the covenant laws; just 30and true are Your judgments against us\u201d and do not act arrogantly against His holy laws and 31His righteous ordinances and His reliable declarations and who discipline themselves by the ancient laws 32by which the members of the Yahad were governed and listen attentively to the Teacher of Righteousness, not abandoning 33the correct laws when they hear them: they will rejoice and be happy and exultant. They will prevail over 34all the inhabitants of the earth. Then God will make atonement for them and they will experience His deliverance because they have trusted in His holy name.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Laws<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The rules that follow were not intended to be an exhaustive scheme for righteous living, but a summary of important points that would serve to guide the righteous Israelite in areas where controversy might arise.
\nThe main section of the laws deals with rules applying to Israel as a whole (\u201cthose living in the cities of Israel\u201d). A shorter section at the end contains regulations for the internal life of the sect (\u201cthose living in camps\u201d).
\nThe opening portions of the laws are available only in the fragmentary scrolls from Cave 4. The order of the fragments from different scrolls is hypothetical.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q266 Frag. 5 (= 4Q267 Frag. 5) Col. 1 8[\u2026] the mighty ones in what is re[vealed \u2026] 9[\u2026 who hold] fast to His [ho]ly name [\u2026] 10[\u2026] for in Judah is fo[und a conspir]acy 11[to return to the sins of their ancestors \u2026] to Israel when he appears [\u2026] 12[\u2026 in the inhabitants of Jerusal]em and all who re[main \u2026] 13[\u2026] each according to [his] spirit [\u2026] 14[\u2026 the stubborn in spir]it shall be banished at the command of the Overseer [\u2026] 15[\u2026] all the repentant of Israel [\u2026] 16[\u2026 the so]ns of Zadok, the priests, are the [\u2026] 17the most recent [interpretation] of the Law.
\n Now these are the laws for the wi[se man \u2026] 18[\u2026 to teach] them to all Israel, for it will not [\u2026] 19[\u2026] to live blame[lessly] in his ways [\u2026] Col. 1 c\u2013d 2[\u2026] for all the upright of heart in I[s]rael [\u2026 who kept] his laws, they considered righteous [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Certain acts are grounds for excommunication or severe discipline. Idolatry, sexual sin, withholding what is due to the priests, rebellion, and certain ritual offenses are all serious transgressions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q270 Frag. 2 Col. 1 10[\u2026 who sacrifices to sa]tyrs or asks guidance from a necromancer or a medium 11[\u2026] or who profanes the [holy] Name 12\u201316[\u2026 or any woman who has a bad reputation while] a virgin in the house of 17[her father \u2026] another man lies with her 18[\u2026 or app]roaches his wife in the time of 19[her impurity \u2026]
\n Col. 2 6[\u2026 to] the Aaronites belongs the planting of [\u2026] 7[\u2026 the firstfruits of] all that they have, the tithe of do[mestic animals, whether cattle] 8or sheep, the redemption mone[y of the firstlings of] unclean [beas]ts, the redemption money of the first[born human, the first shearing of] 9the flock, and the assessment money for their own redemption; [every sin for which restitution is made which] 10cannot be returned; \u201ca fifth must be added to it\u201d (Lev. 27:31) or [\u2026] 11by their names, defiling His holy spirit [\u2026] 12or is afflicted with a skin disease or an unc[lean] bodily discharge [\u2026 or] 13reveals the secret of his people to the Gentiles or curses o[r speaks] 14rebellion against those anointed by the Holy Spirit or who speaks lies [against \u2026] 15God\u2019s command or slaughters a domestic or wild animal with a living fetus [in it or who lies with] 16a pregnant woman when her monthly period [ceases \u2026 or lies with a man] 17as one lies with a woman: these are the ones who violate the [Way \u2026] 18God has decreed to remove [\u2026]
\n 19So listen now, all you experts in righteousness, [who obey the To]rah, [I will reveal to] 20you the ways that lead to life and the paths that lead to destruction; I will open [your eyes [\u2026 in their traps] 21do not be caught; and when you understand the things that have happened in every generation [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Rules for the priests. Improper recitation of Scripture, profaning the Temple, and eating holy food in an impure state are all grounds for expulsion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q266 Frag. 5 Col. 2 (= 4Q267) 1[\u2026 Aar]on and all w[ho speak too quickly or in a harsh voice] 2[or who does] not speak his words clearly to make [his voice] heard, [none of these shall read from the book of] 3[the Law,] lest he incur the penalty of death [\u2026] 4[\u2026 to assist] his brothers, the priests, in the worship [\u2026] 5Any of the Aaronites who is captured by the Gentiles [\u2026 may not come] 6to profane the Temple by their impurity, he may not approach the worship [\u2026 he may not go] 7within the curtain or eat of the holy [food \u2026] 8any Aaronite who befouls the wor[ship of God \u2026] 9to instruct with him in the council of the people; and also [\u2026] to betray the truth [\u2026] any of the 10Aaronites whose name is dropped from the truth [\u2026] 11in his willful heart to eat any of the holy [food \u2026] 12of Israel the counsel of the Aaronites [\u2026] if he has eaten any of] 13the food and become guilty by consuming blood [\u2026 he shall not be named] 14in their genealogy.
\n This is the rule for those living in [the cities of Israel \u2026] 15holine[ss in] their [camps and] their cities in a[ll \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This section is an interpretation of the law concerning \u201cleprosy,\u201d or infectious skin diseases, in Leviticus 13\u201314. It displays a rudimentary knowledge of the circulation of the blood through arteries, a phenomenon not fully described until the seventeenth century by William Harvey.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q272 Frag. 1 (= 4Q266 Frag. 6) Col. 1 1[\u2026 a sore or] scab or in[flammation \u2026] 2[\u2026 a sore of any kind and a scab due to a wound from a piece of wood or] stone. In the case of a wound, when the spirit comes [and possesses the artery, the blood stops] 3[flowing] above and below the wound, and the artery [\u2026] 4\u20135[The priest shall examine the] healthy [skin] and the diseased skin [\u2026 If] the diseased skin is [greater than] 6[the healthy skin, he shall isolate him] until [the tissue] grows back [and] 6a[until] the blood [re]turns to the artery. [Then] on [the seventh day] the priest [shall examine him] and compare. 7[If the spir]it of life rises and falls [and] the tissue has grown back, 8[he is healed \u2026] the scab, the priest shall not examine the skin of the bo[dy] 9[\u2026 If the] sore or the sc[ab] is lower [than the skin \u2026] 10[and the priest sees] that it looks like raw flesh [\u2026] 11[\u2026 a skin disease has taken ho]ld in the healthy skin, and according to [this] regulation [\u2026] 12[\u2026 The priest shall examine on the seve]nth [day]. If the [healthy] 13[tissue] has given way [to diseased tissue, \u2026 it is an in] curable [skin disease.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The skin diseases (\u201cscall\u201d) of the hair of head and beard (Lev. 13). The conditions described may refer to kwashiorkor, caused by protein deficiency, or to favus.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q266 Frag. 6 Col. 1 5The regulation pertaining to scall of the head and be[ard \u2026] 6[\u2026 The priest shall examine it;] if the spirit has entered into the head or the beard to possess 7[the artery and the disease] spro[uts underneath the ha]ir and makes it resemble thin yellow growth; for it is like grass 8with a worm under it, which then cuts its root and the blossom dries up. As for the verse 9that says, \u201cThe priest shall order the head to be shaven without shaving the scall\u201d (Lev. 13:33), this is so that 10the priest can count the diseased and healthy hairs. He shall examine the skin, and if the 11diseased tissue has encroached on the healthy tissue after seven days, the man is unclean. But if the diseased parts have not encroached 12on the h[ealthy], and the artery is full of [bl]ood and the sp[ir]it of life rises and falls in it [he is healed] 13[from] this disease.
\n Such is the regulation of the l[aw] pertaining to infectious skin disease so that the Aaronites can separate [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Uncleanness caused by bodily discharges. These regulations are based on the laws of Leviticus 15.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The man with a discharge (see Lev. 15:1\u201318).
\n 14The regulation pertaining to the man with a bodily discharge. Every man who [has a discharge] 15from [his] flesh [o]r w[ho] allows [hi]mse[lf] thoughts of depravity or [who \u2026] 16[\u2026] contact with him [is like the contact with \u2026] 4Q272 Frag. 1 Col. 2 6he shall wash his clothes [and bathe in water \u2026] 7whoever touches him [shall bathe in water \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The woman with a discharge (see Lev. 15:19\u201330).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q266 Frag. 6 Col. 2 1[The regulation pertaining to the woman with a bodily discharge \u2026 Whoever] has intercourse 2[with a menstruating woman] contracts the [defile]ment caused by menstruation; and if she sees a discharge a[gain] but not 3[during her] seven-day [menstrual period], she shall not eat of the consecrated food or e[nter] 4the sanctuary until the sun sets on the eighth day.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Purification after childbirth (see Lev. 12).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
5A woman who [becomes pregna]nt and bears a male child [shall be unclean] seven [days] 6[a]s [the days of her] menstrual [flow. And on the eighth day the flesh of his] foreskin [shall be circumcised.] 7[Thirty-three days she shall remain in blood purification. And if she bears a female,] 8[she shall be unclean two weeks as with] her [menstrual f]low. Sixty-six days she shall remain in blood 9purification; and she] shall not eat [any consecrated food or enter the sanctuary, 10fo]r this is a capital crime [\u2026 she shall give] 11[the c]hild to a nurse who is in a state of ritu[al purity \u2026] 12[and] if [she] cannot afford [a lamb, let her get a turtledove or pigeon for a whole burnt offering 13and] exchange for t[he lamb \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Regulations about harvest, gleaning, and tithes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q266 Frag. 6 Col. 3 4[These shall be given as priestly levies: \u2026 and] the single bunches of the vi[neyard: up to ten grape]s [make the bun]ches 5[\u2026] and all the gleanings [up to a seah for the area sown with a s]ea[h of seed]; 6[a vineyard] that has no seed in it, there is no [levy] in it or grape-gleanings 7and (there is not) a maximum of ten [grapes] in its bunches.
\n 4Q270 Frag. 3 Col. 2 (= 4Q267 Frag. 6) 15[As for] that which is beaten from the olive tree [and the fruit of its yield,] if the yield is in good condition, the beaten olives, [one-] 16[thirti]eth, [should be \u2026 from] it; but if the field has been trampled down or [burned] 17[with fire and there was separated out] a seah for each area sown with a seah of seed, it is subject to tithe; and if 18[one person] shall glean one [seah] from it in one day, it is subject to the priestly levy, a tenth of 19[an ephah \u2026] the loaves for the priestly gift for all the families of Israel who eat bread 20[\u2026] to set aside for an offering once a year: one-tenth of an ephah there will be for one (loaf) [\u2026] 21[\u2026 before they] have been completed for Israel let no man [re]move Col. 2a 1[\u2026] t[he] unleave[ned bre]ad [\u2026] 2[\u2026] the best grain [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Measurements and offerings (see Ezek. 45:11\u201315).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q271 Frag. 2 1[\u2026] from the threshing floor shall bring down the tenth of the h[omer, which is the] ephah 2[\u2026] the ephah and the bath, the two of them are the same measurement. From [the wheat,] a sixth of 3[an ephah for each homer, and a tenth of a bath for the fruit of] the trees. One must not set apart for an offering o[ne] lamb out of every hundred 4[\u2026 one must not] eat [\u2026 from the threshing floor] and from the garden, until [the pries]ts stretch out their hand 5[to ble]ss first of all. [\u2026] to a man, he may sell it and when he [\u2026] and then he shall be free of obligation 6[\u2026] a field mixed 7[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Various rules of purity with respect to Gentile meat, metals, corpse impurity, and the qualifications for sprinkling for impurity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q271 Frag. 2 8One must never bring [Gentile meat in the blood of their sacrifices \u2026 or any such blood on] his [clo]thing into the zone of purity; nor is one to bring any portion of 9gold or silver [or bronze] or tin or le[ad that the Gentiles used to make i]dols. No one can bring 10it into the zone of puri[ty, unless it is ne]w, straight from the furnace [\u2026] No one can br[ing] any skin or garment or part of 11any too[l] with which [w]ork [is done] that is unclean by reason of a cor[pse, un]less it has been sprinkled according the regulation 12[\u2026] impurity, in the era of wickedness, a man is pu[re from all unclean]ness, who 13[sees the sunset. But any young man who] is [no]t old enough to be included among the re[gistrants shall not sprinkle \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Immediately preceding this section is a section on the woman suspected of adultery (Num. 5:11\u201331), but it is too fragmentary for accurate translation. Following it are various rules among which are those on full disclosure in business, including betrothal, which is considered a commercial transaction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4Q271 Frag. 3 Col. 1 1[\u2026] with silver [\u2026] 2[\u2026 and his means are not su]fficient for re[payment], and the year of [jubilee] shall arrive [\u2026] 3[\u2026] God will release hi[m from all] his obligations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Prohibition of cross-dressing (Deut. 22:5).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[The garments of a male] should not 4[be worn by man and woman] alike, for that is an abhorrent thing.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Full disclosure in business transactions, including betrothal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
As for the verse that says \u201cWhen [you sell] 5[anything or buy anything from] your neighbor, do not defraud him\u201d (Lev. 25:14). Now this is the mean[ing \u2026] 6[\u2026 he must be frank about] all that he is aware of that is found [in whatever he is selling;] 7[if there is a fault in it] and he is aware of it, he is cheating him, whether it is human or animal.
\n And if 8[a man betroths his daughter to another ma]n, he shall tell him about all her defects, lest he bring upon himself the judgment of 9[the curse, which say]s, \u201cCursed is he who leads the blind astray on the road\u201d (Deut. 27:18). Moreover, he should not give her to someone who is not proper for her, for 10[this is a case of \u201cforbidden mixtures,\u201d like plowing with an o]x and ass, or clothing made of wool and flax together.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Rules concerning women with a history of promiscuity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Let no man bring 11[a woman into the covenant of holi]ness whom he knew to \u201cdo the deed\u201d for a trifle or whom he knew 12[to \u201cdo the deed\u201d while in the house of] her father; or a widow who has had intercourse after she became a widow, or any 13[woman who has a] bad [repu]tation while a virgin in the house of her father. Let no man marry such a one unless 14[she is examined by] dependable and knowledgeable [women] who are selected at the command of the Overseer who is over the 15[general membership; the]n he may marry her, but when he marries her let him do according to the re[gul]ation [and not] tell others about [her \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Rules on taking oaths. The translation of Geniza A resumes here.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Geniza A Col. 15 1[A man must not sw]ear either by Aleph and Lamedh (Elohim) or by Aleph and Daleth (Adonai), but rather by the oath of those who enter 2into the covenant vows. He must not make mention of the Law of Moses, because the Name of God is written out fully in it, 3and if he swears by it, and then commits a sin, he will have defiled the Name. But if he has sw[orn] by the covenant vows in front of 4the judges, if he has violated them, he is guilty; he should then confess his sin and make restitution and then he will not bear the burden of sin 5and die.
\n Whoever enters the covenant, for all Israel this is a perpetual observance: any children who reach 6the age to be included in the registrants, they shall impose the covenant oath upon them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This is an excursus on the procedure for becoming a member of the Yahad, apparently suggested by the topic of oaths, since an oath was administered to new members.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This 7is the rule during all the era of wickedness for all who repent of their wicked ways: On the day he speaks 8to the Overseer of the general membership, they shall register him by the oath of the covenant that 9Moses made with Israel, the covenant to ret[urn] to the Law of Moses with a whole heart, and [with] a who[le] 10soul to that which is found therein to do during al[l] the era of [wickedness]. No one is allowed to tell him 11the rules until he appears before the Overseer, so that he, the Overseer, is not fooled by him when he examines him; 12and when he imposes upon him the oath to return to the Law of Moses with a whole heart and with a whole soul, 13they are innocent with respect to him if he proves false.
\n Everything that is revealed from the Law for the multitude of the 14Camp, and in which he (the postulant) has imperfect knowledge, the Overseer should tell him and command him to study 15for one full year; and then according to his knowledge he may draw near.
\n But no one who is a fool or insane may enter; and no simpleton or ignoramus 16or one with eyes too weak to see or lame or crippled or deaf or minor child, 17none of these shall enter the congregation, for the holy angels are in your midst.
\n Col. 16 1[\u2026] with you a covenant, and with all Israel. Therefore let a man take upon himself the oath to return to 2the Law of Moses, for in it everything is laid out in detail. But the specification of the times during which all Israel is blind to 3all these rules is laid out in detail in the \u201cBook of Time Divisions by 4Jubilees and Weeks.\u201d On the day a man takes on himself the oath to return 5to the Law of Moses the Angel of Obstruction will leave him, if he keeps His words. 6That is why Abraham was circumcised on the day he gained true knowledge.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A return to the subject of oaths.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
As for the passage \u201cobserve what comes out of your lips\u201d (Deut. 23:24), 7it means to abide by every binding oath in which a man promises 8to do anything from the Law: he may not break it, even at the price of death. Every 9promise a man makes to depart from the Law he shall not keep, even at the price of death.
\n 10Concerning a woman\u2019s oath: The passage that speaks of her husband annulling her oath (Num. 30:9) means he should not 11annul an oath if he does not know whether it should be allowed to stand or be annulled. 12If it violates the covenant he should annul it and not allow it to stand. The rule also applies to her father.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Offerings and vows to God.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
13Concerning the rule of freewill offerings: A man shall not vow to the altar anything stolen, nor 14shall the priests accept it from an Israelite.
\n A man shall [not] consecrate the food 15of his mouth to God, for that is referred to by the passage, \u201cMen trap each other with what is consecrated to God\u201d (Mic. 7:2); nor should 16a man consecrate any [\u2026] And the rule also applies if he 17consecrates part of a field he owns himself [\u2026] 18The one who so vows shall be punished [\u2026] money of its value [\u2026] 19to the judges [for a fair decision and to evaluate \u2026 after the thing is vowed \u2026] 20If [it is gained by extortion, the extorter shall pay, if he has not spoken the truth to his fellow \u2026 As for the verse that says,]
\n Col. 9 1\u201cAnything a man proscribes\u201d (Lev. 27:28), if a human being is proscribed, he shall be put to death by the laws of the Gentiles.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Accusations against fellow Israelites.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
2As for the passage that says, \u201cTake no vengeance and bear no grudge against your kinfolk\u201d (Lev. 19:18) any covenant member 3who brings against his fellow an accusation not sworn to before witnesses 4or who makes an accusation in the heat of anger or who tells it to his elders to bring his fellow into disrepute, the same is a vengeance-taker and a grudge-bearer. 5It says only, \u201cOn his enemies God takes vengeance, against his foes he bears a grudge\u201d (Nah. 1:2).
\n 6If he kept silent day by day and then in the heat of anger against his fellow spoke against him in a capital case, 7this testifies against him that he did not fulfill the commandment of God which says to him, \u201cYou 8shall reprove your fellow and not bear the sin yourself\u201d (Lev. 19:17).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Another law about oaths.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
About oaths. The passage 9that says, \u201cYou may not seek a remedy by your own power\u201d (1 Sam. 25:26), a man who makes someone take an oath out in the countryside 10and not before judges or at their bidding: such a one has \u201csought a remedy by his own power.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Lost property.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Everything that is lost 11and it is not known which of the men of the camp stole it, its owner shall pronounce a malediction 12by the covenant oath and whoever hears it, if he knows and does not tell, is guilty.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Restitution in the absence of an owner.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
13Every sin for which restitution is to be made in the absence of an owner to whom it is to be paid, the one making restitution shall confess to the priest 14and it shall belong to the priest alone, aside from the ram of expiation. So also every lost item that is found with no 15owner present shall belong to the priests, if the one who found it does not know the proper thing to do with it. 16If no owner is found, they shall have custody of it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The law of witnesses.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Anything in which a man shall violate the Law 17and his fellow sees it, he alone, if it is a capital case, he shall tell him of it 18to his face in a denunciation to the Overseer, who shall then personally make a written note of it, until he does it 19again in the presence of a sole witness, who again makes it known to the Overseer. If he is caught doing it yet again by one 20witness, his fate is sealed. But if there are only two witnesses, who yet disagree 21about the offense, then the man should be banned only from the community meal, if they are reliable, and if 22the day the man saw the offense, he tells the Overseer. Two 23reliable witnesses may bring charges in a property case; only one is required for a ban from the community meal. Col. 10 1\u20132A witness who is not old enough to be enrolled among those numbered as fearing God may not be admitted before the judges to put anyone to death on his evidence. 2\u20133No one who has knowingly violated a single word of the commandment will be considered a reliable witness against his fellow until he is considered fit to return to full fellowship.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Qualifications for judges.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4This is the rule for the judges of the nation. They shall be ten men in all chosen 5from the nation at the proper time: four from the tribe of Levi and Aaron, and from Israel 6six men learned in the Book of Meditation and in the basic covenant principles, from the age of 7twenty-five to sixty. No one above the age 8of sixty shall hold the office of judge of the nation, because when Adam broke faith, 9his life was shortened, and in the heat of anger against the earth\u2019s inhabitants, God commanded 10their minds to regress before their life was over.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The amount of water necessary for purification.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
About purification by water. A man may not 11wash himself in water that is filthy and too shallow to make a ripple. 12A man may not purify any vessel in such water or in any stone cistern that does not have enough water in it 13to make a ripple and that something unclean has touched, for its water will defile the water of the vessel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Rules on keeping the Sabbath. This subject receives the greatest amount of attention, reflecting its importance to the sect.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
14About the Sa[bb]ath, how to keep it properly. A man may not work on the 15sixth day from the time that the solar orb 16is above the horizon by its diameter, because this is what is meant by the passage, \u201cObserve the 17Sabbath day to keep it holy\u201d (Deut. 5:12).
\n On the Sabbath day, one may not speak any 18coarse or empty word.
\n One is not to seek repayment of any loan from his fellow.
\n One may not go to court about property or wealth.
\n 19One may not discuss business or work to be done the next day.
\n 20A man may not go about in the field to do his desired activity on 21the Sabbath.
\n One may not travel outside his city more than a thousand cubits.
\n 22A man may not eat anything on the Sabbath day except food already prepared. From whatever was lost 23in the field he may not eat, and he may not drink unless he was in the camp.
\n Col. 11 1If he was on a journey and went down to bathe, he may drink where he stands, but he may not draw water into 2any vessel.
\n One may not send a Gentile to do his business on the Sabbath day.
\n 3A man may not put on filthy clothes or clothes kept in fleece unless 4he launders them in water or if they scrub them with spice.
\n A man may not voluntarily cross Sabbath borders 5on the Sabbath day.
\n A man may walk behind an animal to graze it outside his city 6up to two thousand cubits. One may not raise his hand to hit it with a fist. If it is 7uncooperative, he should leave it inside.
\n A man may not carry anything outside his house, nor should he 8carry anything in. If he is in a temporary shelter, he should not take anything out of it 9or bring anything in.
\n No one should open a sealed vessel on the Sabbath. No one should carry 10medicine on his person, either going out or coming in, on the Sabbath. No one should pick up stone and dust 11in an inhabited place. No caregiver should carry a baby on the Sabbath, either going out or coming in.
\n 12No one should provoke his servant, his maid, or his employee on the Sabbath.
\n 13No one should help an animal give birth on the Sabbath; and if it falls into a well 14or a pit, he may not lift it out on the Sabbath.
\n No one should rest in a place near 15to Gentiles on the Sabbath.
\n No one should profane the Sabbath for wealth or spoil on the Sabbath.
\n 16Any living human who falls into a body of water or a cistern 17shall not be helped out with ladder, rope, or tool.
\n No one should offer any sacrifice on the Sabbath 18except the Sabbath whole burnt offering, for so it is written, \u201cbesides your Sabbaths\u201d (Lev. 23:38).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The last law suggested the topic of sacrifices.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
No one should send 19a whole burnt offering, cereal offering, incense offering, or wood offering to the altar through anyone impure by any 20of the impurities, thus allowing him to defile the altar; for it is written, \u201cThe sacrifice 21of the wicked is abhorrent; but the prayer of the righteous is like an offering received with favor\u201d (Prov. 15:8). No one who enters the 22house of worship shall enter in impurity, with garments requiring ritual laundering. When the trumpets for assembly are blown, 23let him go earlier or later so that they need not stop the whole service, [fo]r it is a place of Col. 12 1holiness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The holiness of the sanctuary applies to the city itself. A similar point of view is taken by the Temple Scroll.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A man may not lie with a woman in the city of the Temple, defiling 2the city of the Temple by their uncleanness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A law counseling flexibility in the treatment of the demon-possessed. Lesser violations of the ritual law should be treated by confinement, not execution, as we would say, \u201cfor reasons of insanity.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Everyone who is controlled by the spirits of Belial 3and who advises apostasy will receive the same verdict as the necromancer and the medium; but all such who go astray 4to defile the Sabbath and the festivals shall not be put to death, for it is the responsibility of human beings 5to keep him in custody. If he recovers from it, they must watch him for seven years and afterwards 6he may enter the assembly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Laws relating to contact with Gentiles.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Let no one attack any of the Gentiles with intent to kill 7for the sake of wealth and spoil, nor may anyone carry away any of their wealth, so that they may not 8blaspheme, except by the counsel of the commonwealth of Israel.
\n No one may sell a clean animal 9or bird to the Gentiles, lest they sacrifice them to idols; neither from his threshing floor 10or from his winepress shall he sell to them, in all his property; his servant and his maidservant he may not sell 11to them, for they have entered with him into Abraham\u2019s covenant.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Laws relating to impure foods.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
No one may defile himself 12with any creature or creeping thing by eating them, from the larvae of bees to any living 13creature that crawls in the water; and the fish may not be eaten unless they are split open 14while living and their blood poured out. All species of locust must be put in fire or water 15while they are alive, because that befits their nature. Every piece of wood or stone 16or dust that is desecrated by human uncleanness, with stains of oil: according to their 17uncleanness, whoever touches them will become unclean. Every instrument, nail, or peg in the wall of 18a house where a corpse lies shall be unclean, with the same impurity as a work tool.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Summary and conclusion to the laws for Israel in general.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
19The regulations above are the rule for those who live in the cities of Israel, with these regulations to separate 20unclean from clean and to discriminate between holy and profane. These are the rules 21for the sage to live by with all that is living, according to the regulation for every occasion. If 22the seed of Israel lives according to this law, they shall never know condemnation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Rules for those living in camps.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This is the rule for those who live in 23camps, who live by these rules in the era of wickedness, until the appearance of the Messiah of Aaron Col. 13 1and of Israel: up to ten men at least, for thousands, and hundreds, and fifties, 2and tens. For every group of ten, a priest knowledgeable in the Book of Meditation should always be present; by 3his command all shall be ruled. If he is not qualified in these rules and a Levite is qualified in 4them, then the allotment shall proceed in all its ways at his command, all the members of the camp. But if 5it is a case of the law of skin diseases, then the priest must come and be present in the camp, and the Overseer 6shall instruct him in the details of the Law, and even if the priest is ignorant, it is he who must isolate the one suffering from skin disease, because that duty 7is the priests\u2019 alone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Qualifications for an Overseer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This is the rule for the Overseer of a camp. He must teach the general membership about the works 8of God, instruct them in His mighty miracles, relate to them the future events coming to the world with their interpretations; 9he should care for them as a father does his children, taking care of all their problems as a shepherd does for his flock. 10He should loosen all their knots, that there be no one oppressed or crushed in his congregation.
\n 11He shall observe everyone who is added to his group as to his actions, his intelligence, his ability, his strength, and his wealth 12and write him down by his place according to his share in the allotment of Light.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Relationships with outsiders.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
No members of the camp are allowed 13to bring anyone into the group except by permission of the Overseer of the camp; 14and none of the members of Gods covenant should do business with corrupt people, 15except hand to hand. No one should do any buying or selling unless he has informed 16the Overseer who is in the camp and taken counsel (with him), [lest they err unwittingly. Likewise] with [an]y man who m[arr]ies a wom[an] 17let [it be with] the counsel (of the Overseer); and likewise (4Q266 adds: let him instruct) a man who wishes to divorce. He shall edu[cate their sons and daughters] 18[and young children] in a spirit of meekness and love of mercy. He must not bear against them [a grudge in anger] 19[and wrath for] their [tr]ansgressions. And one who is not bound [\u2026]
\n 20This is the those living in camps, for all [\u2026] 21[If any have broken] these rules, they will not prosper when they live in the land [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A second section of the camp rules begins here. These rules seem to apply to the camps in full convention, instead of considered individually.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
22These are the re[gulation]s for the Instructor [\u2026] 23[\u2026 when the verse comes true that says, \u201cThere shall come upon your people days] Col. 14 1that have not been seen since the day Ephraim separated from Judah\u201d (Isa. 7:17). But as for all who live by these rules, 2God\u2019s covenant stands firm for them, delivering them from all the traps of corruption; but \u201cthe ignorant pass them by and are punished\u201d (Prov. 22:3, 27:12).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Rank within the camps.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
3The rule of dwelling in all the camps. All shall be mustered by their names: the priests first, 4the Levites second, the children of Israel third, the proselyte fourth. Then they shall be recorded by name, 5one after the other: the priests first, the Levites second, the children of Israel 6third, the proselyte fourth. In the same order they shall sit, and in the same order they will inquire of all.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Qualifications for the presiding priest and general Overseer. For more on the mysterious Book of Meditation, see the introductions to the Charter for Israel in the Last Days (text 8) and the Secret of the Way Things Are (text 105).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The priest who presides 7at the head of the general membership must be between thirty to sixty years old, learned in the Book of Meditation 8and in all the regulations of the Law, speaking them in the proper way. The Overseer of 9all the camps must be between thirty and fifty years old, master of every 10secret of men and of every deceptive utterance. At his command the members of the congregation shall enter, 11each in his turn. Anything that any man might have to say, let him say it to the Overseer, including 12any kind of dispute or legal matter.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Contributions for the needs of camp members.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This is the rule of the general membership for meeting all their needs: a wage of 13two days every month at least shall be given to the Overseer. Then the judges 14will give some of it for their wounded, with some of it they will support the poor and needy, and the elder 15[bent with age], the man with a skin disease, whoever is taken captive by a foreign nation, the girl 16without a near kinsman, the boy without an advocate; and for whatever is common business, so that 17the common house should not be cut off.
\n This is the exposition for those who live in the ca[mps, and these are the pillars of 18the foundations of] the assembly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Rules dealing with punishments for infraction of the rules. Some of these rules are the same as those found in the Charter of a Jewish Sectarian Association (text 7).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
And this is the exposition of the regulations by which [they shall be governed 19until the appearance of the Messi]ah of Aaron and of Israel, so that their iniquity may be atoned for. [Cereal offering and sin offering \u2026]
\n 20[Who]ever [li]es knowingly in a matter of money shall be ex[pelled from the common me]al 21[\u2026 and suffer redu]ced rations six days; and whoever spea[ks \u2026] 22[and whoever bears a grudge against his neighbor, which] is not lawful, [shall suffer re]duced rations [\u2026] 4Q266 Frag. 10 Col. 2 1[\u2026 shall be expelled two] hundred days and suffer reduced rations one hundred days. If he has born a grudge in a capital case, he shall not ever come back.
\n 2[Whoever \u2026] his fellow without taking counsel shall be [ex]pelled one year and suffer reduced rations 3s[ix months.]
\n Whoever speaks audibly a coarse word shall suffer reduced rations t[went]y 4[days, and expelled] three month[s.
\n Whoever] speaks while [another is speaking] and disturbs him 5[will suffer reduced rations ten] days.
\n [Whoever lies do]wn [and] sleeps in the [general me]etin[g \u2026] 6[shall be expelled] thirty days [and] suffer reduced rations ten days.
\n [And likewise for whoever lea]ves 7[with]out the permission of the g[en]eral membership, [for n]o [reason,] up to three ti[mes in] one [meeting,] 8[shall suffer reduced rations] ten days. If [he continues] to leave [the meeting, he shall suffer reduced rations thirty] 9days.
\n Whoever goes around [naked] in front [of his] fellow [in the house or whoever goes about naked outside before] 10the world must be expelled for six [months \u2026 Whoever] 11brings his penis out of [his] clothing, [being dressed in rags, and his nakedness is seen, shall be expelled for thir]ty 12[da]ys and shall suffer reduced rations ten.
\n Whoever laughs foolish[ly in an audible voice must be expelled] 13[th]irty days and suffer reduced rations fif[teen] days.
\n [Whoever puts out] his le[ft ha]nd 14[to gestu]re with it must suffer reduced rations [ten days.
\n Whoever] spreads [slander] 15[about his nei]ghbor [must be banned from the common meal for one year \u2026]
\n 4Q270 Frag. 7 Col. 1 6[Whoever spreads slander about the general membership] 7[is to be sent away and must never] return a[gain. If he complains about his fellow unlawfully, he must suffer reduced rations six] 8[months.
\n The man] whose [spirit] deviates [from the fundamentals of the Yahad, proving unfaithful to the truth, and walking in his willful heart,] 9[mu]st be [expelled two years and su]ffer reduced rations sixty [days. When his two years are complete, the general membership will inquire] 10about [his] ca[se; if he draws near, let them] write [him down in his rank and then he may be examined about the law \u2026]
\n \u2026 11[Who]ever rejects the ruling of the general membership shall depart and [never return.
\n Whoever takes his] 12food outside contrary to the rules must return it to the one he took it from.[\u2026]
\n Whoever approa[ches] 13to fornicate with his wife, which is not according to the regulation, shall depart and never return.
\n [Whoever complains] against the fathers, 14[he must leave] the congregation and never return; [but if] against the mothers, he must suffer reduced rations ten days, for the mothers have no such status within 15[the congregation.
\n These are the] regulations by wh[ich they judge] all who are disciplined.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Procedure for punishment of the offender.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Whoever 16[is disciplined] must come and tell it to the priest who presides over 4Q266 Frag. 11 1the general membership, he must receive his verdict willingly, just as it says through 2Moses concerning the person who sins unwittingly, that they shall bring 3his sin offering [or] his guilt offering; and concerning Israel it is written, \u201cI shall go 4to the ends of heaven and I will not smell the odor of your incense\u201d (Lev. 26:31). In another place 5ait is written, \u201cRend your hearts and not your garments\u201d (Joel 2:13), 5and, \u201cReturn to God with weeping and fasting\u201d (Joel 2:12). Anyone who rejects these regulations, 6which are in keeping with the statutes found in the Law of Moses, shall not be considered 7one of those who belong to his truth, for his soul is repulsed by righteous discipline. 8He shall be sent away in the presence of the general membership for the crime of rebellion, and the priest who presides over the general membership shall speak, and raise his voice 9and say:
\n Blessed art Thou! Thou art the All, in thy hands are all things, and Maker of All, who hast established 10the [p]eoples by clans and tongues and nations, then led them astray in a wasteland without 11a way, but Thou hast chosen our fathers, Thou hast given to their descendants the statutes of Thy truth, 12and the judgments of Thy holiness, which, if humankind shall do, they shall have life; and boundaries hast Thou made 13for us, and they that transgress them Thou hast cursed; but we are Thy redeemed people, and the sheep of Thy pasture. 14Indeed, Thou hast cursed the transgressors; but Thou hast made us firm.
\n Then the excommunicated shall leave. Anyone 15who uses any of their property or who greets him or who agrees with him, 16this matter shall be recorded by the Overseer with an engraving tool, and his fate is sealed.
\n And all 17[those who live in] camps shall convene on the third month and curse those who stray from the Law to the right 18[or to the left.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Conclusion of the rule.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This is the exposition of the regulations that they shall follow during the era 19[of wickedness, for which] they are [respon]sible [in al]l the times of wrath and the stages of their journeys, for all those 20[who live in their camps and all those who live in their cities.
\n Behold, al]l of this is [o]n the basis of the most [recent in]terpreta[tion] of the Law.
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1QpHab<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Almost all of the Dead Sea Scrolls that are not themselves copies of biblical books are still connected in some way with the Scriptures of Israel. The poetic compositions, however creative, are still suffused with biblical phrases; the legal texts are based openly or implicitly on scriptural precedents; and the narratives of the past or predictions of the future are retellings or refashionings of sacred stories or prophecies.
\nThe biblical connection comes to expression most clearly in texts that specifically attempt to explain or decipher biblical texts. Sometimes the ancients \u201cexplained\u201d the text by rewriting or paraphrasing it, as in Tales of the Patriarchs (text 4) or the Words of Moses (text 5). Often, though, they simply commented on the Bible, verse by verse. Sometimes the texts under consideration are chosen because of their relevance to a particular theme, as in the Last Days (text 25), which consists of explanations of verses about Israel\u2019s future destiny; sometimes continuous passages or books are treated in order, as in the present text, the Commentary on Habakkuk.
\nIt is very characteristic of the Dead Sea sect that they often considered the Bible a puzzle to be solved or an enigma to be unraveled. Its characteristic word for the activity of interpretation was pesher, which as a rule refers to the interpretation of dreams. The biblical Daniel serves as the ideal interpreter of this type: he interprets dreams (Dan. 2; 4) and visions (the \u201chandwriting on the wall,\u201d Dan 5), not through native ability but because God has revealed the secrets to him. The Qumran scribes understood their task in the same way: to penetrate the secrets of Scripture not through reflection on the text itself, but through openness to the revelation of God.
\nThe result of this activity is a series of commentaries (perhaps \u201cinterpretations\u201d is a better word) that themselves often partake of the unreality of dreams. The writers saw their own group\u2019s history in the words of Scripture, foretold long ago, but are cautious about naming names. Instead, they use symbolic titles with biblical overtones: the Teacher of Righteousness, the Wicked Priest, the Man of the Lie. When they find these characters in the words of the Bible, the disconcerting outcome is not a decoded message, but one code translated into another code.
\nThe Commentary on Habakkuk was among the first cache of scrolls from Cave 1, and has itself been the subject of several commentaries. The first step in understanding the commentary is to understand the background of the original book. Habakkuk delivered his prophecy in the sixth century B.C.E. His native Judah was then threatened by two forces: the Chaldeans, or Babylonians, under Nebuchadnezzar, who were then in the process of conquering the small kingdoms of the Near East, and internal religious strife between the pious worshipers of the Lord and the ungodly. The main thrust of the biblical book is to ask where God is in the midst of this misery and whether there is a divine plan.
\nThe Qumran writer uses the biblical book as a pattern to understand his own times. As in the biblical book, Israel is again threatened by a foreign power: not the Chaldeans this time, but a group he calls the Kittim, or \u201cWesterners,\u201d in the opinion of most scholars today the Romans. And again, Israel is suffering from internal strife between the wicked and the pious, exemplified by the conflict between the Teacher of Righteousness and his opponents, the Man of the Lie and the Wicked Priest. All the statements in the first two chapters of Habakkuk are made to refer to these circumstances (the third chapter, consisting of a hymn of praise, is not included in the Commentary).
\nThe modern attempt to decode the Qumran \u201crecoding\u201d of Habakkuk has centered on the identification of the Kittim. As noted, most now agree that the Kittim are the Romans, and their arrival in Israel\u2014so dreaded by the writer of the commentary\u2014in fact took place in 63 B.C.E. The commentary must have been written around that time, and the latest carbon-14 tests in fact point to the first century B.C.E. as the period when the Cave 1 copy was made. (The paleographical date places the scroll late in the first century B.C.E.) That the activity of the Teacher, the Priest, and the Man of the Lie also belongs to this period is still disputed (see the Introduction, pp. 27\u201333).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The first portion of the commentary focuses on the religious strife in Israel. Unfortunately, the first column survives only in fragments.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Col. 1 1[\u201cThe oracle that the prophet Habakkuk saw. How long have] I cried out, and 2[You do not hear? I cry out \u2018Injustice!\u2019 and You do not liberate us\u201d (1:1\u20132).
\n This refers to the en]treaty of the generation 3[\u2026 the events to] come upon them 4[\u2026 they] cried out for 5[\u2026].
\n [\u201cWhy do You let me see such wickedness, why do You be]hold such [tur]moil?\u201d (1:3a).
\n 6[This refers to \u2026 those who rejected the Law of] God with tyranny and treason.
\n 7[\u201cRobbery and injustice are in front of me; strife and conflict continue\u201d (1:3b).]
\n 8[This refers to \u2026] in[justice] and strife [\u2026] 9[\u2026 conten]tion and [\u2026] is 10[\u2026]
\n \u201cTherefore Law declines, 11[and true judgment never comes forth\u201d (1:4a).
\n This means] that they rejected God\u2019s Law 12[\u2026]
\n [\u201cFor the wicked man hems in] the righteous man\u201d (1:4b).
\n 13[The \u201cwicked man\u201d refers to the Wicked Priest, and \u201cthe righteous man\u201d] is the Teacher of Righteousness. 14[\u2026]
\n [\u201cThere]fore judgment comes out 15[perverted\u201d (1:4c).
\n This means that \u2026] not [\u2026] 16[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The following passage expresses something of the writer\u2019s view of Israel\u2019s history. He believes that \u201ctraitors\u201d to God\u2019s law trouble the nation at crucial times: the present (those who disbelieve in the Teacher), the past (the unfaithful at the time of Israel\u2019s return from exile, the \u201cnew covenant\u201d), and the future (those who disbelieve in the \u201canointed priest,\u201d the Messiah of Aaron).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[\u201cLook, traitors, and see,] 17[and be shocked\u2014and amazed\u2014for the LORD is doing something in your time that you would not believe it if] Col. 2 1told\u201d (1:5).
\n [This passage refers to] the traitors with the Man of the 2Lie, because they have not [obeyed the words of] the Teacher of Righteousness from the mouth of 3God. It also refers to the trai[tors to the] New [Covenant], because they did not 4believe in God\u2019s covenant [and desecrated] His holy name; 5and finally, it refers [to the trai]tors in the Last 6Days. They are the cru[el Israel]ites who will not believe 7when they hear everything that is to c[ome upon] the latter generation that will be spoken by 8the Priest in whose [heart] God has put [the ability] to explain all 9the words of his servants the prophets, through [whom] God has foretold 10everything that is to come upon his people and [the Gentiles].<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The coming of the Romans. Their cruelty and military prowess were already legendary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u201cFor I am now about to raise up 11the Chaldeans, that br[utal and reckle]ss people\u201d (1:6a).
\n 12This refers to the Kittim, w[ho are] swift and mighty 13in war, annihilating many people, [and \u2026] in the authority of 14the Kittim and the wic[ked \u2026] and have no faith in 15the laws of [God.]
\n [\u201cThey range across the land to seize dwellings not their own\u201d (1:6b).
\n 16[This refers to the Kittim \u2026] 17[\u2026] Col. 3 1and they cross the plain, attacking and pillaging the cities of the land, 2for that is what it means when it says,\u201d to seize dwellings not their own\u201d (1:6b).
\n \u201cDire 3and dreadful are they; their law and their fame come from themselves alone\u201d (1:7).
\n 4This refers to the Kittim, the fear and dread of whom are on all 5nations. By intention their only thought is to do evil, and in deceit and trickery 6they conduct themselves with all the peoples.
\n \u201cSwifter than panthers their horses, faster 7than desert wolves. Their horses, galloping, spread out, from afar 8they fly like a vulture intent on food, all of them bent on violence, 9their faces ever forward\u201d (1:8\u20139a).
\n [This refers to] the Kittim, who 10trample the land with [their] horses and with their beasts. From far away 11they come, from the seacoasts, to eat up all the peoples like an 12insatiable vulture. In anger and [hostility and in] wrath and arrogance 13they speak with all [the peoples, for] that is what it means when 14it says, [\u201ctheir faces ever forward.\u201d]
\n [\u201cThey will gather] captives [like sa]nd\u201d (1:9b).
\n 15[This refers to \u2026] 16\u201317[\u2026]
\n [\u201cAt kings] Col. 4 1they mock, potentates they laugh to scorn\u201d (1:10a).
\n This means that 2they sneer at many people and deride the nobility; 3they jeer at kings and princes, and ridicule a throng of people.
\n \u201cThey 4laugh at every fortress; they pile up dirt and capture it\u201d (1:10b).
\n 5This refers to the rulers of the Kittim who deride 6the fortresses of the peoples and with a sneer laugh at them. 7With a great army they surround them to capture them, and with fear and terror 8the fortresses fall into their power. Then they destroy them because of the crimes of those who dwell 9there.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The arrival of the Romans in Israel was, in the commentator\u2019s words, \u201cby the advice of a family of sinners.\u201d Both of the warring factions in Israel in the first century B.C.E. had an interest in Roman intervention. From the commentator\u2019s standpoint, no good, beyond the manifestation of God\u2019s judgment, can come of the Roman presence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u201cThen a wind passes and they are gone, having caused devastation; this power has become 10their god\u201d (1:11).
\n This refe[rs t]o the rulers of the Kittim, 11who cross the land by the advice of a family of sinn[ers]: each 12before his fellow, [their] rulers come, one after the other, 13to devastate the la[nd. When it says] \u201cthis power has become their god,\u201d 14this means [\u2026 a]ll the peoples 15\u201316[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The only solution for the faithful, as in Habakkuk\u2019s day, is to remain loyal to God\u2019s law.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[\u201cBut You] 17[are eternal, O LORD, my holy God, we will not die.] Col. 5 1You have marked them for judgment; O Rock, You have made them for rebuke. Eyes too pure 2to see evil, You cannot even watch wrongdoing\u201d (1:12\u201313a).
\n 3This passage means that God will not exterminate his people through the Gentiles; 4on the contrary, He will give the power to pass judgment on the Gentiles to his chosen, and it is at their rebuke that 5all the wicked of His people shall be condemned. The chosen are those who have observed His commandments 6in the time of their distress, for that is what it means when it says, \u201ceyes too pure to see 7evil\u201d (1:13a). That means that they have not let their eyes lead them into fornication during the time of 8wickedness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The reference to the \u201cfamily of Absalom\u201d in the following passage has puzzled scholars for decades. Is Absalom another code name or a real historical figure? The biblical Absalom was a son of King David who revolted against his father\u2019s rule. But there was also an Israelite nobleman named Absalom in the first century B.C.E. who was the uncle and father-in-law of Aristobulus II (see the Introduction, pp. 30\u201331), and presumably a member of the Sadducean faction. It is possible that he is the one the text refers to.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u201cHow can you look on silently, you traitors, when 9the wicked destroys one more righteous than he?\u201d (1:13b).
\n This refers to the family of Absalom 10and the members of their party, who kept quiet when the Teacher of Righteousness was rebuked, 11and they did not help him against the Man of the Lie, who had rejected 12the Law in the presence of their entire [company.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The assertion that the Kittim sacrifice to their standards (military insignia bearing likenesses of the gods or divinized kings, mounted on a staff) is one of the clearest indications that they are the Romans. It is well documented that the Roman legions burned incense to their standards.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u201cYou made humanity as helpless as fish in the sea, 13like something a worm could rule over. He draws them [all] out [with a hook], pulls them in with his net, 14gathers them with [his dragnet. Therefore he sacrifices] to his net, therefore he is happy 15[and rejoices and burns incense to his dragnet; for by them] his lot in life [is enriched] 16[and his food is wholesome\u201d (1:14\u201316).
\n This refers to \u2026] Col. 6 1the Kittim, and they added to their wealth by all their plunder 2like the fish of the sea. And when it says, \u201ctherefore he sacrifices to his net 3and burns incense to his dragnet\u201d (1:16a), this means that they 4sacrifice to their standards, and that their weapons are 5what they worship. \u201cFor by them his lot in life is enriched and his food is wholesome\u201d (1:16b), 6means that they impose the yoke of their 7taxes\u2014their \u201cfood\u201d\u2014on all the peoples yearly, 8thus ruining many lands.
\n \u201cTherefore he keeps his sword always drawn 9to kill nations without pity\u201d (1:17).
\n 10This refers to the Kittim who destroy many people with the sword, including 11boys, adults, old men, women, and children. Even on \u201cthe child in the 12womb they have no mercy\u201d (Isa. 13:18).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
According to this section, the Teacher himself like Daniel, received divine communications explaining the words of the prophets. He himself may have pioneered the pesher approach to biblical interpretation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u201cSo I will stand on watch 13and station myself on my watchtower and wait for what He will say 14to me, and [what He will reply to] my rebuke. Then the LORD answered me 15[and said, Write down the vision plainly] on tablets, so that with ease 16[someone can read it\u201d (2:1\u20132).
\n This refers to \u2026] Col. 7 1then God told Habakkuk to write down what is going to happen to 2the generation to come; but when that period would be complete He did not make known to him. 3When it says, \u201cso that with ease someone can read it,\u201d 4this refers to the Teacher of Righteousness to whom God made known 5all the mysterious revelations of his servants the prophets.
\n \u201cFor still the prophecy is for 6a specific period; it testifies of that time and does not deceive\u201d (2:3a).
\n 7This means that the Last Days will be long, much longer than 8the prophets had said; for God\u2019s revelations are truly mysterious.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Again, as in the Commentary on Habakkuk 1:12\u201313, the writer exhorts the righteous to remain faithful and patient throughout the time of suffering.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
9\u201cIf it tarries, be patient, it will surely come true and not 10be delayed\u201d (2:3b).
\n This refers to those loyal ones, 11obedient to the Law, whose hands will not cease from 12loyal service even when the Last Days seems long to them, for 13all the times fixed by God will come about at their proper time as He ordained 14that they should by his inscrutable insight.
\n \u201cSee how bloated, not smooth, 15[his soul is!\u201d (2:4a).]
\n This means that [their punishment] will be twice as much for them 16[and they will not] find favor when they come to judgment [\u2026] 17[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The writer here contemplates the final judgment. How may one escape the wrath to come? By obedience to the Law and loyalty to the Teacher. It is not clear if the Teacher here mentioned is the founder of the sect or a Teacher who will appear later. The sect appeared to believe both in a present and future Teacher of Righteousness. Whether they were one and the same is still debated.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[\u201cAs for the righteous man, by loyalty to him one may find life\u201d (2:4b).]
\n Col. 8 1This refers to all those who obey the Law among the Jews whom 2God will rescue from the place of judgment, because of their suffering and their loyalty 3to the Teacher of Righteousness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The Teacher\u2019s nemesis, the Wicked Priest, is here introduced. Because he was both a priest and also a \u201cruler of Israel\u201d (11. 9\u201310 below) most scholars believe that he must have been one of the Hasmonean priest-kings of the second and first centuries B.C.E. He appears to have been originally a figure that the Teacher and his followers could trust (he had a \u201creputation for reliability\u201d literally \u201cwas called by the name of truth\u201d), but then proved to be proud, selfish, and greedy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u201cAnd indeed, riches betray the arrogant man and he will not 4last; he who has made his throat as wide as Hades, and who, like Death, is never satisfied. 5All the Gentiles will flock to him, and all the peoples will gather to him. 6Look, all of them take up a taunt against him, and invent sayings about him, 7saying, \u2018Ho, one who grows large on what is not his, how long will he burden himself down 8with debts?\u2019 \u201d (2:5\u20136).
\n This refers to the Wicked Priest, who 9had a reputation for reliability at the beginning of his term of service; but when he became ruler 10over Israel, he became proud and forsook God and betrayed the commandments for the sake of 11riches. He amassed by force the riches of the lawless who had rebelled against God, 12seizing the riches of the peoples, thus adding to the guilt of his crimes, 13and he committed abhorrent deeds in every defiling impurity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The fate of the Wicked Priest. He fell into the hands of his enemies and was tortured; yet it would be his successors, the \u201clater priests of Jerusalem,\u201d who would lose their riches to the Romans. It is not clear if the Wicked Priest died as a result of his mistreatment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u201cLook, suddenly 14your creditors will appear, your enemies will rouse themselves and you will become booty for them. 15Yes, you yourself have plundered many nations, now the rest of the peoples will plunder you\u201d (2:7\u20138a). The Man of the Lie, or the Spreader of Lies, was the leader of a rival party to that of the Teacher. He and his group\u2014possibly the Pharisees\u2014held a competing interpretation of the Law of Moses.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cWoe to 6you who build a city by bloodshed, who found a town by vice! Indeed 7this prophecy is from the LORD of Hosts: peoples will toil just for enough fire, 8nations will wear themselves out for nothing\u201d (2:12\u201313). The Priest persecutes the Teacher. This paragraph has been intensely studied for clues to the identity of both Priest and Teacher. It appears that the Teacher, after his \u201crebuke\u201d (see 5:10 above), went into exile; but the Priest, wishing to finish off the Teacher and his followers, hunted him down and confronted the Teacher and his followers on the Day of Atonement. Since it is unlikely that the Priest, if he were high priest, would be hunting his enemies on that holy day, when he had important ritual duties to perform, the day referred to must have been celebrated according to the sectarian calendar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cWoe to the one who gets his friend drunk, pouring out 3his anger, making him drink, just to get a look at their holy days\u201d (2:15). More on the fate awaiting the Wicked Priest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cYou are satisfied with 9disgrace, not honor? So go ahead and drink until you stagger; 10the cup of the LORD\u2019s right hand will come around for you, and then shame 11will cover your honor\u201d (2:16). The commentary ends with straightforward condemnation of Gentile idolatry.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cWhat good is an idol that someone makes? It is only 11an image, a source of false teaching\u2014though indeed the manufacturer trusts his own products, 12making for himself false gods without a voice!\u201d (2:18). 1Q14<\/p>\n\n\n\n The very fragmentary Commentary on Micah contains tantalizing references to the Teacher of Righteousness and his enemy, the Spreader of Lies, but the restoration of the surrounding text is hypothetical.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 8\u201310 1[\u201c\u2026] for the sin 2[of Jacob is all of this and for the transgressions of the House of Israel. What is Jac]ob[\u2019s sin?] Behold, it is 3[Samaria. What are the high places of Judah? Behold, it is Jer]usa[lem.\u201d (1:5). \u201cI will make Samaria] 4[a heap in the open country, a place for planting vineyards\u201d \u2026 (1:6).] This refers to the Spreader of Lies, 5[who will lead astray the] simple-hearted. \u201cAnd what are Judah\u2019s high places? 6[Behold, they are Jerusalem.\u201d (1:5). This refers t]o the Teacher of Righteousness who himself 7[shall teach the law to his par]ty and to all those who are willing to be added to the chosen of 8[God, the ones who observe the law] in the party of the Yahad who will be saved on the Day of 9[Judgment \u2026] 10[\u2026 As for the verse that says, \u201cI will make Samaria as] a heap of [the] open country 11[a place for planting vineyards; and I will pour down her stones into the valley, and I will uncover her foundations (1:6).] A[ll her idols \u2026\u201d (1:7).] 1QapGen<\/p>\n\n\n\n This charming collection of stories is one of a fair number of Dead Sea Scrolls that scholars assign to the category \u201crewritten Bible.\u201d The category is a broad one, embracing many different methods of rewriting the Bible; some examples do little more than select and rearrange portions of Scripture, apparently intending by such juxtapositioning to clarify the relationship and proper interpretation of the portions involved. The present text is more adventurous. Although at points the author simply presents the text of Genesis more or less as he knew it, more often he adds details\u2014and even whole sections\u2014drawn from extrabiblical sources or oral traditions. The author attempts to give the proper spin to the biblical text at crucial points where, in his view, dangerous misinterpretation is possible. The very fragmentary earliest surviving portions of the text concern the period before the great Flood. Cols. 0\u20131 evidently describe the depraved condition of humanity at that time, with reference in particular to the illicit marriages between human women and fallen angels, known as Watchers (Gen. 6:2\u20134). According to the extrabiblical 1 Enoch, the Watchers also taught humanity all manner of evil. As a punishment they were \u201cbound on the earth for all the days of eternity\u201d (1 Enoch 14:4), an idea to which the New Testament also alludes in the Gospels and especially in the book of Revelation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 0 2[\u2026] for withal we shall receive a stranger [\u2026] 5[\u2026 in the da]y of your wrath you will be strong and will be established. Who is he 6[who \u2026] the heat of your wrath? 7[\u2026] the humble and lowly quivering and trembling 8[\u2026] And now, as is clear, we are bound 10[\u2026] your wrath shall slay [\u2026] 11[\u2026] by your wrath; [\u2026] after we go to the house of [\u2026] the Great [H]oly One. 12And now, your hand has drawn near to smite [\u2026] and to cause to pass away all 13[\u2026] for we are bound [before] a fire that has been seen [\u2026] 15[\u2026] and being smitten from their rear and n[o] longer[\u2026] 18[\u2026] before the Lord of the Earth. Col. 1 1[\u2026] and with women 2[\u2026] and also the mystery of wickedness that 3[\u2026] and the mystery that 4[\u2026] and sicknesses [\u2026] 10medicines, magicians and di[viners \u2026] 25[\u2026] for a curse on all flesh 26[\u2026] and when they rest, it will be rest for you 27[\u2026] to the earth, and to descend to it [\u2026] the people 28[\u2026] they do [not] know how to make human beings for the earth 29[\u2026] he made for them, and also for all flesh.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Lamech, Noah\u2019s father, suspects that his newborn son may in fact not be his own, but rather the product of an illicit union between his wife, Bitenosh, and one of the Watchers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 2 1Then I decided that the conception was at the hands of Watchers, that the seed had been planted by Holy Ones or Nephil[im]. 2I was in a turmoil because of this infant. 3Then I, Lamech, hurriedly went in to [my] wi[fe], Bitenosh, [and I said to her,] 4[\u201cI adjure you by \u2026] and by the Most High, by the Lord, the Great One, by the King of all Et[ernity \u2026 have you conceived] 5[by one of] the Sons of Heaven? Tell me every detail truthfully [\u2026] 6[in truth] make it known to me, without lies. Was this [\u2026] 7by the King of Eternity. You are to speak with me in utter truth, without lies [\u2026]\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n Bitenosh allays Lamech\u2019s suspicions by recalling the time when Noah would have been conceived.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8Then Bitenosh, my wife, replied to me very passionately, we[eping \u2026] 9She said, \u201cO, my brother, my lord, remember my voluptuousness [\u2026] 10in the heat of lovemaking, and my ardent response. I [am telling you] the whol[e] truth [\u2026]\u201d 11and my mind was then changed. 12Now when my wife Bitenosh saw that my disposition had changed, [\u2026] 13Then she restrained her anger, speaking with me and saying, \u201cO, my lord, my [brother, remember] 14my pleasure. I swear to you by the Great Holy One, by the King of He[aven \u2026] 15that this seed comes from you, this conception was by you, the planting of [this] fruit is yours [\u2026 It was] 16not by any stranger, neither by any of the Watchers, nor yet by any of the Sons of Heav[en. Why has] 17your expression been so altered, your mood so depressed? [\u2026] Surely 18I am speaking with you truthfully.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n Still confused by the baby\u2019s glorious appearance, Lamech travels to consult with Methuselah, his father, asking him to inquire of Enoch, his grandfather. Enoch was thought to understand many hidden matters.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 19Thereupon I, Lamech, ran to Methuselah my father, and [told] him everything, [so that he would go ask Enoch,] 20his father, and come to understand the whole matter with certainty. For he, Enoch, is beloved and a friend [of God, and with the Holy Ones] 21has his lot been cast. They reveal everything to him. When Methusel[ah] heard [of these matters,] 22he set out for his father Enoch, in order to learn from him the truth of the whole affair [\u2026] 23his will. Then he went the length of the land of Parvaim, and there he found Enoch [his father with the Holy Ones.] 24He [sa]id to Enoch, his father, \u201cO, my father, my lord, I [have come] to you [\u2026 Hear] 25what I say to you. Do not be angry with me that I have come here [\u2026]\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 3 apparently contained the beginning of Enoch\u2019s reply to Methuselah. Enoch began by referring to the descent of the Watchers to take human wives, which occurred in Jared\u2019s day.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 3 3For in the days of Jared, my father [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Enoch\u2019s reply continues.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 5 2And to you, Methuselah [my] so[n \u2026] this lad. 3Behold, when I, Enoch [\u2026 and not] by the Sons of 4Heaven, but by Lamech, your son [\u2026] 5and he did not resemble [\u2026] 7Lamech your son fears his appearance [\u2026] 8in very truth that [\u2026] 9And now, I say to you, my son, and reveal to you [that \u2026] then in truth [\u2026] 10Go, say to Lamech your son [\u2026] 11and they put him in the earth and every deed of the [Sons of Heaven \u2026] 12he lifted his face to me, and his eyes shone like the su[n \u2026] 13this lad fire, and he [\u2026] 16then they were confused and ceased [\u2026] 17eternity, giving [\u2026] 18doing great violence; they will do it until [\u2026] 19and going up, and all the paths of [\u2026] 20And now I declare to you by the mystery [\u2026 Lamech] 21your son. I declare by this great mystery [\u2026] 22in his days the deed, and behold, [\u2026] 23blessing the Lord of All [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Methuselah returns to Lamech and tells him the secret things that Enoch had revealed, especially that Noah is truly his son.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 24Now when Methuselah heard [these things \u2026] 25And spoke secretly with Lamech his son [\u2026] 26Now when I, Lamech, heard [these things \u2026] 27see, that he brought forth from me [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The setting has shifted, and now the adult Noah speaks in his own words. In Col. 7\u201318 he remains the hero and is made to speak in the form of a \u201ctestament\u201d or \u201clast words\u201d (compare texts 39, 40, and 136\u2013138). Throughout these columns a marked affinity exists with the presentation of the same subjects in Jubilees (text 42).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 29[A copy:] The Book of the Words of Noah [\u2026] Col. 6 1from iniquity, and in the crucible of she who bore me I sprouted for righteousness. So when I emerged from my mother\u2019s womb, I was planted for righteousness, 2and it was righteousness that I practiced all of my days. I continued to walk in the paths of the eternal truth, accompanied by a holy [\u2026] 3righteousness hastened on my paths, and to warn me about the [\u2026] of falsehood that lead to darkness and to [\u2026] 4[\u2026] I girded my loins with a vision of righteousness, and wisdom as a robe [\u2026] 5[\u2026] all the paths of violence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Noah marries and has sons. Compare Genesis 5:32 and Jubilees 4:33. Note the emphasis placed on marriage only to one\u2019s first cousin, said to be established by \u201cthe law of the eternal statute.\u201d At the time our text was written, this must have been a controversy, as it is in Jubilees (text 42), the Damascus Document (text 1), the Temple Scroll (text 155), and other Dead Sea Scrolls. The opposing view, held by the Pharisees and perhaps others, preferred marriage between uncle and niece.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6Th[e]n I, Noah, became a man; I laid hold of righteousness, and I grasped the [\u2026] 7[\u2026] I took Emzara his daughter as my wife, and she conceived and bore me three sons [and also] 8[daughters]. Then I took wives for my sons from my brother\u2019s daughters, and I gave my daughters to my brother\u2019s sons, in accordance with the law of the eternal statute. 9[\u2026] the Most High to humanity. And when, in my days, the number that I had calculated reached full measure 10[\u2026] ten jubilee periods, at that point the period for my sons taking their wives was complete.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The coming Flood is announced to Noah by a mighty Watcher. These Watchers were identified by early biblical interpreters with the Nephilim of Genesis 6. Note that Noah calculates the time of the coming Flood as he calculated above the time for his sons\u2019 marriages: our text is very concerned with matters of chronology left unclear in the Bible, another way in which it resembles Jubilees.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11[\u2026] heaven. In a vision I saw, had it made known, and came to realize the deed of the Sons of Heaven, and what [\u2026] 12heaven. I hid this mystery in my heart, revealing it to no one. 13[\u2026 came] to me, and a mighty Watcher to me as a messenger, and as an emissary of the [Great] Holy One [\u2026] 14And in a vision he spoke with me, and stood before me [\u2026] 15an emissary of the Great Holy One proclaimed to me in a voice, \u201cTo you they say, \u2018Noah! [\u2026] 16[\u2026].\u2019 \u201d So I calculated concerning all the activity of those who dwell upon the earth; I knew, and made known, all [\u2026] 17they shall be prosperous, and they have chosen them [\u2026] 18[\u2026] two weeks (of years). Then, sealing [\u2026] 19[\u2026] the blood that the Nephilim had shed. I was serene, and I waited until [\u2026] 20[\u2026] holy ones who [mated] with hum[an] women [\u2026] 23[\u2026] I, Noah, [fo]und great favor and truth [\u2026] 24[\u2026] Most High, a day [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The Flood itself is recounted in several very fragmentary columns of the scroll. Noah, singled out as the one righteous man on earth, rejoices and praises God.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 25[\u2026] until the floodgates of heaven 26[opened \u2026 destroying] humanity and cattle and wild animals and birds [\u2026] Col. 7 1[\u2026] upon them. The earth and all that was upon it, in the seas and on the mountains 2[\u2026] all the constellations, the sun, the moon, and the stars. And the Watchers [\u2026] 5[\u2026] \u201cI hereby grant you your reward from me\u201d [\u2026] 7[\u2026 thus spoke the emissary of] the Great Holy One. I rejoiced at the words of the Lord of Heaven, and shouted for joy 8[\u2026] Sacrifice of thanksgiving and debarkation from the Ark. Compare Genesis 8:20 and Jubilees 6:1\u20133.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11Then upon the earth [\u2026] and he took from [\u2026] 12finding. Behold, [\u2026] the ark came to rest upon one of the mountains of Ararat. And eternal fire [\u2026] 13[\u2026] and I atoned for all the earth; and a choice [\u2026] 14the [kid of the goat] first, and after it came [\u2026] I burned the fat upon the fire, and second [\u2026] 15[\u2026 I] poured out their blood at the base of the altar, [and] I burned the entirety of their flesh upon the altar; then, third, the turtledove 16[\u2026] on the altar as an offering [\u2026] upon it I placed fine flour soaked with oil together with frankincense as a grain offering. 17[\u2026] Upon all of them I was sprinkling salt. Then the savor of my burnt offering ascended to [he]aven. God makes a covenant with Noah, including the prohibition of eating blood. Compare Genesis 8:21\u20139:17 and Jubilees 6:4\u201316.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 15[And the Lord of] Heaven [appeared] to me; he spoke with me, and said to me, \u201cNoah, do not fear! I am with you, and with those sons of yours who will be like you, forevermore. 16[\u2026] the earth, and rule over them all [\u2026] and over its deserts and its mountains, and over all that is in them. Behold, I hereby 17[gr]ant to you and to your sons everything as food, along with the vegetables and herbs of the earth; only you shall consume no blood. The terror and fear of you 18[\u2026] forever. [\u2026] 19[\u2026] I to you [that] your sons shall corrupt [\u2026] 20\u201324[\u2026] The children of Noah\u2019s sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth\u2014including daughters unmentioned in the Bible or Jubilees. Compare Jubilees 7:18\u201319.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Afterward I descended to the foot of this mountain, I, my sons and my grandsons 9[\u2026] Behold, the devastation upon the earth was large-scale. [Sons and da]ughters were bo[rn] to [me] after the Flood. 10[To Shem, my] eldest [son], a son was born first\u2014namely Arpachshad, two years after the Flood. All of the sons of Shem were 11[Elam, Ash]ur, Arpachshad, Lud, and Aram, along with five daughters. And [the sons of Ham: Cush, Egyp]t, Put, and Canaan, together with seven 12daughters. And the son[s] of Japheth: Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan, Tubal, Moshok, Tiras, together with four daughters.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Noah\u2019s sacrifice. Compare Genesis 9:20 and Jubilees 7:1\u20136.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 13Then I began to cultivate the earth together with all my sons. I planted a large vineyard on Mount Lubar; when four years had passed, it produced wine for me 14[\u2026] all. And when the first festival [came], on the first day of that festival, which is in the [first] month, 15[\u2026] that belonged to my vineyard. I opened this vessel and began to drink it on the first day of the fifth year since planting. 16[\u2026] On this day, I invited my sons, grandsons and all of our wives and daughters, and we gathered together, and we went 17[to the place of the altar.] And I was blessing the Lord of Heaven, God Most High, the Great Holy One, for he rescued us from destruction. 18[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Having fallen asleep drunk, Noah sees a vision involving a cedar and an olive tree. Compare Genesis 9:21\u201323 and Jubilees 7:7\u201313.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 13 8[\u2026] and the beasts of the field [\u2026] and animals that creep upon the dry ground, exchanging [\u2026] 9[of gold and silver], stones and clay were cutting down and taking some of it for themselves. I continued watching the gold and silver ones 10[\u2026], the iron one and the trees: all of them were cutting down and taking some of it for themselves. I watched the sun, moon, 11[and] stars cutting down and taking some of it for themselves. I continued to watch until they consumed it, then released the earth and the water. The 12water ceased, and it ceased. The interpretation of the vision is revealed to Noah.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 9[\u2026] Give hee[d], and listen! The great cedar is you [\u2026] standing before you in the dream on the summit of the mountains [\u2026] 10[\u2026] truth. The shoot that emerged from it and grew to a great height represents three s[o]ns [\u2026] 11[\u2026 In that] you saw the first shoot as attached to the stump of the cedar, [\u2026] and wood from it [\u2026] 12[\u2026] all of his days he shall not separate from you, and his progeny shall call themselves by your n[am]e. [\u2026] 13[\u2026] shall emerge as a righteous planting for all [\u2026] 14[\u2026] surely existing forever. In that you saw the shoot attached to the st[um]p of [\u2026] 15[\u2026] And in that you saw [\u2026] the oth[e]r shoot [\u2026] 16[\u2026] some of its branches intertwined with the branches of the first shoot: two s[o]ns [\u2026] 17[\u2026] from the land [\u2026] to the north [\u2026] And in that you saw some of their branches intertwined with those of the first shoot, 18[\u2026] placing upon the earth [\u2026] and not [\u2026] 19You revealed the mystery as far as [\u2026] 20\u201321[\u2026] 22[\u2026] to their east he sent [\u2026] 23\u201326[\u2026] 27[\u2026] the cedar [\u2026] The division of the earth among Noah\u2019s sons, Japheth, Shem, and Ham. Compare Genesis 10 and Jubilees 8:10\u201330.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 16 8[\u2026] 9the bay lying between them, the headwater in a spring as far as the River Tina, and the riverhead [\u2026] 10all the land of the north until it reached [\u2026] 11[and] this portion crossed the waters of the Mediterranean until it reached [\u2026] 12he apportioned by lot to Japheth and to his sons as an everlasting inheritance. The division of the portions of Shem, Ham, and Japheth among their sons. Compare Genesis 10 and Jubilees 9:1\u201313.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 17 7[And] my son Shem [di]vided his inheritance among his sons. The first lot fell to [El]a[m] in the north, along the Tigris River until it reached the R[e]d 8Sea, and north to the river\u2019s source, then turn[ing] to the west toward Ashur\u2019s portion, to the point where the latter met the Tigris. [\u2026] After him, 9the land between the two rivers fell to Aram, until it reaches the beginning of Mo[unt Ashur \u2026] until the [Land of] Ararah [\u2026] 10fell this Mountain of the Bull; and this portion crossed over and continued until it met Magog\u2019s portion, and to [\u2026] north-11east, which extends from the center of this bay by the source of the three portions and along the sea, to Arpachshad [\u2026] 12to the [boundary] that faces the south, all the land that the Euphrates waters and all [\u2026] 13[\u2026] all the valleys and plains that are between them, together with the island in the midst of the bay [\u2026] 14[\u2026] as far as the sons of Gomer [\u2026] and Amana until it reaches the Euphr[ates \u2026] 15[\u2026] the portion that he allotted to him, and that Noah his father had given him. The hero of the story is now Abraham. This portion apparently concerns the building of the altar at Bethel. Compare Genesis 12:1\u20137.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 19 6[\u2026 And there I built] the [altar, and called] ther[e upon the name of G]o[d \u2026] And I said, \u201cYou are indeed 7[the Etern]al [G]od for m[e], [\u2026].\u201d Previously, I had not reached the holy mountain; so I journeyed 8to [\u2026] and I continued traveling to the south [\u2026] until I reached Hebron\u2014though Hebron had yet to be built\u2014and I lived 9[th]ere [for two years].<\/p>\n\n\n\n Suffering from a famine, Abraham and his family go to Egypt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Now, there was a famine in all that land, but I heard that in Egypt there w[as] g[ra]in. So I journeyed 10to [enter] the land of Egypt [\u2026 and] I [reached] the Carmon River, one of the 11branches of the Nile [\u2026] Until this point we were still within our own land, [but] now I [cr]ossed the seven branches of this river that [\u2026] 12[\u2026] Now we had crossed our land and entered the land of the children of Ham, the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Abraham has an ominous dream.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 13I, Abram, had a dream the night of my entry into the land of Egypt. In my dream, I saw a cedar tree and a 14date palm gro[wing] from [a single] roo[t]. Then people came intending to cut down and uproot the [c]edar, thereby to leave the date palm by itself. 15The date palm, however, objected, and said, \u201cDo not cut the [c]edar down, for the two of us grow fr[om] but a [sin]gle root.\u201d So the cedar was spared because of the date palm, 16and was not cut down.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Abraham relates the dream to his wife, Sarah, and interprets its meaning.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Then I started from my sleep while it was still night, and said to Sarai, my wife, \u201cI have had a 17dream and no[w] am fearful [because of] it.\u201d She replied, \u201cTell me your dream so I may understand,\u201d So I began to explain it to her, 18and I also [explained its significance.] I said, \u201c[\u2026 men will come] intending to kill me while sparing you. Notwithstanding, this is the kindness 19[that you can do for me.] In every [place] where [we shall go, say] concerning me, \u2018He is my brother.\u2019 Thus I may live because of you and my life be spared owing to you. 20[\u2026 they will attempt] to sepa[ra]te us and to kill me.\u201d Then Sarai wept at my words that night. 21[\u2026] and the Pharaoh of Zo[an \u2026] Sarai n[o longer wanted] to go to Zoan 22[with me, and she was] exceedingly [careful for five year]s lest any man attached to the Pharaoh of Zoan should see her. The pharaoh\u2019s advisers return to him, including one named Hyrcanos, who describes Sarah\u2019s wondrous beauty in a poem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 20 2[\u2026] How splen[did] and beautiful is the aspect of her face, and how [\u2026] 3[And] h[ow] supple is the hair of her head. How lovely are her eyes; how pleasant her nose and all the radiance of 4her face [\u2026] How shapely is her breast, how gorgeous all her fairness! Her arms, how comely! Her hands, 5how perfect\u2014how [lovely] is every aspect of her hands! How exquisite are her palms, how long and delicate all her fingers! The Pharaoh of Zoan takes Sarah for himself. Abraham grieves and prays for God to judge the pharaoh and protect Sarah.<\/p>\n\n\n\n When the king heard Hyrcanos\u2019 words and those of his companions\u2014for the three of them spoke of one accord\u2014he desired her very much. So he sent 9immediately and had her brought to him. He saw her and was amazed at her beauty. Thereupon, he took her as his wife and sought to kill me, but Sarai said 10to the king, \u201cHe is my brother.\u201d Thus she benefited me and I was spared\u2014I, Abram\u2014by her good graces, and not killed. Then I wept copiously\u2014I,11Abram\u2014both I and Lot, my nephew, that night when Sarai was taken from me by force. God answers Abraham\u2019s prayer, sending an afflicting spirit against the pharaoh.<\/p>\n\n\n\n That night God Most High sent a baneful spirit to smite him and every man of his household, an evil 17spirit that continued to afflict him and every man of his household. Consequently, he was unable to have sexual relations with her; indeed, he did not have intercourse with her even though she was with him 18two full years. At the end of two years the plagues and afflictions grew yet more severe against him and every man of his household, so he sent messengers 19calling for all [the wise men] of Egypt, along with all the magicians and healers of Egypt, thinking that perhaps they could cure him and his household of this pestilence. 20Yet none of the healers, magicians, and wise men were able to cure him; on the contrary, the spirit afflicted all of them too, 21so that they fled.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Abraham agrees to exorcise the pharaoh\u2019s evil spirit in return for Sarah\u2019s being restored to him. The pharaoh rewards them and has them escorted out of Egypt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Then Hyrcanos came to me, asking me to come pray for the 22king, and to lay hands upon him and cure him\u2014for [he had seen me] in a dream. But Lot replied, \u201cMy uncle, Abram, is unable to pray for 23the king while Sarai, his wife, remains with him. Now, go tell the king to send his wife to her husband. Then he will pray for him and he will be cured.\u201d 24When Hyrcanos heard Lot\u2019s words, he went and told the king, \u201cAll these smitings and plagues 25by which my lord the king has been smitten and afflicted are because of Sarai, the wife of Abram! Let him return Sarai to Abram, her husband, 26and this plague will depart from you, that is, the spirit causing the discharges of pus.\u201d Abraham returns to Canaan.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 33So I, Abram, left, with many, many flocks, together with silver and gold, and went up from [Egyp]t. [Lot,] 34my nephew, accompanied me, and he also had acquired many flocks for himself, and had taken a wife from among the daughters [of Egypt]. I [cam]ped [with him] Col. 21 1[in] each of my former encampments until I reached Bethel, where I had once erected an altar. Now I rebuilt it 2and offered up burnt offerings and a cereal offering to God Most High. There I called upon the name of the Eternal Lord and praised the name of God. I blessed 3God and gave thanks to Him there for all the flocks and goods He had given me, and for the good that He had done me, and because He had returned me 4to this land safely.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Lot separates from Abraham and goes to live in Sodom. Genesis 13:6\u20137 explains that the land could not support both of them, for their flocks were too numerous; also, their herders were fighting one another. The Tales downplays these difficulties. God appears to Abraham in a vision.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5After this day Lot separated from me because of the actions of our shepherds. He went to live in the valley of the Jordan, taking all his flocks 6with him. I also added greatly to what he had. He pastured his flocks and kept on the move until he reached Sodom, where he bought himself a house 7and settled down to live. I myself continued living on the mountain of Bethel, and thought it unwise that my nephew Lot had separated from me. Abraham surveys the promised land.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 15Then I went\u2014I, Abram\u2014traveling in a circuit to survey the land. I began the circuit at the Gihon River, traveling along the Mediterranean until 16I reached the Mount of the Ox. I circled from the coast of this great saltwater sea, skirting the Mount of the Ox, and continued eastward through the breadth of the land 17until I came to the Euphrates River. I journeyed along the Euphrates until I reached the Red Sea in the east, whence I followed the coast of 18the Red Sea until I came to the tongue of the Reed Sea, jutting out from the Red Sea. From there I completed the circuit, moving southward to arrive at the Gihon 19River. Afterwards I returned home safely and found all my men well. Abraham battles the four kings of the east. Compare Genesis 14, whose narrative this portion of the Tales elaborates considerably. The author of the Tales is also concerned to update or identify the biblical names of peoples and places.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 23Prior to those days Chedorlaomer, the king of Elam, Amraphel, the king of Babylon, Arioch, the king of Cappadocia, and Tidal, the king of Goiim, which 24lies between the two rivers, had come. They had waged war on Bera, the king of Sodom, Birsha, the king of Gomorrah, Shinab, the king of Admah, 25Shemiabad, the king of Zeboiim, and the king of Bela. All these gathered themselves together to battle in the Valley of Siddim. Now, the king of 26Elam and the kings with him proved stronger than the king of Sodom and all his allies. Thus they imposed tribute upon them. God appears to Abraham in a vision and promises that Eliezer shall not be his heir. Compare Genesis 15:1\u20134; the Tales manifests a clear concern with chronology here, for Genesis says nothing about how long Abraham had been in various places. The dialogue between God and Abraham is also markedly different, here emphasizing Abraham\u2019s wealth much more than the biblical narrative does.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 27After these events God appeared to Abram in a vision and said to him, \u201cConsider, ten full years 28have passed since the day that you left Haran. Two you spent here, seven in Egypt, and one 29has passed since you returned from Egypt. Now, take an accounting of all that you possess; note how your possessions have doubled and more, compared to 30what you took with you the day you left Haran. So fear not, I am with you. I shall be your 31support, your strength. I myself shall be your shield and buckler against any foe mightier than you. Your wealth and flocks 32shall multiply exceedingly.\u201d 1Q22<\/p>\n\n\n\n The authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls found the Bible a limitless source of wisdom and instruction, but on occasion they found it necessary to rewrite portions of it to enhance the message they found in it\u2014or wanted to find in it. Sometimes biblical stories were rewritten\u2014such as Tales of the Patriarchs (text 4)\u2014probably to increase their entertainment value. Other portions, such as the Temple Scroll (text 155), represent rewritten and expanded legal material with controversial or new laws added, highlighted, or explained. The introductory passage recalls Deuteronomy 1:3.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 1 1[God called] to Moses [on the fortieth] year after the [children of I]sra[el] lef[t the land of E]gypt, in the [el]eventh mo[nth], 2on the first day of the [mo]nth, saying, [Convene] the entire na[ti]on and go up to [Mount Nebo] and stand [ther]e, you 3and Elea[zar so]n of Aaron. Ex[plain to the family] heads, to the Lev[i]tes, and all the [priests] and command the children of 4Israe[l] the words of the Law that [I] have commanded [you] on Mount S[i]nai to command t[hem] in the[ir] hearing.<\/p>\n\n\n\n This passage recalls Deuteronomy 4:25\u201328, except that the author adds to the prediction of idolatry a further one concerning breaking the laws of the festival calendar\u2014a topic much on the minds of the Yahad and earlier groups such as the circles that produced Jubilees.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5Explain thorou[ghly everything] that I [deman]d of them and [call as witnesses against] them Heaven and [Earth, for] 6wha[t] I command [them will] not be to their [li]king, or to [their] descendants\u2019 liking, [all] the days that they [live on the la]nd. Indeed 7I declare [to you] that they will abandon [Me and ch]oo[se to follow the idols of the] Gen[tiles and] their [ab]ominations and their [fil]thy deeds, [and they will worship] the 8fals[e god]s, which will become a tr[ap and] snare, and they will vi[olate every sacred assem]bly and covenant Sabbath [and the festivals], the very ones 9I am commanding them today [to ob]serve.<\/p>\n\n\n\n A paraphrase of Deuteronomy 28:15.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [They will suffer a] great [defeat] within the very land [that they] are about to cross 10[the] Jordan [to poss]ess. And so it will be, [th]at all the curs[es] will come upon them and catch them un[til] they perish and until 11they are de[stroyed] and they will know [that] a just judgment has been [passed] on them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Deuteronomy 31:7 states only that Moses summoned Joshua. The addition here of Eleazar the priest as a co-ruler of Israel is characteristic of the Dead Sea sect.<\/p>\n\n\n\n So Moses called Eleazar son of 12[Aaron] and Joshu[a son of Nun and said to] them, Repeat [all the words of the Law up to] the very end [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Here the author combines the gist of Deuteronomy 27:9\u201319 with Deuteronomy 6:10\u201311.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 2 1[I]srael and hear! This very [da]y [you become a peo]ple belonging to the Lord [your God], so [you] should o[bserve my regulations] and my testimonies [and] my [commandments th]at 2[I am] commanding you [to]day, [doing them just] as [you] are about to cross the [Jordan], and [I shall give] you 3large and [beautiful] cities and houses full of eve[ry good thing, vineyards and olive trees] that [you did] n[ot plant and cis]terns [that you] did not 4[d]ig; and you will eat and be satisfied. [Be careful] lest your [hea]rt grow proud and you [forget what] I [command you] today; 5[for] it is [your] life and length of [your] days.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Here the author combines themes and expressions from Deuteronomy 1:9\u201318 and 11:17.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [So] Moses [called] and [said to the children of I]srael, It is now forty 6[years] since we c[ame out of] the land of [Egypt.] This very [day the Lor]d our [God has expressed the]se [wor]ds from [his] mouth: 7[all] his [sta]tutes [and] all [his] (sta[tutes]). [H]ow [shall I bear alone] your trouble [and your burdens and your quarreling?] So it shall be, 8[when] I [finish giving] the covenant and commanding [the] w[ay tha]t you should walk in, [appoint for yourself wise men who] should explain 9[to you and to] your [children] all [these] words of the L[aw]. Be [very careful] of yourselves [to do them lest] his anger burn and his wrath ignite 10against you, [and] He closes the heavens above from raining [upon you], and the [waters below the earth] from giving you 11[produce].<\/p>\n\n\n\n This section concerns the sabbatical year, combining material from Deuteronomy 15 and Leviticus 25. The reconstruction is especially uncertain.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Moses [spoke again] to the children of Israel, These are [the commandments that God commanded] to obey [\u2026] Col. 3 1[Every seventh y]ear, [the] sabbath of [the land you shall keep. And the sabbath of the] la[nd shall be for you] food for [you and for the domestic animals and for the beasts of] the fi[eld] 2[\u2026 and whatever is le]ft over is for [the poor of] your [brothers] who are in [the land. No one] shall s[ow his field or] prune [his vineyard. No] ma[n] 3[shall harvest the after growth of his harvest, nor shall he] gather for [himself anything. You shall keep] al[l th]es[e words of the] covenant, 4[to do them. And] it shall be, when [you hearken] to do [this commandment], and remit [the debt in] thi[s y]ear, [\u2026] 1Q27, 4Q299\u2013301<\/p>\n\n\n\n Where shall wisdom be found, and where is the place of understanding?\u201d Such was the cry of the author of Job (28:12), and an entire literature, even a literary movement, stood behind that cry. \u201cWisdom books\u201d are the biblical writings that embody this search for understanding: Proverbs, Ecclesiastes (or Koheleth), and Job. Indeed, almost every culture of the ancient Near East had its own representative books of wisdom, and the oldest collections of proverbs are not Israelite, but Egyptian, and go back to the late third millennium B.C.E. The \u201cinstructor\u201d announces his intention to reveal his learning to all who are interested, even the benighted Gentiles.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q301 Frag. 1 1[\u2026] I shall speak out freely, and I shall express my various sayings unto you [\u2026] 2[\u2026 those who would understand pa]rables and riddles, and those who would penetrate the origins of knowledge, along with those who hold fast to [the wonderful mysteries \u2026] 3[\u2026] those who walk in simplicity as well as those who are devious in every activity of the deeds of [humanity \u2026] 4[those with a stiff] neck, [a hard] pate, [all] the mass of the Gentiles, with [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The instructor asks the motivation for learning. It must not be for worldly power and privilege.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 2b 1[\u2026] Now what good is the riddle to you, you who search for the origins of knowledge? 2[\u2026] a parable? Why is it splendid to you, for it is [\u2026] What is a prince [\u2026] 3[\u2026] without strength, and he dominates him with a whip that cost nothing. Who would say 4[\u2026] who among you seeks the presence of Light and Illu[mination] 5[\u2026] the plan of memory without [\u2026] 6[\u2026] by the angels of [\u2026] 7[\u2026] those who praise [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n In times past people ignored this teaching and disaster came upon them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q300 Frag. 3 2so that they would know the difference between g[ood and evil and between lies and truth and they understood secrets of sin \u2026] 3all their wisdom. 1Q27 Frag. 1 Col. 1 3[\u2026 all their wisdom.] But they did not know the secret of the way things are nor did they understand the things of old and they did not 4know what would come upon them, so they did not rescue themselves by means of the secret of the way things are.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The time for ignoring the true wisdom is past. Those who have not reformed their lives by means of it will soon be eliminated.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5This shall be the sign that this shall come to pass: when the times of evil are shut up and wickedness is banished in the presence of righteousness, as darkness in the presence of 6light, or as smoke vanishes and is no more, in the same way wickedness will vanish forever and righteousness will be manifest like the sun. 7The world will be made firm and all the adherents of the secrets of (MS.: wonder) shall be no more. True knowledge shall fill the world and there will never be any more folly. 8This is all ready to happen, it is a true oracle, and by this it shall be known to you that it cannot be averted.<\/p>\n\n\n\n It is not enough simply to honor goodness or desire truth. The attainment of wisdom lies beyond human effort, and it is beyond the reach of the rich.<\/p>\n\n\n\n It is true that all 9the peoples reject evil, yet it advances in all of them. It is true that truth is esteemed in the utterances of all the nations\u201410yet is there any tongue or language that grasps it? What nation wants to be oppressed by another that is stronger? Or who 11wants his money to be stolen by a wicked man? Yet what nation is there that has not oppressed its neighbor? Where is the people that has not 12robbed the wealth [of another?\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Even the so-called righteous have fallen short of the ideals of true wisdom.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q299 Frags. 3a\u2013b Col. 2 2what should we call [a man who \u2026 his] deeds [\u2026] 3but every deed of the righteous has been judged im[pure. And what] should we call a ma[n who \u2026 Call no one on earth] 4wise or righteous, for it is not a human possession [\u2026] and no[t \u2026 wisdom is hidden,] 5except for the wisdom of cunning evil, and the s[chemes of Belial \u2026] 6a thing that ought never to be done again, except [\u2026] 7the command of his Maker; and what shall a m[an] do [and live?\u2026 he who] 8has violated the command of his Maker shall have his name erased from the mouth of all [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n God knows all hidden things; indeed, he has determined how everything should come about.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 9[\u2026] So listen, you who hold fast [to the wonderful secrets \u2026] 10of eternity, and the plots behind every deed, and the pur[pose of \u2026 He knows] 11every secret and stands behind every thought, He does every [\u2026 the Lord of all] 12is H[e, fr]om long ago He established it, and forever [\u2026] 13[\u2026] the purpose of the times of birth He opened up to [\u2026] 14[\u2026] for He tests our heart, and gives to us as an inheritance [\u2026] 15[\u2026] every secret, and the limits of every deed; and what [\u2026] 16[\u2026] the Gentiles, for He created them and [their] deeds [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Magicians and soothsayers have not been able to penetrate God\u2019s secrets.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q300 Frag. 1a Col. 1 4[\u2026 de]ed of anger and work of [\u2026] Frags. 1 a\u2013b Col. 2 1[Consider the sooth]sayers, those teachers of sin. Say the parable, declare the riddle before we speak; then you will know if you have truly understood. 2[\u2026] your foolishness, for the seal of the vision is sealed up from you, and you have not properly understood the eternal mysteries and you have not become wise in understanding. 3[\u2026] for you have not properly understood the origin of wisdom; but if you should unseal the vision 4[\u2026] all your wisdom, for to you is the par[able \u2026] Hear now what is 5[the] hidden [wisdom \u2026] shall not be [\u2026] 6[v]ision [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The secret of true wisdom is as hidden as God\u2019s design of the natural world. He created the heavenly bodies to regulate human life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q299 Frag. 5 1[\u2026 light]s of the stars for a m[emo]rial of [His] name [\u2026] 2[\u2026 hidden] things of the mysteries of Light and the ways of Darkne[ss \u2026] 3[\u2026] the times of heat with the period[s of cold \u2026] 4[\u2026 the breaking of day] and the coming of night [\u2026] 5[\u2026] the times of birth [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n He created the earth with its rivers and streams perpetually filled by the gift of rain.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 6 Col. 1 1[\u2026] waters 2[\u2026] their [\u2026] 3[\u2026] their work, they shall be strong 4[\u2026 lightni]ng he made in perpetuity, showers 5[\u2026 wat]er and they give to drink by measure 6[\u2026] he speaks to them and they give 7[\u2026] by His might He created 8[\u2026] its mountains all 9[\u2026] all that springs forth from it 10[\u2026] from its center stretches out 11[\u2026] their [\u2026] time after time 12[\u2026] to teach to all 13[\u2026] from the dust of their frame 14[\u2026] all their pools and the chamber of 15[\u2026] he gave dominion to strengthen 16[\u2026] all strength 17[\u2026] and strengthens all 18[\u2026] the work of man 19[\u2026] his [wo]rk.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Wisdom is available by humble submission to the unchangeable plan of God.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 8 5[\u2026] and what shall a man understand without knowledge and without hearing [\u2026] 6[\u2026] insight, the impulse of [our] heart with great intelligence, he uncovered our ears that we [might hear \u2026] 7[\u2026] He created insight for all those who pursue true knowledge and [\u2026] 8[\u2026] all wisdom is from eternity, it may not be changed [\u2026] 9[\u2026] He locked up behind the waters, so that [not \u2026] 10[\u2026] the heaven above heaven [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n True wisdom is also found among his people Israel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q301 Frags. 3a\u2013b 4[\u2026] and He is well known for His patience, and [mighty] in His great anger, and [splendid] 5[\u2026] He in His numerous acts of mercy, and terrible in His wrathful purposes, and honored [\u2026] 6[\u2026] and over the land He made him ruler, and God is honored among His holy people, and splendid 7[among] His chosen, yes, splendid [\u2026] his [hol]iness, great in the blessings of [\u2026] 8[\u2026] their splendor and [\u2026] when the era of wickedness is at an end, and [evil]doing [\u2026] 1QS, 4Q255\u2013264a, 5Q11 The work begins by characterizing the covenant to which members are to commit themselves. The author further describes the ideal community in general terms, and explains the role to be taken by an Instructor as a teacher for the community.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 1 1A text belonging to [the Instructor, who is to teach the Ho]ly Ones how to live according to the book of the Yahad\u2019s Rule. He is to teach them to seek 2God with all their heart and with all their soul, to do that which is good and upright before Him, just as 3He commanded through Moses and all His servants the prophets. He is to teach them to love everything 4He chose and to hate everything He rejected, to distance themselves from all evil 5and to hold fast to all good deeds; to practice truth, justice, and righteousness 6in the land, and to walk no longer in a guilty, willful heart and lustful desires, 7wherein they did every evil thing. He is to induct all who volunteer to live by the laws of God 8into the Covenant of Mercy, so as to be joined to God\u2019s society and walk faultless before Him, according to all 9that has been revealed for the times appointed them. He is to teach them both to love all the Children of Light\u2014each 10commensurate with his rightful place in the council of God\u2014and to hate all the Children of Darkness, each commensurate with his guilt 11and the vengeance due him from God. Next is described a ceremony for initiating new members into the community.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 16All who enter the Yahad\u2019s Rule shall be initiated into the Covenant before God, agreeing to act 17according to all that He has commanded and not to backslide because of any fear, terror or persecution 18that may occur during the time of Belial\u2019s dominion. While the initiates are being inducted into the Covenant, the priests 19and the Levites shall continuously bless the God of deliverance and all His veritable deeds. All 20the initiates into the Covenant shall continuously respond \u201cAmen, amen.\u201d Many movements founded on repentance face the problem of the initiate who is not truly converted. The following section addresses this problem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11Then the priests and Levites shall go on to declare, \u201cDamned be anyone initiated with unrepentant heart, 12who enters this Covenant, then sets up the stumbling block of his sin, so turning apostate. It shall come to pass, 13when he hears the words of this Covenant, that he shall bless himself in his heart, saying \u2018Peace be with me, 14though I walk in the stubbornness of my heart\u2019 (Deut. 29:18\u201319). Surrounded by abundant water, his spirit shall nevertheless expire thirsty, without 15forgiveness. God\u2019s anger and zeal for His commandments shall burn against him for eternal destruction. All the 16curses of this Covenant shall cleave to him, and God shall separate him out for a fate befitting his wickedness. He shall be cut off from all the Sons of Light because of his apostasy 17from God, brought about by unrepentance and the stumbling block of sin. He shall cast his lot with those damned for all time.\u201d 18The initiates are all to respond in turn, \u201cAmen, amen.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n Annual review of the membership.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 19They shall do as follows annually, all the days of Belial\u2019s dominion: the priests shall pass in review 20first, ranked according to their spiritual excellence, one after another. Then the Levites shall follow, 21and third all the people by rank, one after another, in their thousands and hundreds 22and fifties and tens. Thus shall each Israelite know his proper standing in the Yahad of God, 23an eternal society. None shall be demoted from his appointed place, none promoted beyond his foreordained rank. 24So shall all together comprise a Yahad whose essence is truth, genuine humility, love of charity and righteous intent, 25caring for one another after this fashion within a holy society, comrades in an eternal fellowship.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Who is to be excluded from God\u2019s society and why.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Anyone who refuses to enter 26[the society of G]od, preferring to continue in his willful heart, shall not [be initiated into the Ya]had of His truth, inasmuch as his soul Col. 3 1has rejected the disciplines foundational to knowledge: the laws of righteousness. He lacks the strength to repent. He is not to be reckoned among the upright. 2His knowledge, strength and wealth are not to enter the society of the Yahad. Surely, he plows in the muck of wickedness, so defiling stains 3would mar his repentance. Yet he cannot be justified by what his willful heart declares lawful, preferring to gaze on darkness rather than the ways of light. With such an eye 4he cannot be reckoned faultless. Ceremonies of atonement cannot restore his innocence, neither cultic waters his purity. He cannot be sanctified by baptism in oceans 5and rivers, nor purified by mere ritual bathing. Unclean, unclean shall he be all the days that he rejects the laws 6of God, refusing to be disciplined in the Yahad of His society. A theoretical discussion of the two spirits that control humankind and determine who is good and who is evil, why upright people sin and why the good suffer, and what the manifestations are of both spirits.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 13A text belonging to the Instructor, who is to enlighten and teach all the Sons of Light about the character and fate of humankind: 14all their spiritual varieties with accompanying signs, all their deeds generation by generation, and their visitation for afflictions together with 15eras of peace. The struggle of good and evil, and good\u2019s ultimate triumph.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 15The character and fate of all humankind reside with these spirits. All the hosts of humanity, generation by generation, are heirs to these spiritual divisions, walking according to their ways; the outworking of every 16deed inheres in these divisions according to each person\u2019s spiritual heritage, whether great or small, for every age of eternity. God has appointed these spirits as equals until the 17last age, and set an everlasting enmity between their divisions. False deeds are thus an abomination to the truth, whereas all the ways of truth are for perversity equally a disgrace. Fierce 18dispute attends every point of decision, for they can never agree. In his mysterious insight and glorious wisdom God has countenanced an era in which perversity triumphs, but at the time appointed 19for visitation He shall destroy such forever. Then shall truth come forth in victory upon the earth. Sullied by wicked ways while perversity rules, at 20the time of the appointed judgment truth shall be decreed. By His truth God shall then purify all human deeds, and refine some of humanity so as to extinguish every perverse spirit from the inward parts 21of the flesh, cleansing from every wicked deed by a holy spirit. Like purifying waters, He shall sprinkle each with a spirit of truth, effectual against all the abominations of lying and sullying by an 22unclean spirit. Thereby He shall give the upright insight into the knowledge of the Most High and the wisdom of the angels, making wise those following the perfect way. Indeed, God has chosen them for an eternal covenant; 23all the glory of Adam shall be theirs alone. Perversity shall be extinct, every fraudulent deed put to shame. Rules for the conduct of the community. In the first section the rules are general and abstract.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 5 1This is the rule for the men of the Yahad who volunteer to repent from all evil and to hold fast to all that He, by His good will, has commanded. They are to separate from the congregation of 2perverse men. They are to come together as one with respect to Law and wealth. Their discussions shall be under the oversight of the Sons of Zadok\u2014priests and preservers of the Covenant\u2014and according to the majority rule of the men of 3the Yahad, who hold fast to the Covenant. These men shall guide all decisions on matters of Law, money, and judgment. General foundational precepts regarding entry into the group\u2019s new covenant.<\/p>\n\n\n\n These are the regulations that govern when they are gathered together as a community. Every initiate into the party of the Yahad 8is to enter the covenant in full view of all the volunteers. He shall take upon himself a binding oath to return to the Law of Moses (according to all that He commanded) with all 9his heart and with all his mind, to all that has been revealed from it to the Sons of Zadok\u2014priests and preservers of the Covenant, seekers of His will\u2014and the majority of the men of their Covenant 10(that is, those who have jointly volunteered for His truth and to live by what pleases Him). Each one who thus enters the Covenant by oath is to separate himself from all of the perverse men, they who walk 11in the wicked way, for such are not reckoned a part of His Covenant. They \u201chave not sought Him nor inquired of His statutes\u201d (Zeph. 1:6) so as to discover the hidden laws in which they err 12to their shame. Even the revealed laws they knowingly transgress, thus stirring God\u2019s judgmental wrath and full vengeance: the curses of the Mosaic covenant. He will bring against them 13weighty judgments, eternal destruction with none spared.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The mention of outsiders inspires a digression criticizing them. Clearly involvement with such people was a dangerous attraction for some members of the community.<\/p>\n\n\n\n None of the perverse men is to enter purifying waters used by the Men of Holiness and so contact their purity. (Indeed, it is impossible to be purified 14without first repenting of evil, inasmuch as impurity adheres to all who transgress His word.) None is to be yoked with such a man in his work or wealth, lest \u201che cause him to bear 15guilt\u201d (Lev. 22:16). On the contrary, one must keep far from him in every respect, for thus it is written: \u201cKeep far from every false thing\u201d (Exod. 23:7). None belonging to the Yahad is to discuss 16with such men matters of Law or legal judgment, nor to eat or drink what is theirs, nor yet to take anything from them 17unless purchased, as it is written \u201cTurn away from mere mortals, in whose nostrils is only breath; for of what account are they?\u201d (Isa. 2:22). Accordingly, 18all who are not reckoned as belonging to His covenant must be separated out, along with everything they possess; the Man of Holiness must not rely upon futile 19actions, whereas all who do not know His Covenant are futility itself. All those who despise His word, He shall destroy from upon the face of the earth. Their every deed is an abomination 20before Him, all that is theirs being infested with impurity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Stipulations governing the examination of initiates.<\/p>\n\n\n\n When anyone enters the Covenant\u2014to live according to all these ordinances, to make common cause with the Congregation of Holiness\u2014they 21shall investigate his spiritual qualities as a community, each member taking part. They shall investigate his understanding and works vis \u00e0 vis the Law, guided both by the Sons of Aaron, who have jointly volunteered to uphold 22His Covenant and to observe all of the ordinances that He commanded them to execute, and by the majority of Israel, who have volunteered to return, as a community, to His Covenant. 23They are to be enrolled by rank, one man higher than his fellow\u2014as the case may be\u2014by virtue of his understanding and works. Thus each will obey his fellow, the inferior his superior. They shall 24examine spiritual qualities and works annually, promoting a man because of his understanding and perfection of walk, or demoting him because of failure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n How shall those higher in rank reprove their inferiors? Several rules govern this potentially divisive issue.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Each man is to reprove 25his fellow in truth, humility and loving-kindness. He should not speak to him in anger, with grumbling, 26with a [stiff] neck or with a wickedly [zealous] spirit. He must not hate him because of his own [uncircumcised] heart. Most assuredly he is to rebuke him on the day of the infraction so that he does not Col. 6 1continue in sin. Also, no man is to bring a charge against his fellow before the general membership unless he has previously rebuked that man before witnesses.<\/p>\n\n\n\n General principles of organization intended to govern the various local chapters of the community in their joint meals and study of the Bible.<\/p>\n\n\n\n By these rules 2they are to govern themselves wherever they dwell, in accordance with each legal finding that bears upon communal life. Inferiors must obey their ranking superiors as regards work and wealth. They shall eat, 3pray and deliberate communally. Wherever ten men belonging to the party of the Yahad are gathered, a priest must always 4be present. The men shall sit before the priest by rank, and in that manner their opinions will be sought on any matter. When the table has been set for eating or the new wine readied 5for drinking, it is the priest who shall stretch out his hand first, blessing the first portion of the bread or the new wine. 6In any place where is gathered the ten-man quorum, someone must always be engaged in study of the Law, day and night, 7continually, each one taking his turn. The general membership will be diligent together for the first third of every night of the year, reading aloud from the Book, interpreting Scripture, and 8praying together.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Procedural rules for the public meetings of the chapters.<\/p>\n\n\n\n This is the rule for the session of the general membership, each man being in his proper place. The priests shall sit in the first row, the elders in the second, then the rest 9of the people, each in his proper place. In that order they shall be questioned about any judgment, deliberation, or matter that may come before the general membership, so that each man may state his opinion 10to the party of the Yahad. None should interrupt the words of his comrade, speaking before his brother finishes what he has to say. Neither should anyone speak before another of 11higher rank. Only the man being questioned shall speak in his turn. During the session of the general membership no man should say anything except by the permission of the general membership, or more particularly, of the man 12who is the Overseer of the general membership. If any man has something to say to the general membership, yet is of a lower rank than whomever is guiding the deliberations of the party of the 13 Yahad, let him stand up. He should then say, \u201cI have something to say to the general membership.\u201d If they permit, he may speak.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The work returns yet again to the topic of initiates into the community. Here are elaborated specific procedures for a two-year process of admission by steps into full membership.<\/p>\n\n\n\n If anyone of Israel volunteers 14for enrollment in the party of the Yahad, the man appointed as leader of the general membership shall examine him regarding his understanding and works. If he has the potential for instruction, he is to begin initiation 15into the Covenant, returning to the truth and repenting of all perversity. He shall be made to understand all the basic precepts of the Yahad. Subsequently in the process, he must stand before the general membership and the whole chapter shall interrogate him 16about his particulars. According to the decision of the society of the general membership, he shall either proceed or depart. A penal code, setting forth case-by-case violations and penalties. Many of these have to do with breaches of discipline and order, while others concern ethical shortcomings. The code begins with laws governing speech.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 24These are the rules by which cases are to be decided at a community inquiry. Laws governing fraud and grudges.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Whoever speaks with his companion deceitfully or knowingly practices fraud is to be punished by reduced rations for six months. Laws governing public meetings and communal meals of the chapters. Coarse behavior, public indecency, spitting, and gesturing with the left hand are all forbidden; spitting and using the left hand carried overtones of sorcery in the ancient world.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Whoever speaks foolishness: three months. Laws concerning various degrees of rebellion against the community and its teaching.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The man who gossips about his companion 16is to be barred for one year from the pure meals of the general membership and punished by reduced rations. But if a man gossips about the general membership, he is to be banished from them 17and may never return. This section of the text bears an uncertain relationship to the previous portions. Some scholars believe that an \u201cinner council\u201d of elite members is here described; others, that this and several following sections of the text represent an early, original manifesto that was later expanded. On this second understanding, the whole community, not just an elite, is being described. Several of the Cave 4 copies of the Charter suggest that this second understanding, or some more nuanced version of it, is indeed correct.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 8 1In the party of the Yahad there shall be twelve laymen and three priests who are blameless in the light of all that has been revealed from the whole 2Law, so as to work truth, righteousness, justice, loving-kindness, and humility, one with another. 3They are to preserve faith in the land with self-control and a broken spirit, atoning for sin by working justice and 4suffering affliction. They are to walk with all by the standard of truth and the dictates proper to the age. Rules for community discipline, more general than those previously stipulated in the penal code. Notably harsher at points, they may constitute an earlier version of that code.<\/p>\n\n\n\n No man belonging to the Covenant of the 17Yahad who flagrantly deviates from any commandment is to touch the pure food belonging to the holy men. 18Further, he is not to participate in any of their deliberations until all his works have been cleansed from evil, so that he is again able to walk blamelessly. They shall admit him 19into deliberations by the decision of the general membership; afterwards, he shall be enrolled at an appropriate rank. This is also the procedure for every initiate added to the Yahad. The purpose of the community, its manifesto, is reiterated. This statement ends by looking forward to the arrival of a prophet\u2014perhaps the \u201cprophet like Moses\u201d predicted by the book of Deuteronomy, or perhaps a herald such as John the Baptist became for early Christians\u2014and two messiahs, one priestly and one presumably in the royal line of David.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3When, united by all these precepts, such men as these come to be a community in Israel, they shall establish eternal truth 4guided by the instruction of His holy spirit. They shall atone for the guilt of transgression and the rebellion of sin, becoming an acceptable sacrifice for the land through the flesh of burnt offerings, the fat of sacrificial portions, and 5prayer, becoming\u2014as it were\u2014justice itself, a sweet savor of righteousness and blameless behavior, a pleasing freewill offering. Rules for the Instructor who is to teach the Yahad.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 12These are the statutes for the Instructor. He is to conduct himself by them with every living person, guided by the precepts appropriate to each era and the value of each person. 13He is to work the will of God according to what has been revealed for each period of history, studying all the wise legal findings of earlier times, as well as every 14statute applying to his own time. He is to discern who are the true Sons of Righteousness and to weigh each man\u2019s spiritual qualities, sustaining the chosen ones of his own time in keeping with 15His will and what He has commanded. In each case he shall decide what a man\u2019s spiritual qualities mandate, letting him enter the Yahad if his virtue and understanding of the Law 16measure up. By the same standards he shall determine each man\u2019s rank. The times when the Instructor is to lead in prayer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [With pray]er shall he bless Him Col. 10 1at the times ordained of God: when light begins its dominion\u2014each time it returns\u2014and when, as ordained, it is regathered into its dwelling place; when night begins 2its watches\u2014as He opens His storehouse and spreads darkness over the earth\u2014and when it cycles back, withdrawing before the light; 3when the luminaries show forth from their holy habitation, and when they are regathered into their glorious abode; when the times appointed for new moons arrive, and when, as their periods require, 4each gives way to the next. Such renewal is a special day for the Holy of Holies; indeed, it is a sign that He is unlocking eternal loving-kindness each time 5these cycles begin as ordained, and so it shall be for every era yet to come.<\/p>\n\n\n\n A lengthy sample prayer of the sort that the Instructor was to deliver in celebration of holy times. This prayer is clearly connected in language and style to the Thanksgiving Hymns (text 12). The times specified are particularly related to the solar calendar found in so many of the Dead Sea Scrolls. One earlier form of the Charter contains instead of this prayer a calendrical discourse (see Calendar of the Heavenly Signs, text 71).<\/p>\n\n\n\n On the first of each month in its season, and on holy days laid down for a memorial, in their seasons 6by a prayer shall I bless Him\u2014a statute forever engraved. When each new year begins and when its seasons turn, fulfilling the law 7of their decree, each day as set forth, day after day: harvest giving way to summer, planting to the shoots of spring, seasons, years, and weeks of years. The prayer turns from holy times to ethical behavior, with a focus on the coming \u201cDay of Vengeance.\u201d This term refers to the time of war when the people of God will rise up and take their rightful place at the head of the nations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n To no man shall I return 18evil for evil, I shall pursue a man only for good; for with God resides the judgment of all the living, and He shall pay each man his recompense. My zeal shall not be tarnished by a spirit 19of wickedness, neither shall I lust for riches gained through violence. Next the focus turns to the use of the tongue. This portion is reminiscent of the New Testament book of James (3:1\u201312) and its warnings on the danger of an uncontrolled tongue.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In my mouth shall be heard 22neither foolishness nor sinful deceit; neither fraud nor lies shall be discovered between my lips. Rather, the fruits of holiness will be upon my tongue\u2014abominations 23will not be found thereon. God is the source of whatever goodness the worshiper may claim, and the truths that he possesses\u2014hidden from other people\u2014are given by God.<\/p>\n\n\n\n As for me, my justification lies with God. In His hand are the perfection of my walk and the virtue of my heart. 3By His righteousness is my transgression blotted out. For from the fount of His knowledge has my light shot forth; upon his wonders has my eye gazed\u2014the light of my heart upon the mystery 4of what shall be. The prayer closes by reflecting on the greatness of God and human unworthiness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Blessed are You, O my God, who has opened to knowledge 16the mind of Your servant. Establish all of his works in righteousness; raise up the son of Your handmaiden\u2014if it please You\u2014to be among those chosen of humankind, to stand 17before You forever. The version of 5:1\u201320 found in 4Q256 col. 9 and 4Q258 col. 1. In general, the version of the Charter found in these Cave 4 copies is shorter (4Q258 is lacking Col. 1\u20134 entirely), lacks biblical quotations found in 1QS, and is stylistically less given to rhetoric. Notable too is the absence of any reference to the \u201cSons of Zadok,\u201d who lead the group\u2019s deliberations according to 1QS col. 5.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 5 1A legal finding for the Instructor concerning the men of the Law who volunteer. They are to repent from all evil and to hold fast to all that He has commanded. 2They are to separate from the congregation of perverse men. They are to come together as one with respect to Law and wealth. Their discussions shall be according to majority rule regarding all matters 3of Law and money. 1QSa (1Q28a), 4Q249a\u2013i<\/p>\n\n\n\n This short work\u2014only two columns of Hebrew text\u2014was inscribed as an appendix to the Cave 1 copy of the foregoing Charter of a Jewish Sectarian Association (text 7). Only this one copy exists with certainty (nine additional copies inscribed in Cryptic Script A may also have been found, but they are so fragmentary that identification is problematic). The work reflects many of the same ideas as the longer charter, but unlike that writing, this composition is specifically intended for an ideal future, which it calls the \u201cLast Days.\u201d The author imagines that when this millennium fully breaks forth, the Yahad will lead a final war against the Gentiles. All Israel\u2014including here women and children\u2014will mobilize and, now realizing their error in not earlier accepting the group\u2019s views, come to the Yahad and join it for Armageddon. This composition is a blueprint for central aspects of military organization in the coming war, and in both language and concept is closely related to the War Scroll writings (see text 11). General instructions for the final incorporation of all Israel into the Yahad.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 1 1This is the rule for all the congregation of Israel in the Last Days, when they are mobilized [to join the Yahad. They must l]ive 2by the law of the Sons of Zadok, the priests, and the men of their Covenant, they who ce[ased to walk in the w]ay 3of the people. These same are the men of His party who kept His Covenant during evil times, and so aton[ed for the lan]d. Rules for the childhood education of the troops. The mysterious \u201cBook of Meditation\u201d is also mentioned in the Damascus Document (text 1) and the Secret of the Way Things Are (text 105).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6The following is the policy for all the troops of the congregation, and it applies to every native-born Israelite. From [early ch]ildhood each boy 7is to be instructed in the Book of Meditation. As he grows older, they shall teach him the statutes of the Covenant, and [he will receive] 8[in]struction in their laws. For ten years he is to be considered a youth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Male rite of passage into adulthood and the army at age twenty. Female incorporation at marriage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Then, at a[ge] twenty, [he shall be enrolled] 9[in] the ranks and take his place among the men of his clan, thereby joining the holy congrega[tion.] He must not app[roach] 10a woman for sexual intercourse before he is fully twenty years old, when he knows [right] 11from wrong. With the marriage act she, for her part, is received into adult membership. From this time on he may bear witness to the statutes of the Law, and take his place among the ranks for the ceremonial proclamation of the ordinances.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Rules governing eligibility for service to the congregation and the army, at ages twenty-five, thirty, and older.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 12At age twenty-five, he is eligible to take his place among the pillars of the holy 13congregation and to begin serving the congregation. The place of the dull-witted.<\/p>\n\n\n\n No dull-witted man 20is to be ordained to office as a leader of the congregation of Israel; neither may he be a le[ga]l disputant, nor perform a task for the congregation. 21He may not receive command in the war that will bring the Gentiles to their knees. Still, he may be unlisted in the ranks of his clan 22and serve as a laborer or such, as his capacities permit.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The role of the Levites.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Now the Sons of Levi shall each receive a specific assignment 23from the Sons of Aaron. In general, they shall lead the whole congregation out to battle and back, each man in ranked array, commanded by the heads of 24the congregation\u2019s clans: officers and judges and officials, in the number required by their armies. The Levites shall be overseen by the Sons of Aaron, the priests, 25and all the heads of the congregation\u2019s clans. Membership in the party of the Yahad.<\/p>\n\n\n\n These are the men appointed to the party of the Yahad: from the age of tw[enty], all the 28[wis]e of the congregation, the understanding and knowledgeable\u2014who are blameless in their behavior and men of ability\u2014together with the 29tri[bal officials,] all judges, magistrates, captains of thousands, [hundreds,] Col. 2 1fifties, and tens, and the Levites, each a full mem[ber of his div]ision of service. These are 2the men of reputation, who hold commissions in the party of the Yahad in Israel 3that sits before the Sons of Zadok, the priests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Those excluded from assemblies. Some are disallowed because of cultic impurity, others because of physical infirmity, which was regarded as a mark of sin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n No man who suffers from a single type of the uncleanness 4that affects humanity shall enter their assembly; neither is any man so afflicted 5to receive an assignment from the congregation. No man with a physical handicap\u2014crippled in both legs or 6hands, lame, blind, deaf, dumb, or possessed of a visible blemish in his flesh\u20147or a doddering old man unable to do his share in the congregation\u20148may en[ter] to take a place in the congregation of the m[e]n of reputation. For the holy 9angels are [a part of] their congregation. The messianic banquet. The Yahad believed that in the Last Days two messiahs would emerge from its own ranks, one a priest, the other a royal commander for the armies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11The procedure for the [mee]ting of the men of reputation [when they are called] to the banquet held by the party of the Yahad, when [God] has fa[th]ered 12the Messiah (or when the Messiah has been revealed) among them: [the Priest,] as head of the entire congregation of Israel, shall enter first, trailed by all 13[his] brot[hers, the Sons of] Aaron, those priests [appointed] to the banquet of the men of reputation. They are to sit 14be[fore him] by rank. Then the [Mess]iah of Israel may en[ter,] and the heads 15of the th[ousands of Israel] are to sit before him by rank, as determined by [each man\u2019s comm]ission in their camps and campaigns. Last, all 16the heads of [the con]gregation\u2019s cl[ans,] together with [their] wis[e and knowledgeable men,] shall sit before them by 17rank. 1QSb (1Q28b)<\/p>\n\n\n\n This collection of blessings expresses important aspects of the Yahad\u2019s ideology regarding the Last Days. The leader of the Yahad, called \u201cthe Instructor,\u201d was to recite these blessings, perhaps upon the occasion (described in text 8) when all Israel was being mustered as new members. He would bless first the general membership, then two unidentifiable groups (the text here being so fragmentary that the identities are obscure), the Zadokite priests, the messianic high priest, and finally the Prince of the Congregation, or military messiah. A blessing on the faithful of the Yahad.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 1 1Words of blessing belonging to the Instructor, by which to bless those who fear [God, those who do] His will and keep His commandments, 2who hold fast to His holy co[ven]ant and walk blameless [in all the paths of] His [truth,] whom He chose for an 3eternal covenant th[at should en]dure forever. Remnants of a blessing on the second of two unidentifiable groups or individuals. (The blessing on the first is too fragmentary to translate.)<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 2 22[\u2026] \u201cMay the Lord grace you with the [holy] sp[irit \u2026 with all] 23His [rewa]rds may He delight you; May He grace you [with \u2026] 24May He grace you with the holy spirit and loving-[kindness \u2026] 25and with an eternal covenant may He grace you, causing [you] greatly to rejoice [\u2026] 26May He grace you with righteous judgment, [\u2026 that you not] stumb[le \u2026] 27May He look graciously upon all your works [\u2026 May He grace you] 28[with] eternal truth [\u2026 May He look graciously] upon all your descen[dants \u2026]\u201d A blessing for the Zadokite priests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 22Words of blessing belonging to the Inst[ructor, by which to bless] the Sons of Zadok, the priests, chosen 23by God to uphold His covenant for[ever, to pr]ove His precepts among His people, and to teach them 24as He commanded. They have truly held fast [to His covenant], righteously observing all His statutes and walking as 25He chose. A blessing on the messianic high priest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 4 22[\u2026 \u201cFor] He has chosen you [\u2026] 23and to place you at the head of the Holy Ones and with you to bl[ess \u2026] by your hand 24the men of God\u2019s society, rather than by the hand of a prince [\u2026] May you 25[abide forever] as an Angel of the Presence in the holy habitation, to the glory of the God of host[s. May you] serve in the temple of 26the kingdom of God, ordering destiny with the Angels of the Presence, a party of the Yahad [with the Holy Ones] forever, for all the ages of eternity! A blessing for the Prince of the Congregation, a Davidic war leader who was to arise in the Last Days. Much of the language of this blessing is drawn from Isaiah 11, which has often been interpreted by both Jews and Christians as speaking of the Messiah.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 20(Words of blessing) belonging to the Instructor, by which to bless the Prince of the Congregation who [\u2026] 21And He shall renew for him the Covenant of the [Ya]had, so as to establish the kingdom of His people forev[er, that \u201cwith righteousness He may judge the poor,] 22[and] decide with equity for [the me]ek of the earth\u201d (Isa. 11:4), walk before Him blameless in all the ways of [His heart,] 23and establish His covenant as holy [against] the enemy of those who seek H[im.] 1Q29, 4Q376, 4Q408<\/p>\n\n\n\n Exodus 28 describes Israel\u2019s high priest\u2019s garments and equipment, and though the entire description is shot through with awe and mystery, nothing in the description has more captured the imagination of readers than the sparse account of the two oracle stones called the Urim and the Thummim. The Bible suggests that the high priest would rely upon the Urim and Thummim to discover God\u2019s will (Num. 27:21; 1 Sam. 28:6); presumably this form of divination responded only to \u201cyes\u201d and \u201cno\u201d questions, and according to how the question was phrased, the priest\u2019s blind selection of one stone or the other from their pouch would reveal the answer. That, at least, is how modern scholars generally understand the mechanism. Tongues of Fire, however, and the traditions of Josephus (Ant. 3.214\u2013215) share a much more miraculous expectation. They agree in indicating that God would make the answer known by causing the appropriate stone to shine forth with a brilliant light. The only other occurrence of the term \u201canointed priest\u201d in the scrolls is in the Test of a True Prophet (text 90).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q376 Frag. 1 Col. 1 1[\u2026] the anointed priest 2[upon whose head has been poured the anointing oil \u2026 and he shall offer a bul]l from the herd and a ram 3[\u2026] for the Urim [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This fragment shows that the Urim was used to test whether a prophet was true or false. Lines 3 and 5 indicate a negative response in this case. Compare the Test of a True Prophet (text 90).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1Q29 Frag. 1 (with 4Q376 Frag. 1 Col. 2 and 4Q408 Frag. 11) 1[\u2026] 2[\u2026] the stone, just as [the LORD commanded \u2026] 3[\u2026 and they shall give you light (?) and it (the cloud?) shall come forth] with it (?), with tongues of fire. [The left-hand stone that is on its left side shall be uncovered] 4[before the whole congregation until] the priest finishes speaking. [And after the cloud has been lifted \u2026 And you shall observe] 5[and do all that] the prop[het shall s]ay to you [\u2026] 6[\u2026 and the prophet] who counsels rebellion [\u2026] 7[\u2026 to] the LORD [your] God [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n A positive response.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 2 1[\u2026] 2[\u2026 the] right-hand [s]tone when the pri[est] comes out [from \u2026] 3[\u2026] three tongues of fire from [the right-hand stone \u2026] 4[\u2026] and after he goes up then [\u2026] shall be clos[ed \u2026] The use of the oracle stones for help with military strategy. Joshua used them in this way according to Numbers 27:21.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 1 Col. 3 1[\u2026] according to this entire commandment. And if the Leader of the whole congregation is in the camp and [\u2026] 2his enemy and Israel is with him, or if they march on a city to throw up a siege against it, or in respect to any matter that [\u2026] 3to the Leader [\u2026] the field is far (?) [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This perhaps final prayer praises God for creating day and night and the lights to rule them. In this regard the text is similar to other poetic accounts of the heavenly cycles among the scrolls; note for example the Charter of a Jewish Sectarian Association 10:1\u20135 (text 7) and the Thanksgiving Hymns 20:7\u201314 (text 12).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q408 Frags. 3\u20133a 1[\u2026] under[standing \u2026] 2[\u2026] to You there to do [\u2026] 3[\u2026] the God of Israel [who] creates together (or for the Yahad) [\u2026] 4[\u2026 Mos]es [called] to all Israel when they saw [\u2026] 5[\u2026 when] His glorious ornaments shine forth from [His] hol[y] habitation [\u2026] all [Israel shall] answer 6[\u2026 Ble]ssed {is the LORD} are You, O Lord, [who] are righteous in all Your ways, who are [mi]ghty in power, who are f[aithful in] Your [jud]gments, who are trustworthy 7in a[ll Your precepts], who are understanding with a[ll in]sight, who shake off (?) [with] all might, who lead to bring out [\u2026] 8because You created the morning, a sign to reveal the dominion of light as a boundary for the day at the be[ginning \u2026] 9for their service, to bless Your holy name. When they saw that the light is good and [when they recognized] that in all [\u2026] 10[\u2026] men, because [You] crea[ted] the evening, a sign to reveal the dominion of [darkness as a boundary for the night \u2026] 11[\u2026] from toil, to bless [Your holy name when] they saw [that all the stars were good \u2026] 1QM, 4Q491\u2013496<\/p>\n\n\n\n Armageddon: the war to end all wars. These words stir up images of inevitable conflict, the final focus on the dark side of human nature, the ultimate catharsis that ushers in an age of peace. All of these issues come to a head in the War Scroll, a text that describes the eschatological last battle in gory detail, as righteousness is fully victorious and evil is forever destroyed. This vivid account gives us insight into how, at about the time of Jesus, some Jews conceived of Armageddon. The description of the eschatological war.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 1 1For the In[structor, the Rule of] the War. The first attack of the Sons of Light shall be undertaken against the forces of the Sons of Darkness, the army of Belial: the troops of Edom, Moab, the sons of Ammon, 2the [Amalekites,] Philistia and the troops of the Kittim of Assyria. Supporting them are those who have violated the covenant. The sons of Levi, the sons of Judah, and the sons of Benjamin, those exiled to the wilderness, shall fight against them 3with [\u2026] against all their troops, when the exiles of the Sons of Light return from the Wilderness of the Peoples to camp in the Wilderness of Jerusalem. Then after the battle they shall go up from that place 4a[nd the king of] the Kittim [shall enter] into Egypt. In his time he shall go forth with great wrath to do battle against the kings of the north, and in his anger he shall set out to destroy and eliminate the strength of 5I[srael. Then the]re shall be a time of salvation for the People of God, and time of dominion for all the men of His forces, and eternal annihilation for all the forces of Belial. There shall be g[reat] panic 6[among] the sons of Japheth, Assyria shall fall with no one to come to his aid, and the supremacy of the Kittim shall cease, that wickedness be overcome without a remnant. There shall be no survivors 7of [all Sons of] Darkness. The annihilation of the Sons of Darkness and service to God during the war years.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 16[\u2026] the holy ones shall shine forth in support of [\u2026] the truth for the annihilation of the Sons of Darkness. Then[\u2026] 17[\u2026] a great [r]oar [\u2026] they took hold of the implement[s of war \u2026] 18[\u2026] 19[\u2026 chiefs of the tribes \u2026 and the priests,] 20[the Levites, the chiefs of the tribes, the fathers of the congregation \u2026 the priests and thus for the Levites and the courses of the heads of] Col. 2 1the congregation\u2019s clans, fifty-two. They shall rank the chiefs of the priests after the Chief Priest and his deputy; twelve chief priests to serve 2in the regular offering before God. The chiefs of the courses, twenty-six, shall serve in their courses. After them the chiefs of the Levites serve continually, twelve in all, one to a 3tribe. The chiefs of their courses shall serve each man in his office. The chiefs of the tribes and fathers of the congregation shall support them, taking their stand continually at the gates of the sanctuary. 4The chiefs of their courses, from the age of fifty upwards, shall take their stand with their commissioners on their festivals, new moons, and Sabbaths, and on all days of the year. 5These shall take their stand at the burnt offerings and sacrifices, to arrange the sweet-smelling incense according to the will of God, to atone for all His congregation, and to satisfy themselves before Him continually 6at the table of glory. All of these they shall arrange at the time of the year of remission. During the remaining thirty-three years of the war the men of renown, 7those called of the congregation, and all the heads of the congregation\u2019s clans shall choose for themselves men of war for all the lands of the nations. From all the tribes of Israel they shall prepare 8capable men for themselves to go out for battle according to the summons of the war, year by year. But during the years of remission they shall not ready men to go out for battle, for it is a Sabbath 9of rest for Israel. During the thirty-five years of service the war shall be waged. For six years the whole congregation shall wage it together, 10and a war of divisions shall be waged during the twenty-nine remaining years. In the first year they shall fight against Aram-naharaim (Mesopotamia), in the second against the sons of Lud, in the third 11they shall fight against the rest of the sons of Aram: Uz, Hul, Togar, and Mesha, who are beyond the Euphrates. In the fourth and fifth they shall fight against the sons of Arpachshad, 12in the sixth and seventh they shall fight against all the sons of Assyria and Persia and the easterners up to the Great Desert. In the eighth year they shall fight against the sons of 13Elam, in the ninth year they shall fight against the sons of Ishmael and Keturah, and during the following ten years the war shall be divided against all the sons of Ham 14according to [their] c[lans and] their [terri]tories. During the remaining ten years the war shall be divided against all [the sons of Japhe]th according to their territories. 15[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The description of the trumpets.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 16[The Rule of the Trumpets: the trumpets] of alarm for all their service for the [\u2026] for their commissioned men, 17[by tens of thousands and thousands and hundreds and fifties] and tens. Upon the t[rumpets \u2026] The description of the banners.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 13The Rule of the Banners of the whole congregation according to their formations. On the grand banner which is at the head of all the people they shall write, \u201cPeople of God,\u201d the names \u201cIsrael\u201d and 14\u201cAaron,\u201d and the names of the twelve tribes of Israel according to their order of birth. On the banners of the heads of the camps of the three tribes 15they shall write, \u201cThe Spirit [of God,\u201d and the names of the three tribes. O]n the standard of the tribe they shall write, \u201cThe Standard of God,\u201d and the name of the prince of the t[ribe \u2026] 16of its clans. [\u2026 and] the name of the prince of the ten thousand and the names of the chief[s of \u2026] 17[\u2026] his hundreds. On the banner [\u2026] 18\u201320[\u2026] Col. 4 1On the banner of Merari they shall write, \u201cThe Offering of God,\u201d and the name of the prince of Merari and the names of the chiefs of his thousands. On the banner of the tho[us]and they shall write, \u201cThe Anger of God is loosed against 2Belial and all the men of his forces without remnant,\u201d and the name of the chief of the thousand and the names of the chiefs of his hundreds. And on the banner of the hundred they shall write, \u201cHundred 3of God, the power of war against all sinful flesh,\u201d and the name of the chief of the hundred and the names of the chiefs of his tens. And on the banner of the fifty they shall write, \u201cEnded 4is the stand of the wicked [by] the might of God,\u201d and the name of the chief of the fifty and the names of the chiefs of his tens. And on the banner of the ten they shall write, \u201cSongs of joy 5for God on the ten-stringed harp,\u201d and the name of the chief of the ten and the names of the nine men in his command. The description of the shields.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 19[The Rule of the Shields \u2026] 20[\u2026] Col. 5 1and on the sh[ie]ld of the Prince of the Whole Congregation they shall write his name, the names \u201cIsrael,\u201d \u201cLevi,\u201d and \u201cAaron,\u201d and the names of the twelve tribes of Israel according to their order of birth, 2and the names of the twelve chiefs of their tribes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The description of the arming and deployment of the divisions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3The Rule for Arranging the Divisions for War: when their army is complete to make a forward battle line. The battle line shall be formed of one thousand men. There shall be seven forward rows 4to each battle line, arranged in order; the station of each man behind his fellow. All of them shall bear shields of bronze, polished like 5a face mirror. The shield shall be bound with a border of plaited work and a design of loops, the work of a skillful workman; gold, silver, and bronze bound together 6and jewels; a multicolored brocade. It is the work of a skillful workman, artistically done. The length of the shield shall be two and a half cubits, and its breadth a cubit and a half. In their hands they shall hold a lance 7and a sword. The length of the lance shall be seven cubits, of which the socket and the blade comprise half a cubit. On the socket there shall be three bands engraved as a border of plaited 8work; of gold, silver, and copper bound together like an artistically designed work. And in the loops of the design, on both sides of the band 9all around, shall be precious stones, a multicolored brocade, the work of a skillful workman, artistically done, and an ear of grain. The socket shall be grooved between the bands like 10a column, artistically done. The blade shall be of shining white iron, the work of a skillful workman, artistically done, and an ear of grain of pure gold inlaid in the blade; tapered toward 11the point. The swords shall be of refined iron, purified in the furnace and polished like a face mirror, the work of a skillful workman, artistically done, with figures of ears of grain 12of pure gold embossed on both sides. The borders shall go straight to the point, two on each side. The length of the sword shall be a cubit 13and a half and its width four fingers. The scabbard shall be four thumbs wide, and four handbreadths up to the scabbard. The scabbard shall be tied on either 14side with thongs of five handbreadths. The handle of the sword shall be of choice horn, the work of a skillful workman, a varicolored design with gold and silver and precious stones. The description of the deployment of the cavalry.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8Seven rows of horsemen shall also take position at the right and at the left of the battle line. Their rows shall be positioned on both sides, seven hundred 9horsemen on one side and seven hundred on the other. Two hundred horsemen shall go out with one thousand men of the battle line of the infantry, and thus 10they shall take position on all sides of the camp. The total being four thousand six hundred men, and one thousand four hundred cavalry for the entire army arranged for the battle line; 11fifty for each battle line. The horsemen, with the cavalry of the men of the entire army, will be six thousand; five hundred to a tribe. All the cavalry that go out 12to battle with the infantry shall ride stallions; swift, responsive, unrelenting, full-grown, trained for battle, 13and accustomed to hearing noises and seeing all kinds of scenes. Those who ride them shall be men capable in battle, trained in horsemanship, the range 14of their age from thirty to forty-five years. The horsemen of the army shall be from forty to fifty years old, and they 15[\u2026], helmets and greaves, carrying in their hands round shields and a lance eig[ht cubits long, \u2026] 16[\u2026] and a bow and arrows and battle darts, all of them prepared in [\u2026] 17[\u2026] and to shed the blood of their guilty slain. These are the [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The recruitment and age of the soldiers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 18\u201320[\u2026] Col. 7 1and the men of the army shall be from forty to fifty years old. The commissioners of the camps shall be from fifty to sixty years old. The officers 2shall also be from forty to fifty years old. All those who strip the slain, plunder the spoil, cleanse the land, guard the arms, 3and he who prepares the provisions, all these shall be from twenty-five to thirty years old. No youth nor woman shall enter their encampments from the time they leave 4from Jerusalem to go to battle until their return. No one crippled, blind, or lame, nor a man who has a permanent blemish on his skin, or a man affected with ritual uncleanness of 5his flesh; none of these shall go with them to battle. All of them shall be volunteers for battle, pure of spirit and flesh, and prepared for the Day of Vengeance. Any 6man who is not ritually clean in respect to his genitals on the day of battle shall not go down with them into battle, for holy angels are present with their army. There shall be a space 7between all their camps and the latrine of about two thousand cubits, and no shameful nakedness shall be seen in the environs of all their camps.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The ministry of the priests and Levites.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 9When the battle lines are arranged against the enemy, battle line against battle line, there shall go forth from the middle opening into the space between the battle lines seven 10priests of the sons of Aaron, dressed in fine white linen garments: a linen tunic and linen breeches, and girded with a linen sash of twined fine linen, violet, 11purple, and crimson, and a varicolored design, the work of a skillful workman, and decorated caps on their heads; the garments for battle, and they shall not take them into the sanctuary. 12The one priest shall walk before all the men of the battle line to strengthen their hands for battle. In the hands of the remaining six shall be 13the trumpets of assembly, the trumpets of memorial, the trumpets of the alarm, the trumpets of pursuit, and the trumpets of reassembly. When the priests go out 14into the space between the battle lines, seven Levites shall go out with them. In their hands shall be seven trumpets of rams\u2019 horns. Three officers from among the Levites shall walk before 15the priests and the Levites. The priests shall blow the two trumpets of assem[bly \u2026 of ba]ttle upon fifty shields, 16and fifty infantrymen shall go out from the one gate and[\u2026] Levites, officers. With 17each battle line they shall go out according to all [this] o[rder.\u2026 men of the] infantry from the gates 18[and they shall take positi]on between the two battle lines, and [\u2026] the bat[tle \u2026] 19\u201320[\u2026] The description of the maneuvers of the battle divisions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 10Rule for changing the order of the battle divisions, in order to arrange their position against [\u2026] a pincer movement and towers, 11an are and towers, and as it draws slowly forward, then the columns and the flanks go out from the [t]wo sides of the battle line [that] 12the enemy might become discouraged. The shields of the soldiers of the towers shall be three cubits long, and their lances eight cubits l[on]g. The towers 13shall go out from the battle line with one hundred shields on a side. F[or] they shall surround the tower on the three frontal sides, 14three hundred shields in all. There shall be two gates to a tower, one on [the right and] one on the left. Upon all the shields of the tower soldiers 15they shall write: on the first, \u201cMi[chae]l,\u201d [on the second, \u201cGabriel,\u201d on the third,] \u201cSariel,\u201d and on the fourth \u201cRaphael.\u201d 16\u201cMichael\u201d and \u201cGabriel\u201d on [the right, and \u201cSariel\u201d and \u201cRaphael\u201d on the left.] The address of the chief priest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 19\u201320[\u2026] Col. 10 1of our camps, and to keep ourselves from any shameful nakedness, and he (Moses) told us that You are in our midst, a great and awesome God, plundering all of 2our enemies befo[re u]s. He taught us from of old through all our generations, saying, \u201cWhen you approach the battle, the priest shall stand and speak unto the people, 3saying, \u2018Hear O Israel, you are approaching the battle against your enemies today. Do not be afraid nor fainthearted. 4Do not trem[ble, no]r be terrified because of them, for your God goes with you, to fight for you against your enemies, and to save 5you\u2019 \u201d (Deut. 20:3\u20134). Our [of]ficers shall speak to all those prepared for battle, those willing of heart, to strengthen them by the might of God, to turn back all 6who have lost heart, and to strengthen all the valiant warriors together. They shall recount that which You s[poke] by the hand of Moses, saying: \u201cAnd when there is a war 7in your land against the adversary who attacks you, then yo[u] shall sound an alarm with the trumpets and you will be remembered before your God 8and be saved from your enemies\u201d (Num. 10:9). Who is like You, O God of Israel, in he[av]en and on earth, that he can do according to Your great works 9and Your great strength?<\/p>\n\n\n\n The prayer of the chief priest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Who is like Your people Israel, whom You have chosen for Yourself from all the peoples of the lands? 10The people of the holy ones of the covenant, learned in the statutes, enlightened in understan[ding \u2026] those who hear the glorious voice and see 11the holy angels, whose ears are open; hearing deep things. [O God, You have created] the expanse of the skies, the host of luminaries, 12the task of spirits and the dominion of holy ones, the treasures of [Your] gl[ory \u2026] clouds. He who created the earth and the limits of her divisions 13into wilderness and plain, and all her offspring, with the fru[its \u2026], the circle of the seas, the sources of the rivers, and the rift of the deeps, 14wild beasts and winged creatures, the form of man and the gener[ations of] his [see]d, the confusion of language and the separation of peoples, the abode of clans 15and the inheritance of the lands, [\u2026 and] holy festivals, courses of years, and times of 16eternity. [\u2026] these we know from Your understanding which [\u2026] 17[\u2026] Your [ears] to our cry, for [\u2026] 18[\u2026] his house [\u2026] 19\u201320[\u2026] Col. 11 1Truly the battle is Yours, and by the strength of Your hand their corpses have been dashed to pieces so that no one can bury them. Indeed, Goliath the Gittite, a mighty warrior, 2You delivered into the hand of David, Your servant, because he trusted in Your great name and not in sword and spear, for the battle is Yours. 3He subdued the Philistines many times by Your holy name. Also by the hand of our kings You rescued us many times 4because of Your mercy; not according to our works, for we have acted wickedly, nor for the acts of our rebelliousness. The battle is Yours, the strength is from You, 5it is not our own. Neither our power nor the strength of our hand have done valiantly, but by Your power and the strength of Your great valor. Jus[t a]s You told 6us in time past, saying: \u201cThere shall come forth a star from Jacob, a scepter shall rise out of Israel, and shall crush the forehead of Moab and tear down all sons of Sheth, 7and he shall descend from Jacob and shall destroy the remnant from the city, and the enemy shall be a possession, and Israel shall do valiantly\u201d (Num. 24:17, 19, 18a, c). By the hand of Your anointed ones, 8seers of things appointed, You have told us about the ti[mes] of the wars of Your hands in order that You may {fight} glorify Yourself among our enemies, to bring down the hordes of Belial, the seven 9vainglorious nations, at the hand of the oppressed whom You have redeemed [with powe]r and by retribution (or with peace); a wondrous strength. A heart that melts shall be as a door of hope. You will do to them as You did to Pharaoh 10and the officers of his chariots in the Red Sea. You will ignite the humble of spirit like a fiery torch put to the sheaf, consuming the wicked. You shall not turn back until 11the annihilation of the guilty. In time past You foretold [the app]ointed time for Your hand\u2019s powerful work against the Kittim, saying: \u201cAnd Assyria shall fall by a sword not of man, and a sword 12not of men shall consume him\u201d (Isa. 31:8). The blessings of the war recited by all the leaders after the victory.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 20[\u2026 And the Chief Priest shall stand] Col. 13 1and his brothers the [pr]iests, the Levites, and all the elders of the army with him. They shall bless, from their station, the God of Israel and all His works of truth, and they shall curse 2Be[li]al there and all the spirits of his forces. And they shall say in response: \u201cBlessed is the God of Israel for all His holy purpose and His works of truth. And blessed are 3all those who serve Him righteously, who know Him faithfully. The blessings of the war recited by all the leaders in the morning before the battle.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2After they have withdrawn from the slain to return to the camp, all of them shall sing the hymn of return. In the morning they shall wash their clothes, cleanse themselves 3of the blood of the sinful bodies, and return to the place where they had stood, where they had formed the battle line before the slain of the enemy fell. There they shall all bless 4the God of Israel and joyously exalt His name together. They shall say in response: \u201cBlessed is the God of Israel, who guards loving-kindness for His covenant and the appointed times 5of salvation for the people He redeems. He has called those who stumble unto wondrous [accomplishment]s, and He has gathered a congregation of nations for annihilation without remnant in order to raise up in judgment 6he whose heart has melted, to open a mouth for the dumb to sing [God\u2019s] mighty deeds, and to teach feeble [hands] warfare. He gives those whose knees shake strength to stand, 7and strengthens those who have been smitten from the hips to the shoulder. Among the poor in spirit [\u2026] a hard heart, and by those whose way is perfect shall all wicked nations come to an end; 8there will be no place for all their mighty men. The final battle\u2014the first engagement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Then the Chief Priest shall stand, and with him his brothers the p[riests], the Levites, and all the men of the army. He shall read aloud 5the prayer for the appointed time of batt[le, as is written in the boo]k Serekh \u2018Itto (the Rule of His Time), including all their words of thanksgiving. Then he shall form there 6all the battle lines, as writ[ten in the Book of the Wa]r. Then the priest appointed for the time of vengeance by 7all his brothers shall walk about and encourage [them for the battl]e. He shall say in response: \u201c \u2018Be strong and courageous, as warriors. 8Fear not, nor be discoura[ged and let not y]our [heart be faint.] Do not panic, neither be alarmed because of them\u2019 (Deut. 20:3). Do not 9turn back nor [flee from the]m. For they are a wicked congregation, all their deeds are in darkness; 10it is [their] desire. [They have established al]l their refuge [in a lie], their strength is as smoke that vanishes, and all 11their vast assembly [is as chaff which blows away \u2026 de]solation (or their name), shall not be found. Every creature of destruction shall wither quickly away 12[like a flow]er at ha[rvest time.\u2026 Come,] strengthen yourselves for the battle of God, for this day is an appointed time of battle 13[for G]od against all the n[ations, \u2026 judgm]ent upon all flesh. The God of Israel is about to raise His hand in His wondrous [streng]th 14[against] all the spirits of wick[edness \u2026 m]ighty ones of the gods are girding themselves for battl[e, and] the formation[s of the] h[o]ly ones 15[are rea]dying themselves for a day of [vengeance \u2026] 16the God of I[srae]l [\u2026] 17to remove Bel[ial \u2026] 18in his place of destruction (Abaddon) [\u2026] 19\u201320[\u2026] Col. 16 1until every source [of \u2026 is come to an end. For] the God of Israel has called out a sword against all the nations, and by the holy ones of His people He will do mightily.\u201d The final battle\u2014the second engagement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11When [Belial] prepares himself to assist the Sons of Darkness, and the slain among the infantry begin to fall by God\u2019s mysteries and to test by the mysteries all those appointed for battle, 12the priests shall blow the trumpets of assembly so that another battle line might go forth as a battle reserve, and they shall take up position between the battle lines. 13For those employed in battle they shall blow a signal to return. Then the Chief Priest shall approach and stand before the battle line, and shall encourage 14their heart by [the wondrous might of God and] their hands for His battle. The final battle\u2014the third engagement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 10And after these words the priests shall blow for them a signal to form the divisions of the battle line. The columns shall be deployed at the sound of the trumpets, 11until each man has taken his station. Then the priests shall blow another signal on the trumpets, signs for confrontation. When 12the infa[ntry] has approached [the battle] line of the Kitt[im,] within throwing range, each man shall raise his hand with his weapon. Then the priests shall blow on the trumpets 13of the slain [and the Levites and the al]l the people with rams\u2019 horns shall sound a signal for battle. The infantry shall attack the army 14of the Kittim, [and as the soun]d [of the si]gnal [goes forth], they shall begin to bring down their slain. Then all the people shall still the sound of the signal, while the priests 15continuously blow on [the trumpets of the slain,] and the bat[tl]e p[revail]s against the K[ittim, and the troops of Belia]l are defeated before them. 16Thus in the th[ird] lot [\u2026] to fall slain [\u2026] 17\u201320[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The final battle\u2014the fourth, fifth and sixth engagements. Nothing of these engagements is preserved.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The final battle\u2014the seventh engagement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 18 1[\u2026 and in the seven]th [lot], when the great hand of God shall be lifted up against Belial and against all the fo[rc]es of his dominion for an eternal slaughter 2[\u2026] and the shout of the holy ones when they pursue Assyria. Then the sons of Japheth shall fall, never to rise again, and the Kittim shall be crushed without 3[remnant and survivor. So] the God of Israel shall raise His hand against the whole multitude of Belial. At that time the priests shall sound a signal 4[on the six trumpet]s of remembrance, and all the battle formations shall be gathered to them and divide against all the ca[mps of the Ki]ttim 5to completely destroy them. [And] when the sun hastens to set on that day, the Chief Priest and the priests and the [Levites] who are 6with him, and the chiefs [of the battle lines and the men] of the army shall bless the God of Israel there. They shall say in response: \u201cBlessed is Your name, O God [of god]s, for 7You have done wondrous things for Your people, and have kept Your covenant for us from of old. Many times you have opened the gates of salvation for us 8for the sak[e of] Your [co]venant. [And you provided f]or our affliction in accord with Your goodness toward us. You, O God of righteousness, have acted for the sake of Your name.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n Thanksgiving for final victory.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 10[\u2026] You have [done w]onders upon wonders with us, but from of old there has been nothing like it, for You have known our appointed time. Today [Your] power has shined forth 11for us, [and] You [have shown] us the hand of Your mercies with us in eternal redemption, in order to remove the dominion of the enemy, that it might be no more; the hand of Your strength. 12In bat[tle You shall show Yourself strong aga]inst our enemies for an absolute slaughter. Now the day is pressing upon us [to] pursue their multitude, for You 13[\u2026] and the heart of warriors You have broken so that no one is able to stand. Yours is the might, and the battle is in Your hand, and there is no 14[God like you \u2026] Your [\u2026] and appointed times of Your will, and reprisal [\u2026] Your [enemie]s, and You will cut off from [\u2026] 15the God of I[srae]l [\u2026] 16to remove Bel[ial \u2026] 17in his place of destruction (Abaddon) [\u2026] 18\u201320[\u2026 And we shall direct our contempt at kings,] Col. 19 1[derision and disdain at mi]ghty men. For our Majestic One is holy. The King of Glory is with us and the h[ost of His spirits is with our steps. Our horsemen are] 2[as the clouds and as the mis]t covering the earth; as a steady downpour shedding judgment on a[ll her offspring. Ceremony after the final battle.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 9[Then they shall gather] in the camp that n[ig]ht for rest until the morning. In the morning they shall come to the p[la]ce of the battle line 10[where the mi]ghty men of the Kittim [fell], as well as the multitude of Assyria, and the forces of all the nations that were assembled unto them, to see whether [the mu]ltitude of slain [are dead] 11[with no one to bury them; those who] fell there by the sword of God. And the Chi[ef ] Priest shall approach there [with] his [depu]ty, his brothers [the priests,] 12[and the Levites with the Leader] of the battle, and all the chiefs of the battle lines and [their officers \u2026] 13[\u2026 together. When they stand before the s]lain of the Kitt[im, they shall pr]aise there the God [of Israel. And they shall say in response: \u2026] 14[\u2026 to God Most High and \u2026] Col. 20 8[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q491 (4QMilhamaha)<\/p>\n\n\n\n In the publication by the original editors, the fragments of 4Q491 were considered to be the remains of a single work. This work was thought to be a form of the War Scroll, one with extensive portions that found no exact match in the Cave 1 copy. A thorough study of the evidence, however, suggests that 4Q491 is instead three distinct manuscripts. The original editors had been deceived by the similar appearance of these manuscripts and had mistakenly grouped three texts together. A variant of the blessings of the war recited by all the leaders in the morning before the battle. Compare 1QM 14:4\u201319.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q491 Manuscript A Frag. 10 Col. 2 7[\u2026] 8in the Kitti[m \u2026] 9the infantrymen shall begin [to bring down the casualties of the Kittim.\u2026 And the] 10battle [shall prevail] against the Kittim [\u2026] 11the corpses of the place of refining [shall begin] to fall by [the mysteries] of God. And the p[riests shall sound the trumpets of assembly \u2026] 12battle among the Kittim. And to the first battle formation \u2026] 13And the priest designated for the battle shall draw near and stand [be]fore [the battle formation \u2026] 14and he shall strengthen their hands by recounting His wondrous deeds. Then he shall sa[y] in response [\u2026 fire of] 15vengeance, to consume among gods and men. For [He shall] not [\u2026] 16flesh, except dust (?). For now [\u2026] 17and [the fire] shall consume as far as Sheol. And the council of wickedness [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 11\u201315 represent a variant of 1QM Cols. 16\u201317.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 11 Col. 2 14[\u2026 He is] faithful, and the relief which His redemption [\u2026] 15[\u2026 son]s of truth and to remove the faint of heart and to strengthen the he[art \u2026] 16[\u2026 the batt]le today, the God of Isr[ael] shall subdue him (Belial?) [\u2026] 17[\u2026] with no place to stand. And [the kingdo]m shall be for God and the salvatio[n] for His people [\u2026] 18[\u2026] like as to Belial. But God\u2019s covenant is peace [for] Israel in all the times [of eternity \u2026] 19And after these words the priests shall blow to order the second battle with the Kit[tim. And when each man has taken] 20his station, then the priests shall blow a second signal for advance. When they have approached the ba[ttle line of the Kittim, within throwing range,] 21each man [shall ra]ise his hand with his battle weapon. Then the priests shall b[lo]w on the tr[umpet]s of the [slain a staccato note] 22[to direct the battle and the Levites] and all the people with rams\u2019 horns shall so[u]nd [a loud] n[ote \u2026 And when] 23[the sound of the blast is heard, they shall begin to bring do]wn the casualties of the guilty. The sound of the [\u2026] 24[\u2026] Manuscript B appears to preserve a much shorter version of the War Scroll than the one discovered in Cave 1.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q491 Manuscript B Frags. 1\u20133 1Korah and his congregation [\u2026] judgment [\u2026] 2before the whole congregation of [\u2026 jud]gment as sign[s \u2026] 3and the chief of his angels with their [forces,] to direct their hand [in] battle. [\u2026] for the chariotry and the hor[semen \u2026] 4The hand of God shall strike [\u2026] for eternal annihilation [\u2026] they shall atone for you [\u2026] all the princes [\u2026] 5His holiness in eternal [jo]y [\u2026] And after [\u2026] the congregation and a[ll] the prince[s \u2026] shall not go to the enemy battle lines [\u2026] This manuscript, mistakenly identified as a copy of the War Scroll and attributed to the archangel Michael, is instead a version of a hymn that is also found in the Thanksgiving Hymns col. 26 (text 12). The author\u2019s description of his office\u2014seated \u201con a mighty throne in the congregation of the angels\u201d\u2014and his personal standing\u2014\u201cno one shall be exalted besides me\u201d\u2014has earned the piece the title \u201cSelf-Glorification Hymn.\u201d Is the speaker styling himself as the messiah? As a reflection of the clear note of suffering\u2014\u201cWho has been considered contemptible like me?\u201d\u2014some scholars have provocatively suggested that this hymn is evidence that some ancient Jews were expecting a suffering messiah before the time of Jesus. Or, as could be argued based on the placement of the psalm in the Thanksgiving Hymns, is this rather a communal experience that might find an echo in 4Q181 (text 30), in which the community is also described as being reckoned with the \u201cgods as a holy congregation\u201d? The debate has only just begun.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q491 Manuscript C Frag. 11 Col. 1 8[\u2026] marvelous, wondrous deeds[\u2026] 9[\u2026 in the pow]er of His might let the a[ng]e[l]s rejoice and the holy ones shout in exaltation [\u2026] justly 10[\u2026 I]srael. He established His truth from of old, and the mysteries of His cunning in eve[ry \u2026] might 11[\u2026] and the company of the oppressed shall become an eternal congregation[\u2026] blameless of 12[\u2026] eternal, a mighty throne in the congregation of the angels. None of the ancient kings shall sit on it, and their nobles [shall] not [\u2026 There are no]ne comparable 13[to me in] my glory, no one shall be exalted besides me; none shall come against me. For I have dwelt on [high, \u2026] in the heavens, and there is no one 14[\u2026] I am reckoned with the angels and my abode is in the holy congregation. [My] desi[re] is not according to the flesh, [\u2026] everything precious to me is in the glory 15[of] the holy [habit]ation. [Wh]o has been considered contemptible like me? Who is comparable to me in my glory? Who of those who sail the seas (?) shall return telling (?) 16[of] my [equa]l? Who has born[e] troubles like me? And who like me [has refrain]ed from evil? I have never been taught, but no teaching compares 17[with my teaching.] Who then shall assault me when [I] ope[n my mouth?] Who can endure the utterance of my lips? Who shall challenge me and compare with my judgment? 18[\u2026 Fo]r I am reck[oned] with the angels, [and] my glory with that of the sons of the King. Neither [pure go]ld, nor the renowned gold of Ophir 19[\u2026] 4Q493 (4QMilhamahc)<\/p>\n\n\n\n This fragment is reminiscent of 1QM 7:9\u20139:9, but diverges markedly from the Cave 1 copy. Perhaps it represents another \u201cdeviant\u201d version such as 4Q491 (Manuscripts A and B). But it is equally possible that this fragment may have been unrelated to the War Scroll literature, instead coming from a handbook on priestly duties.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1For the war: The priests, the sons of Aaron, shall take their stand before [the] battle formations 2and sound a blast on the trumpets of remembrance. Afterwards they shall open the gates for the 3infantrymen. Then the priests shall sound a blast on the trumpets of battle [to adva]nce on the battle line 4of the Gentiles. The priests shall go out from among the slain and stand on [either] side of the [\u2026] 5beside the catapult (?) and the ballista (?). Thus they shall not profane the anointing of their priestly office [with the blood of the s]lai[n.] 6[And] they shall not approach any battle formation of the infantry. They shall sound an alarm\u2014with a sharp note in order that the me[n of] battle 7might set out to advance between the battle lines\u2014on the trumpets [of the slain.] Then [they] shall [beg]in 8to draw near to the battle. When their periods of engagement are completed, they shall sound a blast for them on the tru[mp]ets of withdrawal 9to enter the gates. Then the second formation shall set out. According to this entire rule the Le[vites] 10shall be signaling them at the proper time. When they set out, they shall blow a signal for them on the t[rumpets of assembly,] 11and when [they] have comple[ted their foray,] on the trumpets of alarm, [and when] they return, they shall sound a sig[nal for them on the trumpets] 12of as[sembly.] According to [this] ordin[ance] they sound the signal for ev[ery ba]ttle formation. 1QHa, 1Q35, 4Q427\u2013432<\/p>\n\n\n\n The intensely personal tone of the songs known commonly as Thanksgiving Hymns stands in sharp contrast with the rest of the scrolls. The author speaks of himself in the first person and recounts an agonizing history of persecution at the hands of those opposed to his ministry. In addition, the writer describes having received an empowering spirit granting him special insight into God\u2019s will (1QHa 4:38), opening his ears to wonderful divine mysteries (9:23), using him as a channel of God\u2019s works (12:9), and fashioning him as a mouthpiece for God\u2019s words (16:17). Indeed, in col. 26, he claims that no one compares with him, because his office is among the heavenly beings. These are bold affirmations for any leader, reminiscent of various messianic claimants of both ancient and more recent history. The hymns are numbered consecutively, totaling thirty-four in all. There were probably at least two before col. 3 and several others whose introductory formula, \u201cI give thanks to You, O Lord,\u201d has been lost. In keeping with the opinion of those who have studied the Thanksgiving Hymns in detail, each hymn is identified as originating with the community or the Teacher (see the introduction to this text). Col. 3 13[\u2026 yo]u rebelled [\u2026] 14[\u2026 op]pressed ones [\u2026] 15[\u2026] His mercies upon the poor [ones \u2026] 16[\u2026] And who establishes [\u2026] 17[\u2026] and who establishes the warrior[s \u2026] 18[\u2026] eternity. And who conside[rs \u2026] 19[\u2026] previously. Hymn 2. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God for delivering the psalmist from sin and judgment. The first running text begins here.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 21[I give thanks to You, O Lord, for] from hidden things whic[h \u2026 wh]ich they do not overtake them in [\u2026] 22[\u2026] and from the judgment of the tim[es of wickedness \u2026 th]oughts of wickedness [\u2026] 23[\u2026] and by the judgment of [\u2026 You have delivered] Your servant from all his sins [\u2026 and by the abundance of] Your compassion, 24[just as You spoke] by Moses [that You would forgive transgression,] iniquity, and sin and make atonement for [iniquity] and faithlessness. 25[For] the foundations of the mountains [shall quake], fire [shall burn] in Sheol below, and [You shall \u2026] the [\u2026] by Your judgments. 26[\u2026] for those who serve You in faithfulness [th]at their offspring might be in Your presence forever. And You have determined [\u2026] there, 27[forgiving every] transgression and casting away all their [iniquities], giving them all the glory of man (or Adam) as an inheritance [along with] long life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 3. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God for his righteousness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 29[I give thanks to You, O Lord, \u2026] by the spirits which You have given me. I will [fin]d the proper reply to declare Your righteous deeds, patience, 30[abundant loving-kindne]ss, the deeds of Your strong right hand, forgiveness of the sins of my ancestors; p[raying] and making supplication for 31[\u2026] my deeds and the perverseness of my heart. For in filth I have wallowed and from the council of [\u2026] I [\u2026] and I did not join myself 32[to Your congregation. (?) \u2026] righteousness is Yours, and praise belongs to Your name forev[er.\u2026] Your righteousness. Let [Your servant (?)] be ransomed 33[and] the wicked perish. I have Understood that [You determine] the way of the one You have chosen, and in the insight 34[of Your truth You] keep him from sinning against You; restoring to him his humility by Your chastisements, and by [Your] tria[ls \u2026] his heart. 35[Keep] Your servant from sinning against You and from stumbling over all the words of Your will. Strengthen [\u2026] against the spirits of 36[wickedness to] walk in all that You love, and despise all that You hate, [and to do] that which is good in Your eyes. 37[Destroy] their [domi]nion in my bowels, for Your servant has a fleshly spirit.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 4. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God for making his glory known.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 38[I give thanks to You, O Lord, for] You have spread [Your] holy spirit over Your servant [\u2026] his heart 39[\u2026] and I examine every human covenant [\u2026] they shall find it 40[\u2026] and those who love it [\u2026] forever and ever. Col. 5 12[\u2026] 13[\u2026] that fools might understand [\u2026] of eternity 14[\u2026] and that humankind might understand [\u2026] flesh and the council of the spirit[s \u2026] they walked [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 5. A community hymn of thanksgiving that God revealed the mysteries of his plan to the righteous. This hymn and hymns 8, 9, 18, 26, 29, 30, 31, and 33 begin with \u201cBlessed are You\u201d rather than the more common \u201cI give thanks.\u201d These hymn divisions are not recognized by all experts.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 15[\u2026 Blessed are] You, O Lord, w[ho \u2026] breadth of [\u2026] in the power of Your strength 16[\u2026] with an abundance of good [\u2026] and the zeal of [Your] judgment [\u2026 un]searchable. All 17[\u2026] all understanding and [\u2026] and the mysteries of the plan and the mysterie[s of \u2026] You have determined 18[\u2026] holiness is from [eternity] past to the end of time. You are [the Lord \u2026 of the] holy ones 19[\u2026 the council of Your truth] and in the mysteries of Your wonder [You have made known to me be]cause of Your glory, and the depth of [Your insight You have made me understand, and the source of] Your insight [You] have not 20[hidden.] You have revealed the paths of truth and the works of evil, wisdom, and foll[y \u2026] righteousness 21[\u2026] their works. Truth and [\u2026] and folly [\u2026] 22[\u2026] and eternal mercies to all [who walk] in peace, but ruin [\u2026] 23their [\u2026] eternal glory [\u2026 and] eternal joy for the work of [\u2026] 24[\u2026] Hymn 6. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God, who gives understanding.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 19[I give thanks to You,] O Lord, who places understanding in the heart of [Your] serv[ant,] 20[so that he might \u2026 al]l of these things and [\u2026] and refrain from wanton works of wickedness, and bless 21[Your holy name and the words o]f Your will. [That he might walk in all whi]ch You love, and abhor all which 22[You hate \u2026] Your servant [\u2026] humankind. For by their spirits You distinguish between 23the good and the wicked, [\u2026] their work. And I know by Your understanding, 24that by Your favor for m[an \u2026] Your holy [sp]irit, and thus You bring me to Your understanding. As 25I draw near, I become zealous against all those who practice wickedness and men of deceit. For none who are near You speak against Your command, 26and none who know You pervert Your words. For You are righteous, and all Your chosen ones are truth. All injustice 27[and wi]ckedness You destroy forever. Thus Your righteousness is revealed before all Your creatures. Hymn 7. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God, who forgives those who repent and judges the wicked.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 34[I give thanks to You,] O Lord, in accordance with Your great strength and Your abundant wonders, forever and ev[er \u2026] and [Your] great 35[mercy \u2026] Who forgives those who turn from sin, but judges the iniquity of the wicked. [You love righteousness] with a generous 36[heart (?) \u2026] but You hate injustice forever. And as for me, Your servant, You have favored me with the spirit of knowledge [\u2026 t]ruth 37[\u2026] and to abhor every unjust way. So I love You freely and with all [my] heart [I bless] You, 38[I give thanks for] Your insight. For this gift has come from Your hand and without [\u2026] 39[\u2026] thus flesh shall rule [\u2026] 40[\u2026] him and You built the [\u2026] with help [\u2026] 41[\u2026] the expanse upon the wings of the wind and [\u2026] Col. 7 12[\u2026 In] Your w[ill] I have obtained insight [\u2026] 13[\u2026] Your wo[nder] how can we repay? For You have rewarded us and [\u2026] done wonders [\u2026] 14[\u2026] they are not able to understand the glory of [\u2026 and to decla]re [Your] wonder[s \u2026] 15[\u2026 for they have pr]aised You according to their insight. And according to Your knowledge [in] Your [g]lory [\u2026] 16You opened [\u2026] unceasingly; from age to age they proclaim and seas[on to season they bless aloud \u2026] 17[\u2026] and as for us, we have been called together, and with those who know [we are instruc]ted by You and sing out f[or joy because of the abundance of] 18[Your] mercies [\u2026 lou]dly with Your mighty ones, and we will wondrously declare together in the knowledge of [God and with \u2026] 19in [the] congrega[tion of \u2026] and our offspring [You] have taught [wit]h humankind in the mid[st of the peo]ple [\u2026] 20because [\u2026] great wonder [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 8. A community hymn to God, who created both the righteous and the wicked; all things are his works.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 21B[lessed are You, O Lord, \u2026] who understands the comma[ndment(s) \u2026 a loud] cry [for those who magnify the majesty of \u2026] 22[\u2026] And they [shall l]ove You forever and [\u2026] 23[\u2026] And I love You freely and with all my heart, and with all my being I have cleansed [\u2026] 24[that I might not] depart from all that You have commanded. I will take hold of many (or the general membership) from [\u2026 so that I might not] 25depart from all Your statutes. Hymn 9. A community hymn of blessing for the wonders of God\u2019s creation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 26Blessed are You, O Lord, Creator of [a]ll things and gr[eat] in deed because all things are Your works. Behold, You have determined to b[e] merciful [with me] 27and be gracious to me by the spirit of Your compassion and [the \u2026 of] Your glory. You alone possess righteousness, for You have done al[l these things.] 28And because I know that You have recorded the spirit of the righteous, I myself have chosen to purify my hands in accordance with Your wil[l.] The soul of Your servant a[bho]rs every 29work of injustice. I know that no one can be righteous apart from You. And I entreat Your favor by that spirit which You have given [me], to fulfill 30Your [mer]cy with [Your] servant for[ever], to cleanse me by Your holy spirit, and to bring me near by Your grace according to Your great mercy [\u2026] in [\u2026] 31standing [\u2026] the place of [Your] wi[ll] which You have chos[en] for those who love You and keep [Your] comma[nd]ments 32before You [fore]ver [\u2026 has not] been mingled with the spirit of Your servant, and with all the deed[s of inju]st[ice.] 33[\u2026] And do not allow [\u2026] before him any affliction which causes a falling away from the statutes of Your covenant. For [\u2026] 34g[lo]ry, and Yo[u are \u2026] and compassionate, patient [and \u2026] mercy and truth and forgiving transgression [\u2026] 35and moved to pity upon [\u2026] and those who keep [Your] precep[ts], turning to You with faith and with a perfect heart [\u2026] 36to serve You [and to do that which is] good in Your eyes. Do not turn the face of Your servant away [\u2026] the son of [Your] maidservant [\u2026] 37[\u2026] And I, because of Your words [\u2026] Col. 9 5eternal [\u2026] 6in them and jud[gment \u2026] For [\u2026] and [\u2026] 7and source of stren[gth \u2026] great in counsel [\u2026] without number, and Your zeal 8before [\u2026] patient in judgment [and Yo]u are justified by all Your works. 9ByYour wisdom [You have establish]ed the successive [generations] and before You created them You knew {all} their works 10forever and ever. [For apart from You no]thing is done, and without Your will nothing is known. You have formed 11every spirit and [You determined their] de[eds] and judgment for all their works. Hymn 10. A true Teacher hymn of thanksgiving to God for his salvation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5[I give thanks to You, O Lord, for You set straight] all the works of injustice [in my heart \u2026] 6[\u2026 You] set [the guardians of truth against my iniquity and the reprov]ers of righteousness against [my] every wr[ong-doing \u2026] 7[\u2026] the wound afflic[ted upon] me, [comforters of strength \u2026] and proclaimers of joy for [my] deep so[rrow,] 8[proclaiming p]eace for all [my] destruction [\u2026] the strong to make me lose heart, and those who encourage [me] 9in the face of [afflict]ion. Then You give the appropriate reply to my unci[rcumcised] lips, and You support my soul by strengthening my loins 10and restoring my strength. You determine my steps within the domain of wickedness. So I become a trap for the rebellious, and a cure for all 11who turn from rebellion; prudence for the fool, and a steadfast mind for all the reckless. You have appointed me as an object of shame 12and derision to the faithless, but a foundation of truth and understanding for the upright. And because of the iniquity of the wicked, I have become 13slander on the lips of the brutal, and scoffers gnash their teeth. I have become a taunt-song for the rebellious, 14and the assembly of the wicked have stormed against me. They roar like a gale on the seas; when their waves churn, 15they cast up slime and mud. But You have appointed me as a ensign for the chosen of righteousness, and an informed mediator of wonderful mysteries, so as to test 16[the men] of truth and to try the lovers of correction. I have become a man of contention for the mediators of error, 17but a purveyor of peace unto all the seers of righteousness. I have become impassioned against those who seek flat[tery], 18[so that all] the men of deceit roar against me, as the sound of the thunder of mighty waters. [All] their thoughts are as the plots of Belial 19and they have transformed a man\u2019s life, whom You established by my word and whom You taught understanding, into a pitfall. 20You placed it in his heart to open up the source of knowledge to all who understand. But they have changed them, through uncircumcised lips 21and a strange message, into a people with no understanding, that they might be ruined in their delusion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 11. A true Teacher hymn, according to some researchers, of thanksgiving to God for protection.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 22I give thanks to You, O Lord, for You have placed me in the bundle of the living, 23and You protect me from all the snares of the pit. Ruthless men seek my life, while I hold fast 24to Your covenant. They are the fraudulent council for the congregation of Belial; they do not know that my appointment is from You. 25By Your mercies You save my life, for my very steps are from You. Their attack on my life is from You 26that You might be honored by the judgment of the wicked, and that You might display Your might through me against the children 27of men, for I stand in Your mercy. And I said, mighty men have camped against me, they have surrounded me with all 28their weapons of war. Arrows burst forth unceasingly, and the blade of the spear devours trees with fire. 29Like the roar of mighty waters is the clamor of their voice, a cloudburst and a downpour to destroy many. Wickedness and fraud burst forth to the stars 30when their waves pile high. As for me, though my heart melts like water, my soul shall hold fast to Your covenant. 31But as for them, the net that they spread for me will catch their own foot. And snares, which they hid to take my life, they themselves fell into. Meanwhile, \u201cMy foot stands on level ground; 32far from their congregation I will bless Your name\u201d (Ps. 26:12).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 12. A true Teacher hymn of thanksgiving to God for deliverance from persecution.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 33I give thanks to You, O Lord, for Your eye sta[nds] over my soul, and You have delivered me from the jealousy of the mediators of lies 34and from the congregation of those who seek flattery. You have redeemed the soul of the poor one, whom they planned to put to an end, 35pouring out his blood because he served You. Because they [did not kn]ow that my steps are directed by You, they appointed me for shame 36and scorn in the mouth of all those who seek deceit. But You, my God, have helped the soul of the destitute and the poor 37against one stronger than he. You have redeemed my soul from the hand of the mighty. In the midst of their reviling You have not terrified me, 38that I might abandon Your service for fear of ruin at the hands of the wicked, or exchange a steadfast mind which [\u2026] for a delusion. 39[\u2026] statutes, and by testimonies You established me to strengthen 40[the flesh \u2026 des]truction for all [their] offspring 41[\u2026 a tongue] according Your teachings and [\u2026] Col. 11 2[\u2026] and in me [\u2026] 3[\u2026] 4[\u2026] You have made my face to shine [\u2026] 5[\u2026] for Yourself, with eternal glory together with all [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 13. A true Teacher hymn of thanksgiving to God for deliverance from the torments of enemies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6[\u2026] Your mouth, and You have delivered me from [\u2026] and from [\u2026] 7[\u2026] now [my] soul [\u2026 for] they did [not] esteem me. They set [my] soul as a boat in the depths of the sea, 8and as a fortified city befo[re her enemy.] I am in distress, as a woman about to give birth to her first born. For her pangs come over her, 9and she has excruciating pain at the mouth of her womb, writhing in the womb of the pregnant one. For children come into life through the crashing waves of death, 10and she who is pregnant with a male child is afflicted by her birth pains. For through the crashing waves of death she delivers a male child, through the pains of Sheol there bursts forth 11from the womb of the pregnant one, a wonderful counselor with his strength. A male child is safely delivered from the crashing waves. Into the one who is pregnant with him rush all 12the crashing waves, and excruciating pains when they are born, and terror to their mothers. And when he is born, all pangs come suddenly 13to the womb of the pregnant one. But she that is pregnant with wickedness experiences excruciating pain, and the crashing waves of the pit for all works of terror. 14And the foundations of the wall break as a ship upon the water, and the clouds thunder with a roar. Those who sit in the dust, 15as well as those who go down to the seas, are terrified by the roar of the water, and their wise men are for them as sailors on the deeps. For 16all their wisdom is swallowed up by the roar of the seas, when the ocean depths boil over the springs of water, and they are tossed up to the towering waves 17and crashing waves by their roar. And when they are tossed up, Sh[eo]l [and Abaddon] shall open. [And al]l the arrows of the pit, 18when they descend into the deep, shout out, and the gates [of Sheol] open [for all] the works of wickedness. 19Then the doors of the pit shut up the one who is pregnant with injustice, and the eternal bars shut up the spirits of wickedness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 14. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God, who delivers earthly humankind.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 20I give thanks to You, O Lord, for You have redeemed my soul from the pit. From Sheol and Abaddon 21You have raised me up to an eternal height, so that I might walk about on a limitless plain, and know that there is hope for him whom 22You created from the dust for the eternal council. The perverse spirit You have cleansed from great transgression, that he might take his stand with 23the host of the holy ones, and enter together (or in the Yahad) with the congregation of the sons of heaven. And for man, You have allotted an eternal destiny with the spirits 24of knowledge, to praise Your name together with shouts of joy, and to recount Your wonders before all Your creatures. But I, a creature of 25clay, what am I? Kneaded with water, for whom am I to be reckoned, and what is my strength? For I have taken my stand within the domain of wickedness, 26and I am with the wretched by lot. The soul of the poor dwells with great tumults, thus great disasters accompany my steps. 27When all the traps of the pit open, and all the wicked snares and the net of the wretched ones are spread out on the water, 28when all the arrows of the pit fly off without returning and burst forth without hope, when the measuring line falls upon judgment and the lot of wrath 29upon those who are abandoned, when the outpouring of wrath upon the pretenders and the time of anger for all which belongs to Belial, when the snares of death have surrounded with no escape, 30then the torrents of Belial shall go over all the high banks, like a fire that devoured all their channels (?), so as to destroy every green tree 31and dry tree alongside their tributaries. It spreads with sparks from the flames, until all that drink from them are gone. It devours the cliffs of clay 32and the plains; the foundations of the mountains are set to burning and the roots of flint become torrents of pitch. It devours right down to the great deep. 33The torrents of Belial burst through into Abaddon, and the plotters from the deep make an uproar with the noise of those who belch forth slime. The earth 34shouts out, because of the disaster which comes about in the world, and all its plotters scream. All who are upon it behave as if mad, 35and they melt away in the great disaster. For God thunders with the roar of His strength and His holy dwelling roars forth in His glorious truth. 36Then the heavenly hosts shall raise their voice and the everlasting foundations shall melt and quake. The war of the heroes 37of heaven shall spread over the world and shall not return until an annihilation that has been determined from eternity is completed. Nothing like this has ever occurred.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 15. A true Teacher hymn of thanksgiving to God for protection against the powers of destruction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 38I give thanks to You, O Lord, for You have become a wall of strength for me 39[and You have rescued me from al]l destroyers and all [\u2026] You hide me from the terrifying disasters [\u2026] 40[\u2026] a troop shall not come, a div[ision of warriors when joined \u2026] 41[\u2026] in the mysteries of [\u2026] 42[\u2026] in its environs, lest a warr[ior] shoot [\u2026] Col. 12 2[\u2026] But I, when I lay hold of [\u2026] 3[\u2026] 4[\u2026 You set] my feet upon a rock [\u2026] 5[\u2026 You lead me in] the everlasting way and on the paths which You have chosen [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 16. A true Teacher hymn of thanksgiving to God for salvation through the covenant.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6I give thanks to You, O Lord, for You have made my face to shine by Your covenant, and [\u2026] 7[\u2026] I seek You, and as an enduring dawning, as [perfe]ct ligh[t,] You have revealed Yourself to me. But these Your people [go astray.] 8Fo[r] they flatter themselves with words, and mediators of deceit lead them astray, so that they are ruined without knowledge. For [\u2026] 9their works are deceitful, for good works were rejected by them. Neither did they esteem me; even when You displayed Your might through me. Instead, they drove me out from my land 10as a bird from its nest. And all my friends and acquaintances have been driven away from me; they esteem me as a ruined vessel. But they are mediators of 11a lie and seers of deceit. They have plotted wickedness against me, so as to exchange Your law, which You spoke distinctly in my heart, for flattering words 12directed to Your people. They hold back the drink of knowledge from those who thirst, and for their thirst they give them vinegar to drink, that they might observe 13their error, behaving madly at their festivals and getting caught in their nets. Hymn 17. A true Teacher hymn of thanksgiving to God, who has not forsaken his own.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 7I give thanks to You, O Lord, for You have not forsaken me while I sojourned among a people [\u2026 and not] according to my guilt have 8You judged me. Nor have You abandoned me to the plots of my evil inclination, but You have rescued my life from the pit. You have given [\u2026] among 9lions, who are appointed for the children of guilt; lions, who break the bones of the mighty and drink the blo[od] of warriors. You assigned 10my dwelling with many fishermen, they who spread their net on the surface of the water, and hunt for the children of injustice. 11You have established me there for judgment. You have strengthened the counsel of truth in my heart, and waters (?) of the covenant for those who seek it. But You shut the mouth of the young lions whose 12teeth are like a sword, and whose fangs are as a sharp spear. All their evil plans for abduction are like the poison of serpents; they lie in wait, but have not 13opened their mouths wide against me. For You, O my God, have concealed me from humankind, and Your law You have hidden in [me] until the time 14You reveal Your salvation to me. For in my soul\u2019s distress You did not abandon me, but You heard my cry in the bitterness of my soul. 15You recognized my grievous cry by my sigh and You delivered the life of the destitute one from the den of lions who sharpen their tongue as a sword. 16And You, O my God, have shut their teeth, lest they tear the soul of the destitute and poor to pieces. And their tongue is drawn in 17as a sword into its sheath, so that it might not strike the soul of Your servant. And so that You might display Your might through me against humankind, You have done wondrous deeds 18with the poor. You have brought him into the crucib[le like g]old to be worked by the fire, and as silver, which is refined in the smelter of the smiths to be refined seven times. 19But the wicked of the people rush against me with their afflictions, and all the day long they crush my soul. Hymn 18. A true Teacher hymn of thanksgiving or blessing to God, who does not forsake those who turn to him despite the torments of the wicked.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 22{I give thanks to You} Blessed are You, O Lord, for You have not abandoned the orphan, and You have not despised the poor. For Your strength [is unboun]ded and Your glory 23without measure. Your ministers are wondrous warriors. A humbled people are in the sweepings at [Your] feet [and You have done a miracle as well] with those heedless of 24righteousness to bring them up from out of the desolation together with all of those {heedless} lacking mercy. But I myself have become [\u2026] strife 25and contentions for my fellows, jealousy and anger to those who have entered into my covenant, a grumbling and a complaining to all who are my comrades. Ev[en those who sha]re my bread 26have lifted up their heel against me, and all those who have committed themselves to my counsel speak perversely against me with unjust lips. The men of my [coun]cil rebel 27and grumble round about. And concerning the mystery which You hid in me, they go about as slanderers to the children of destruction. Because [You] have exal[ted Yourself] in me, 28and for sake of their guilt, You have hidden in me the spring of understanding and the counsel of truth. But they devise the ruination of their heart; [and with the words of] Belial they have exhibited 29a lying tongue; as the poison of serpents it bursts forth continuously. As those who crawl in the dust, they lie in wait so as to lay hold [of the poison] of serpents 30for which there is no charm. And it has become an incurable pain and a tormenting agony in the bowels of Your servant, causing [my spirit] to stumble and putting an end to 31my strength so that I might not stand firm. They overtake me in narrow places, where there is no place of refuge, nor when they [\u2026] They intone 32their dispute against me on the lyre, and compose their complaint to music; together with ruin and desolation. Searing pains have se[ized me] and pangs as the convulsions of 33one giving birth. My heart is tormented within me. I have put on the garment of mourning, and my tongue clings to the roof of my mouth. For they have surrounded me [with \u2026] of their heart, and their desire 34has appeared to me as bitterness. The light of my countenance becomes dark, and my splendor is transformed to gloom. Hymn 19. A true Teacher hymn of thanksgiving to God for rescuing the righteous one from the wicked congregation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 14 4[\u2026] 5my heart in contempt [\u2026] 6and disaster without bounds, destruction without [\u2026 But You, O my God,] 7have opened my ears [to the admon]ition of those who rebuke righteously, with [\u2026 You rescued me] 8from the congregation [of fra]ud and the council of violence, and brought me into the council of [Your holiness \u2026] guilt. 9I know there is hope for those who turn from rebellion, and for those who abandon sin in [\u2026] to walk 10in the way of Your heart without injustice. I am comforted despite the roar of the people and the clamor of kingdoms when they gather themselves together. [For] I [kn]ow that 11You will soon raise up survivors among Your people and a remnant among Your inheritance. You will refine them so that they may be cleansed from guilt. Hymn 20. A true Teacher hymn of thanksgiving to God, who sustains his own.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 9I give thanks to You, O Lord, for You have sustained me with Your strength, and Your holy spirit 10You have spread out over me so that I will not falter. You have strengthened me before the wars of wickedness, and in all their devastation 11You have not shattered me for the sake of Your covenant. You set me up as a strong tower, as a high wall. Upon the rock You have established 12my frame, and eternal foundations for my footing. All my walls are tested walls, which will not be shaken. Hymn 21. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God, the only wise and righteous one.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 29I give thanks [to You, O Lord], for You have given me discernment into Your truth, 30and Your wondrous mysteries You have made known to me, and Your mercies for a [rebellious] man and Your abundant compassion for those who are perverted of heart. 31For who is like You among the gods, O Lord? And who is as Your truth? And who can be justified before You, when he enters into judgment? 32None of the spiritual hosts is able to answer to Your punishment, and none can stand firm before Your anger. But all the children 33of Your truth You bring before You in forgiveness, cleansing them from their rebellious acts in the multiplicity of Your goodness, and by the abundance of Your compassion 34maintaining them before You forever and ever. Hymn 22. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God, who treats the psalmist with mercy and forgiveness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 37[I give thanks to Y]ou, O Lord, for You have not cast my lot in the fraudulent assembly, nor have You set my portion in the council of the pretenders. 38But You call me to Your mercies, to [Your] forgiveness [You have brought me,] and in the abundance of Your compassion for all the [righteous] judgments. 39[But as for me, I am an unclean man; from the womb of her who conceived me I was in the guilt of unfaithfulness, from the breasts of my mother I was in] injustice, and at the bosom 40[of my nursemaid an abundance of impurity. From my youth I was characterized by bloodshed, and until my old age by iniquity of flesh. But You, my God, have established] 41[my foot in the way of Your heart; at the report of Your wonder You have opened my ears and my heart to understand Your truth \u2026] Col. 16 1[\u2026 I shut my ear to Your teaching until You gave me insight; a perverted spirit without] 2[knowledge You expelled from my bowels and You glorified me \u2026 I am no longer a stumbling block] 3[of iniquity. For You reveal Your salvation and] Your righteousness You establish forever. For no [one knows his way; all these things] 4You [have don]e [for Your glory.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 23. A true Teacher hymn of thanksgiving to God, who made the psalmist a fountain of blessing.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5I g[ive thanks to You, O Lord, for] You set me by a fountain which flows in a dry land, a spring of water in a desolate land, a well watered 6garden [and a pool \u2026] You [plan]ted a stand of juniper and pine together with cypress for Your glory; trees of 7life at the secret spring, hidden among all the trees by the water so that a shoot might grow up into an eternal planting. 8Taking root before they shoot up, they stretch out their roots to the watercourse, that its trunk might be open to the living water 9and become an eternal fountain. On its leafy branches every the wild animal of the forest shall graze, and its trunk shall become a gathering place to all who pass 10and its branches roosts for all the birds. All the tre[es] by the water rise over it, for in their stand they grow tall, 11but they do not stretch out their root toward the watercourse. The shoot of h[o]liness grows up into a planting of truth, hidden 12and not esteemed. And because it is not known its secret is sealed up. Hymn 24. A community hymn of thanksgiving for God\u2019s compassion and glory.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 17 1[\u2026] 2[\u2026] by night and [\u2026] 3[\u2026] without compassion. In wrath He awakes mistrust and completely [\u2026] 4the breakers of death and Sheol are over my couch. My bed lifts up a lamentation, [and my pallet] a sound of groanings. 5My eyes are as a moth in a furnace, and my weeping is as brooks of water. My eyes fail for rest, [and \u2026] stands 6at a great distance from me, and my life has been set aside. But as for me, from ruin to desolation, from pain to agony, and from travails 7to torments, my soul meditates on Your wonders. In Your mercy You have not rejected me. Time 8and time again my soul delights in the abundance of Your compassion. I give an answer to those who would wipe me out, 9and reproof to those who would cast me down. I will condemn his verdict, but Your judgment I honor, for I know 10Your truth. I shall choose my judgment, and with my agony I am satisfied, for I have waited upon Your mercy. You have put 11a supplication in the mouth of Your servant, and You have not rebuked my life, nor have You removed my well-being. You have not forsaken 12my hope, but in the face of affliction You have restored my spirit. For You have established my spirit and know my deliberations. 13In my distress You have soothed me, and I delight in forgiveness. I shall be comforted for former sin. 14I know that there is hope in Your mercy, and an expectation in the abundance of Your power. For no one is justified 15in Your jud[g]ment, and no one is bl[ameless in] Your litigation. One man may be more righteous than another, or one person may be wiser [than his fell]ow, 16humanity is more honored than a vessel of c[lay], and one spirit may surpass another spirit; but as for Your mighty str[ength], no 17power can compare. To Your glory there are no [bounds, and] to Your wisdom there is no measure, nor is there [\u2026] 18and for everyone who has forsaken it [\u2026] Hymn 25. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God for his strength and wisdom.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 38[I give thanks to You, O Lord, for] You have increased without num[ber] 39[\u2026] Your name by doing wonders [\u2026] 40[\u2026 with]out ceasing [\u2026] 41[\u2026] his insight and [they] praised [\u2026] Col. 18 3[\u2026] the plan of Your heart [\u2026] 4[\u2026] and without Your will it shall not be. No one understands all [Your] wisd[om] 5[and the counsel of] Your [mysteries] no one observes. What then is man? He is but dirt [\u2026] 6[\u2026 from dust] he was formed and to dust he returns. But You give him insight into wonders such as these, and make him know the counsel [of Your] tr[uth.] 7I am but dust and ashes, what can I plan unless You delight in it? And what can I consider for myself 8apart from Your will? How can I show myself strong, unless You maintain me? How can I understand, unless You have formed it 9for me? What can I speak, unless You have opened my mouth? And how can I reply, unless You have given me insight? Hymn 26. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God, who has revealed himself.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 16Blessed are You, O Lord, God of compassion [and rich] in mercy, for You have made [th]e[se things] known that I might declare 17Your wondrous works, and not keep silent day and n[ight.] All power is Yours [\u2026] 18by Your mercy, in Your great goodness and abun[dance of compassion. I] shall delight in [Your] fo[rgiveness,] 19for I rest in Your truth [\u2026] 20from Your will and without [\u2026 and without] Your rebuke there is no stumbling [\u2026 nor any] 21agony except You know [\u2026] Your [\u2026] Hymn 27. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God, who has given humankind insight into his deeds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6I give thanks to You, O my God, for You have dealt wonderfully with dust, and You have worked so very powerfully with vessels of clay. As for me, what am I? For 7You have [enlighten]ed me in the counsel of Your truth, and You have given me insight into Your wonderful works. You put praises in my mouth, and upon my tongue 8[a psal]m; the utterance of my lips forms the foundation of joyous song. I shall praise Your mercy and consider Your strength all the 9day. I will bless Your name continually, and I will recount Your glory among humankind; in the abundance of Your goodness 10my soul delights. I know that Your command is truth and that in Your hand is righteousness. In Your thoughts 11are all knowledge and in Your strength is all power; all glory is with You. In Your anger are all the agonizing judgments, 12but in Your goodness is an abundance of forgiveness. Your compassion is for all the children of Your will, for You have made them know the counsel of Your truth, 13and in the mysteries of Your wonder You have given them insight. For Your glory\u2019s sake You have cleansed man from transgression, so that he can purify himself 14for You from all filthy abominations and the guilt of unfaithfulness, so as to be joined wi[th] the children of Your truth, in the lot with 15Your holy ones, that bodies, covered with worms of the dead, might rise up from the dust to an et[ernal] council; from a perverse spirit to Your understanding. 16That he might take his position before You with the eternal hosts and spirits [of truth], to be renewed with all 17that shall be and to rejoice together with those who know. [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 28. A community hymn of thanksgiving to God, who has given the psalmist understanding of God\u2019s righteousness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 18I give thanks to You, O my God, I exalt You, my rock, and when You perform wonders [\u2026] 19[\u2026] For You have made known to me the counsel of truth [\u2026] 20[Yo]ur [hidden thin]gs You have revealed to me, so that I might gaze upon [\u2026] mercy. I know 21[that] righteousness belongs to You, and in Your mercies [\u2026] and annihilation without Your compassion. Hymn 29. A community hymn.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Blessed are You, [O God, f]or You have given Your servant 31the insight of knowledge to understand Your wonders [and the proper reply to] recount the abundance of Your mercy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 30. A community hymn.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 32Blessed are You, O God of compassion and grace in accordance with Your grea[t pow]er and the abundance of Your truth, and the profusion 33of Your mercy for all Your creatures. Gladden the soul of Your servant with Your truth and cleanse me 34in Your righteousness. For just as I waited for Your goodness, so I hope in Your mercy and Your forgiveness. 35You have relieved my adversities and in my grief You have comforted me, for I depended upon Your compassion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 31. A community hymn.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Blessed are You 36O Lord, for You have done these things, and You place hymns of thanksgiving in the mouth of Your servant [\u2026] 37and a supplication for favor as well as a suitable reply. And You have established for me [\u2026] 38And I shall restr[ain \u2026] 39And You [\u2026] 40tru[th \u2026] 41and I [\u2026] Col. 20 4[\u2026] my soul is broad [\u2026] 5[\u2026 I will dwel]l safely in a ho[ly] dwelling, [in] quietness and in ease 6[with the eternal spirits] in the tents of glory and salvation. I will praise Your name among those who fear You.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hymn 32. This community hymn and the hymn starting at 25:34 begin with formula that is more common in the Rule texts (see CD 12:21, text 1; 1QS 3:13, text 7; 1QSb 1:1, text 9) and the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (see 4Q401 frags. 1\u20132 l. 1, Cor. 1:30, text 101).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 7[For the Instructor: hymns of than]ksgiving and prayer, to prostrate oneself and appeal for grace unceasingly, at all times. With the coming of the light 8from [its] domi[nion], through the course of the day in respect to its plan in accordance with the laws of the great light; as the day turns to evening with the departure of 9the light at the beginning of the rule of darkness; the time appointed for the night. And then according to its course, when night turns to morning, at the time 10it is gathered to its dwelling before the light, at the departure of the night and the coming of the day. This occurs continually, at all 11the birthings of the seasons from the foundation of time. And the change of seasons in their order is determined by their signs, for all 12their dominion by the faithful plan of the mouth of God and the destiny of that which exists shall continue. 13There is nothing other, and beside it there has not been, nor shall it be otherwise, for the God of knowledge 14has determined it and there is no other beside Him. Hymn 33. A community hymn of blessing for God who sustains everything.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 34[\u2026] Blessed are You, O God of knowledge, because You have determined [\u2026] 35[\u2026] and this happened to Your servant for Your sake. For I know 36[\u2026] Your [\u2026] I hope with all my being, and Your name I bless continuously. 37[\u2026] Your [\u2026] do not forsake me in times of 38[\u2026] and Your glory and [Your] go[od \u2026] 39[\u2026] upon [\u2026] Col. 23 2Your light, and You set the lumi[naries \u2026] 3Your light without cea[sing \u2026] 4For with You is light for [\u2026] 5and You open the ear of dust [\u2026] 6evil plan which [\u2026] and You establish it in the ea[rs of] 7Your servant forever [\u2026] the [re]ports of Your wonder to shine out 8before the eyes of all that hear [You \u2026] by Your strong right hand, to lead [\u2026] 9by Your mighty power [\u2026] for Your name, and he magnified himself by [Your] glor[y]. 10Do not withdraw Your hand [\u2026 in order] that he may become one who holds fast to Your covenant, 11and stands before You [\u2026] Hymn 34. According to the structure that many scholars have accepted for the Thanksgiving Hymns\u2014true Teacher hymns in the center to which the community added on either side additional hymns written in the same style\u2014this would be a community hymn. However, the opening lines have caused some to question this judgment. These lines\u2014aptly called the \u201cSelf-Glorification Hymn\u201d\u2014appear to reflect a personal experience, one that has brought the suggestion that the speaker styled himself as the Messiah. Another version of this hymn, originally published as a version of the War Scroll (text 11, 4Q491 Manuscript C), adds a clear note of suffering. As a result, some scholars have suggested that this hymn is evidence that some ancient Jews were expecting a suffering messiah before the time of Jesus. If, on the other hand, this is a community experience, it might find an echo in 4Q181 (text 30), in which the community is also described as being reckoned with the \u201cgods as a holy congregation.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n 34For the Instructor, a ps[alm, a song \u2026] 35For [\u2026 none of the] ancient kings [shall sit on it,] 36[\u2026] 37[\u2026 no one besides me shall] be exalted. Col. 26 (ll. 1\u20135 are supplied from 4Q431 Frag. 1 and 4Q427 Frag. 7 Col. 1) 1[\u2026 my abode is in the] holy [congregation.] W[ho is] despised like m[e? Who] 2like me has refrained from evil and compares with [me? I have never been taught, but no teaching] 3compares with my teaching. [For] I have dwelt [on high \u2026 in the heavens.] 4Who is like me among the angels? [Who shall assault me when I open my mouth? Who] 5can endure [the utterance of] my lips? Who [with the tongue 6will challenge me [and compare with my judgment? For I am beloved of the king, a companion to the holy ones, and no one shall] 7come [against me \u2026 and to my glory no one compares. As for me, my office is among the angels,] 8and my glory [with that of the sons of the king. Neither with pure gold shall I \u2026 for myself nor the renowned gold of Ophir \u2026] 9with me and [\u2026 shall not be reckoned for me. 1Q34, 1Q34bis, 4Q507\u2013509<\/p>\n\n\n\n Although not all the Jewish holidays are mentioned in the portions that have survived, the present work is probably what remains of a collection of festival prayers that once covered the entire year. Only the Day of Atonement and the Day of the Firstfruits (also called Weeks; Num. 28:26) receive explicit mention. All the prayers end with a double \u201cAmen,\u201d a regular feature of Yahad liturgical texts. The Liturgy of Blessing and Cursing (text 64) and the Words of the Heavenly Lights (text 127) are particularly comparable. Lines 1\u20135 likely preserve the end of a prayer for the Day of Remembrance, the first day of the seventh month. Line 6 explicitly mentions the Day of Atonement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1Q34, 1Q34bis Frags. 2 + 1 (with 4Q509 Frag. 3) 0[\u2026 and its sorrow \u2026] 1[\u2026] the appointed time of [our] peace [\u2026 For You gave us gladness for our sorrow and assembled the outcasts] 2for the time [of \u2026 and] our [scat]tered for the seaso[n of \u2026 Your loving-kindness for our assembly are as raindrops upon] 3the earth at the ti[me of sowing \u2026 and] as the showers upon [the crops in the springtime \u2026 and we will recount Your wonders] 4from generation to generation. Blessed is the Lord who gladdens u[s \u2026] 5[\u2026] This may be a prayer for the Day of Atonement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 3 (with 4Q508 Frag. 1) Col. 1 1[\u2026] and [he] commanded [\u2026] 2[\u2026] in the lot of the righ[teo]us, and for the wicked, reprisal 3[\u2026] in their bones shame for all flesh. But the righteous 4[\u2026 to] fatten oneself by the clouds of the heavens and fruit of the earth in order to distinguish 5[between the righ]teous and the wicked. And You have appointed the wicked as our [r]ansom and by the upright 6[You shall execute] destruction upon all of our oppressors. And as for us, we will praise Your name forever 7[and ever,] because for this purpose You created us. And this is ho[w we shall answer] You: Blessed [\u2026] 8[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This may also be a prayer for the Day of Atonement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 3 (with 4Q509 Frags. 97\u201398 Col. 1) Col. 2 1[\u2026] a grea[t] light for the [day]time [and a lesser light for the nighttime \u2026] 2[\u2026] and shall not transgress their statutes. And all of them [\u2026] 3[\u2026] and their dominion is over all the world. But the seed of ma[n] has not understood all that You have given him as an inheritance, neither have they known You, 4[do]ing Your word, so they have acted more wickedly than all the rest. They did not attend to Your great power and so You rejected them because You do not take pleasure 5in injustice and the wicked one shall not be established before You. But in the time of Your goodwill You chose a people for Yourself, because You remembered Your covenant. 6So You [established] them, setting them apart from all the peoples as holy to Yourself. And You renewed Your covenant for them in a vision of Your glory and words of 7Your holy [spirit], by the works of Your hands and the writing of Your right hand, in order to declare to them the foundations of glory, and the eternal works. 8[\u2026] for [th]em a faithful shepherd [\u2026] wretched and p[oor \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 1 of 4Q508 is translated at 1Q34bis Frag. 3 above.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Prayers for the Day of Remembrance, the first day of the seventh month (l. 1), and for the Day of Atonement (ll. 2\u20136).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q508 Frag. 2 1[\u2026] and You dwelt in our midst [\u2026] 2[Prayer for the Day of Atonemen]t: Remember, Lord, the festival of Your mercies and the time of return [\u2026] 3[\u2026] for You established it for us as a festival of fasting, and ever[lasting] statute [\u2026] 4[\u2026] and You know the things hidden and revea[led \u2026] 5[\u2026] You [kn]ow our inclination [\u2026] 6[\u2026 ou]r [rising] and our lying down [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This may be another prayer for the Day of Atonement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 3 1[\u2026] we have done wickedly [\u2026] 2[\u2026] and because they were more in number. [Then] You established [Your covenant] for Noah [\u2026] 3[\u2026 You]r faithfulness with [Is]aac and Jacob [\u2026] 4[\u2026] You remembered the ends of [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Prayer for the Day of the Firstfruits (Feast of Weeks).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 13 1[\u2026 the L]ord, for in Your love 2[\u2026] Your [\u2026] in festivals of glory and to sanc[tify] 3[\u2026] g[rain, and] fresh wine and fresh oil 4[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Given the reference in l. 3 to the offering of produce, this may be a prayer for the Raising of the Omer, an occasion on which agricultural produce was offered to God.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 22\u201323 1[\u2026 t]hat our mercy is in [\u2026] 2[\u2026 the abu]ndance of Your mercies [\u2026] 3[\u2026 the pro]duce of our land as an offer[ing \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n In the scrolls the bifold \u201cAmen, Amen\u201d (1. 7) is indicative of communal prayers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q509 Col. 1 (Frags. 1\u20134) 1[\u2026] our [\u2026] 2[\u2026] 3[\u2026 mi]re of the streets [\u2026] 4[\u2026 before Yo]u we pour out [our] co[mplaint [\u2026] for all[\u2026] 5[\u2026] our [\u2026] in the time of the [visitation (?) \u2026] forever. And He has made us glad [\u2026] 6[\u2026 Blessed is] the Lord, who has granted us understanding in [\u2026] 7[\u2026 forever and] ever. Amen. Amen. [\u2026] Frag. 3 is translated at 1Q34bis frags. 2 + 1 above.<\/p>\n\n\n\n This may be a prayer for the Day of Atonement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 2 (Frags. 5\u20137) 1[\u2026] 2[\u2026] our blood (?) in the time of [\u2026] 3[\u2026] our [\u2026] to meet us as [\u2026] 4in [\u2026] You know all [\u2026] 5You divided and announced [\u2026 a]ll the curses [\u2026] 6[with] us just as You spoke [\u2026] 7Behold you lie down with [your] fa[thers (?) \u2026] 8\u201315[\u2026] 16[\u2026 and] in the deeps and in all [\u2026] 17For from eternity You have hated [\u2026] 18[\u2026] the only one before You [\u2026] 19in the Last Days [\u2026] 20[\u2026] 21[\u2026] to be careful [\u2026] 22[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This, also, may be a prayer for the Day of Atonement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 3 (Frags. 8\u201310i, 12i\u201313) 1[\u2026] the work [\u2026] 2\u20133[\u2026][\u2026] 4[\u2026 the produce of] our [lan]d as an offer[ing \u2026] 5[\u2026] at the beginning of [\u2026] 6[\u2026 mu]ch [\u2026] 7[\u2026] and our poor [\u2026] 8[\u2026 the d]ominion of [\u2026] 9\u201320[\u2026] 21[\u2026 so] that [\u2026] 22[\u2026] and You blessed 23[\u2026] which [\u2026] 24\u201329[\u2026] 30[\u2026] our compassion [\u2026] 31\u201335[\u2026] 36the banished, wandering with no [one to return them \u2026] 37without strengthen, the fallen with no [one to raise them up \u2026] 38with no one to understand, the broken with no [one to mend them \u2026] 39in [their] iniquity, [and] there is no doctor [\u2026] 40comforting those who stumble in their transgressions [\u2026 You rem]ember 41the torment and weeping and you are a companion to prisoner[s \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Lines 24\u201328 contain the end of yet another prayer, as it seems, for the Day of Atonement. Lines 29\u201341 might form the beginning of a prayer for the Feast of Tabernacles.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 4 (Frags. 10ii, 11, 12ii, 16) 24You have shepherded (?) and [\u2026] 25with Your [\u2026] 26and Your angels [\u2026] 27and Your inheritance [\u2026 Blessed is] 28the Lord [\u2026] Frags. 97\u201398 col. 1 are incorporated in 1Q34bis frag. 3 col. 2 above.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Lines 2\u20133 likely preserve the end of the prayer for the Second Passover. Line 5 explicitly mentions the Day of the Firstfruits (i.e., the Feast of Weeks).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 131\u2013132ii 2[\u2026] Your [g]lory [\u2026] 3[\u2026] Amen. A[men.\u2026] 4[\u2026] 2Q21<\/p>\n\n\n\n A striking aspect of the more recently released Dead Sea Scrolls in particular (as compared to those that have been available for many years) is the prominence of writings about Moses\u2014or even, as they claim, by Moses. Moses as the author of many works outside the Bible may seem surprising. In fact, very few, if any, of these new writings is likely to be older than the third century B.C.E., so they are centuries too young for their claims to be given serious consideration\u2014by us, that is. Most ancient readers undoubtedly believed that these works were just what they claimed to be. This is the phenomenon that scholars know as pseudepigraphy, literally \u201cfalse writing.\u201d Writing under the pseudonym of Moses or another biblical luminary was common among Second Temple Jews. Preserved portions begin with a list of Aaron\u2019s sons, the priests. These priests are apparently described in glowing terms. Then, as often in texts about the wilderness wanderings, Moses is depicted going outside the camp to pray.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 1 1[\u2026 Nadab and] Ab[i]hu, Elea[zar and Ithamar \u2026] 2[to work] justice for you in truth, and to reprove with integri[t]y [\u2026] 3Q7<\/p>\n\n\n\n The first editor of this text, M. Baillet, published it under the title \u201cAn Apocryphon Mentioning the Angel of the Presence.\u201d He was otherwise able to make very little sense of the small fragments. It remained for J. T. Milik, working on the materials over a decade later, to realize with brilliant insight that several of the fragments could be read in line with a well-known Greek work, the Testament of Judah. The Greek Testament of Judah is just one portion of a much larger work, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, which was very popular in early Christian circles. Scholars have long suspected that at least some of those testaments were reworkings and translations of earlier Hebrew or Aramaic writings that had originated in Jewish circles. Milik\u2019s suggestion was one step toward confirming this scholarly suspicion. Numerous other writings found among the Qumran caches tend in this same direction, and the notion now seems irrefutable: most of the Christian testaments had Jewish forebears. The recognition of this does not preclude the fact that Christians very substantially rearranged and rewrote these earlier works. Probably the early Christians also inserted entire newly written sections into what they had inherited. Judah was the fourth of Jacob\u2019s twelve sons. This portion of the Testament of Judah (25:1\u20132) concerns the blessings to come upon the sons of Jacob and their seed in the glorious Last Days. The Hebrew text here is not very different from the previously known Greek version.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 6 + 5 + 3 (I and my brothers will be chiefs) 1[in Israe]l. Levi [shall be at the he]ad, [I shall be second, Joseph third, Benjamin] 2[fourth, Simeon fif]th, Is[sachar sixth, Reuben seventh, then all] the tribe[s.] 3[The LORD will bless Levi,] the angel of the presence [will bless me, the Glory will bless Simon, heaven Reuben, the ea]rth [Issachar, the sea] Zebul[un,] 4[the mountains Jose]ph, the sanctua[ry Benjamin \u2026] 3Q15<\/p>\n\n\n\n Many aspects of the Copper Scroll set it apart from the other Dead Sea Scrolls: its language is unlike the Hebrew of most of the other scrolls; the medium upon which it is inscribed is neither animal skin nor papyrus, but copper; and, most important, it is the only scroll that contains a list of a treasure trove. The locations where the scroll\u2019s treasures are said to be hidden are scattered widely throughout Judea, so far as it is possible to identify them; but hiding places concentrate near the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, near Jericho, and in the wilderness near the site of Qumran. The first cache. The Valley of Achor is on the west or southwest of Jericho. The significance of the Greek letters (e.g., KEN) that follow this and several of the subsequent descriptions remains mysterious. It is impossible to specify the precise modern equivalents of talents, minas, and the other monetary units listed here, but the treasure would have totaled many millions of dollars.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 1 1In the ruin that is in the Valley of Achor, under 2the steps, with the entrance at the east a distance of forty 3cubits: a strongbox of silver and its vessels\u20144seventeen talents by weight. KEN<\/p>\n\n\n\n The second cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5In the sepulcher, in the third course of stones: 6one hundred ingots of gold.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The third cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In the big cistern that is in the courtyard 7of the peristyle, at its bottom concealed by a sealing ring, 8across from the upper opening: nine hundred talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fourth cache. Kohlit appears in the descriptions of several caches in the Copper Scroll (cf. caches twenty-two and sixty-five), but its identification remains uncertain, as does the name\u2019s precise pronunciation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 9In the mound of Kohlit: votive vessels\u2014all of them flasks\u2014and high-priestly garmenture. 10All the votive offerings, and what comes from the seventh treasury, are 11impure second tithe. The cache\u2019s opening is at the edge of the aqueduct, six 12cubits to the north of the immersion pool. CHAG<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifth cache. The reservoir\u2019s location is unknown.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 13In the plastered Reservoir of Manos, at the descent to the left, 14three cubits up from the bottom: silver coins 15totaling forty talents.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The sixth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 2 1In the salt pit that is under the steps: 2forty-one talents of silver coins. HN<\/p>\n\n\n\n The seventh cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3In the cave of the old Washer\u2019s Chamber, on the 4third terrace: sixty-five ingots of gold. THE<\/p>\n\n\n\n The eighth cache. The location of the Courtyard of Matthias is unknown.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5In the burial chamber that is in the Courtyard of Matthias: wooden vessels, along with their inventory list.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The ninth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6In a recess in the burial chamber: vessels and seventy talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The tenth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 7In the cistern opposite the eastern gate (i.e., of the courtyard), 8at a distance of nineteen cubits: in it are vessels.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The eleventh cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 9And in the conduit of the cistern: ten talents of silver coins. DI<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twelfth cache. The cistern described here may be the large ancient cistern lying just beneath the First Wall of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 10In the cistern that is under the wall on the east, 11at the crag of the bedrock: six jars of silver coins. 12The cistern\u2019s entrance is under the big threshold.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirteenth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 13In the pool that is on the east of Kohlit, in the 14northern corner, dig down four cubits: 15twenty-two talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fourteenth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 3 1In the courtyard of [\u2026], under the southern 2corner, (dig down) nine cubits: votive vessels of silver and gold, 3sprinkling basins, cups, bowls, 4and pitchers, numbering six hundred and nine.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifteenth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5Under the other corner\u2014the eastern one\u20146dig down sixteen cubits: forty 7talents of silver coins. TR<\/p>\n\n\n\n The sixteenth cache. It remains unknown whether Milham refers to a place or a structure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8In the dry well that is in Milham, on its north: 9votive vessels, priestly clothes. Its entrance 10is under the western corner.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The seventeenth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11In the grave that is in Milham on the 12northeast, under the corpse, (dig down) three cubits: 13thirteen talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The eighteenth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 4 1In the b[ig] cistern [that is north of Ko]hlit, at the pillar 2on its north: fourteen talents of silver coins. SK<\/p>\n\n\n\n The nineteenth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3In the aqueduct that ru[ns from the po]ol, 4fou[rt]een cubits from the entry, silver coins 5totaling f[if]ty-five talents.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twentieth cache. For the Valley of Achor, compare the first cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6Between the two boulders in the Valley of Achor, 7right at the midpoint between them, dig down three 8cubits: there, two cauldrons full of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twenty-first cache. The Wadi Atsla opens to the northwest of the Dead Sea, about two kilometers from the site of Qumran.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 9In the red dry well on the edge of the Wadi Atsla: 10silver coins totaling two hundred talents.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twenty-second cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11In the eastern dry well on the north of Kohlit: 12silver coins totaling seventy talents.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twenty-third cache. Secacah appears in the Bible at Joshua 15:61, in a list of cities located in the wilderness of Judea. The modern identification is disputed, but many scholars think that Secacah was an ancient name for the site of Qumran.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 13In the dam of the Secacah Valley, dig down 14three (?) cubits: twelve talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twenty-fourth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 5 1At the head of the aqueduct [of the] 2Secacah [Valley], on the north, under the 3big [stone], dig down 4[thr]ee cub[its]: seven talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twenty-fifth cache. The Pool of Solomon is unidentified.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5In the fissure that is in Secacah, to the east of 6the Pool of Solomon: vessels of 7votive offerings, along with their inventory list.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twenty-sixth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8Above Solomon\u2019s Canal, 9sixty cubits toward the large cairn, 10dig down 11three cubits: twenty-three talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twenty-seventh cache. \u201cAs you go from Jericho to Secacah\u201d is the clearest geographical description in the Copper Scroll. The reference is presumably to a well-known path.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 12In the grave that is in the Wadi Ha-Kepah 13at the point of entry as you go from Jericho to Secacah, 14dig down seven cubits: thirty-two talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twenty-eighth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 6 1In the cave of the pillar that has two 2openings and faces east, 3at the northern opening, dig down 4three [cu]bits: there, an urn 5in which is one scroll; under it, 6forty-two talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twenty-ninth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 7In the cave at the corner 8of the large cairn, the one that faces 9east, dig down at the opening 10nine cubits: twenty-one talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirtieth cache. The Queen\u2019s Mausoleum is unidentified, but it may have been located near Jericho, where the Hasmonean kings and queens had done considerable building and lived part of the year.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11In the Queen\u2019s Mausoleum, on the 12western side, dig down twelve 13cubits: twenty-seven talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirty-first cache. The \u201cford,\u201d or crossing, \u201cof the high priest\u201d may have been near Jericho.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 14At the dam by the ford of the Col. 7 1High Priest, dig down 2on the west nine [cubi]ts: twenty-[two (?)] talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirty-second cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3In the aqueduct of [\u2026] 4the [lar]ge northe[rn] reservoir, 5on (all) four side[s from the top], 6measure out twenty-[fo]ur cubits: 7four hundred talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirty-third cache. The priestly family of Hakkoz lived near Jericho. According to Ezra 8:33 and Nehemiah 10:6, they may have been in charge of the Temple treasury in the Second Temple period.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8In the cave that is next to the cold-chamb[er] belonging to 9the family of Hakkoz, dig down six cubits: 10six jars of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirty-fourth cache. Dok is about two kilometers north of Jericho.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11At Dok, under the eastern corner of 12the guardhouse, dig down seven cubits: 13twenty-two talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirty-fifth cache. Kozibah apparently designated that portion of the Wadi Qelt stretching between Ein Qelt and Jericho.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 14At the mouth of the wellspring of Kozibah, 15dig down three cubits to the row of stones: 16eighty talents of silver coins; two talents of gold coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirty-sixth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 8 1[In the aq]ueduct that is on the road east of the 2storehou[se]: 3votive vessels and ten books.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirty-seventh cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4In the outer gorge, at the stone in the 5middle of the sheepfold: dig down seventeen 6cubits beneath it: 7seventeen talents of silver and gold coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirty-eighth cache. Qidron is the name of the wadi immediately to the east of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8In the dam at the mouth of the gorge of the Wadi Qidron, 9dig down three cubits: seven talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The thirty-ninth cache. According to the Tales of the Patriarchs 22:14 (see text 4), the Valley of Shaveh was another name for Beth Hakerem, located to the south-west of Jerusalem. For Beth Hakerem, compare cache forty-nine below.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 10In the fallow field of the Valley of Shaveh that faces 11southwest, in the burial chamber 12facing north, dig down 13twenty-four cubits: sixty-six talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fortieth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 14In the courtyard in the Valley of Shaveh, at the burial chamber that is in it, dig down 15eleven cubits: 16seventy talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The forty-first cache. The Wadi Nataf lies between Herodian and Tekoa. A dovecote resembled a large birdhouse with numerous entrances, and many birds lived there simultaneously.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 9 1At the dovecote that is at the edge of the Wadi Nataf, measure from the edge 2thirteen cubits and dig down seven cubits: seven 3talents of silver coins and four stater coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The forty-second cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4In the second estate, at the burial chamber that faces 5east, dig down eight 6and one-half cubits: twenty-three and one-half talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The forty-third cache. Upper and Lower Beth Horon are some sixteen kilometers to the northwest of Jerusalem, separated from each other by a wadi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 7At the Vaults of Beth Horon, at the burial chamber facing 8west, in the recess, dig down sixteen cubits: 9twenty-two talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The forty-fourth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 10At the Pass: silver coins totaling one mina, and consecrated Temple offering.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The forty-fifth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11At the wellspring near the edge of the aqueduct, 12on the east over against the wellspring, dig down seven 13cubits: nine talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The forty-sixth cache. Beth Tamar is apparently the equivalent of Baal Tamar, near Gibeah. Note that for this deposit the command to dig and the depth as well as the amount of treasure are missing, presumably because of scribal error.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 14At the dry well north of the mouth of Beth 15Tamar\u2019s gorge, at the outlet of the Pele Ravine: 16all that is in it is consecrated Temple offering.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The forty-seventh cache. Nobah is mentioned in Numbers 32:42 and Judges 8:11 as a town near Kenath on the east side of the Jordan.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 17At the dovecote that is in the Fortress of Nobah, at the bor[der] Col. 10 1on the south, in the second roof-chamber\u2014whose entrance descends 2from above\u2014: nine talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The forty-eighth cache. The Great Wadi is an appellation that might reasonably be applied to any of several wadis, so no certain identification is possible.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3In the lime-plastered cistern that has conduits drawing water from the Great 4Wadi, at the cistern\u2019s bottom: eleven talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The forty-ninth cache. Beth Hakerem is on the south of Jerusalem, at the modern Kibbutz Ramat Rachel. No treasure has been found there by modern inhabitants.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5At the reservoir of Beth Hakerem, on the left 6as you enter, (dig down) ten cubits: silver coins totaling 7sixty-two talents.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fiftieth cache. The Wadi Zered is mentioned several times in the Bible, but its location is disputed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8At the tank of the Zered Gorge, at the western burial chamber\u20149a black stone is the opening\u2014dig down two cubits: 10three hundred talents of silver coins, 11gold coins, and twenty vessels containing Temple penalty fees.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifty-first cache. Absalom\u2019s Monument stood in the ancient Royal Valley (today\u2019s Emeq Rephaim), some thirteen hundred feet to the south of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 12Under Absalom\u2019s Monument, on the western 13side, dig down twelve cubits: 14eighty talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifty-second cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 15At the outlet of the water of Siloam, and under 16the trough: seventeen talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifty-third cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 17In the [Upp]er [Pool], Col. 11 1in its four corners: votive vessels, and their inventory list is next to them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifty-fourth cache. The location is apparently at the southeast corner of the Temple.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2Under the southern corner of the Stoa, 3at Zadok\u2019s grave, under the column of the small portico: 4ten votive vessels, and their inventory list is next to them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifty-fifth cache. This cache and those that follow through cache sixty-one are\u2014so far as they can be identified\u2014in the upper part of the Qidron, in the vicinity of Gethsemane.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 5At the Throne\u2014the peak of the cliff facing west\u20146over against Zadok\u2019s Garden, under the great 7closing-stone that is at the garden\u2019s edge: gold coins and consecrated offerings.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifty-sixth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8At the grave that is under the Knife: forty-one talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifty-seventh cache. The Qidron Valley was the traditional location for the burial of common people, as opposed to priests and Levites. See 2 Kings 23:6 and Jeremiah 26:23.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 9At the grave of the common people\u2014it is ritually pure\u201410in it: fourteen votive vessels, 11and their inventory list is next to them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifty-eighth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 12In the reservoir precinct, in the reservoir 13on the left as you enter: 14eleven votive vessels, 15and their inventory list is next to them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifty-ninth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 16At the entry to the court[yard] of the western mausoleum, 17(at) a stove-platform near the en[try]: nine hundred [talents] of silv[er coins]; Col. 12 1five talents of gold coins; sixty talents of silver coins. Its entrance is on the west.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The sixtieth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2Under the black stone: oil vessels.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The sixty-first cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Under the threshold 3of the burial bench: forty-two talents of silver coins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The sixty-second cache. Mount Gerizim, in Samaria, was the former site of the Samaritans\u2019 own temple to the God of Israel. Even after that temple had been destroyed about 100 B.C.E., the precinct remained holy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4On Mount Gerizim, under the top step of the ditch: 5one chest and all its vessels, and silver coins totaling sixty-one talents.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The sixty-third cache. The place name is unknown; indeed, it may be an error for Beth Shemesh, the city in the southwest famously associated with Samson.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6At the mouth of the fountain of Beth Shem: silver and gold 7votive vessels, and silver coins. The sum total: six hundred talents.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The sixty-fourth cache.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8In the big pipe of the cistern, at the point where it joins the cistern: 9a sum total, by weight, of seventy-one talents and twenty minas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The sixty-fifth cache. The more detailed version of the Copper Scroll described here has never been found.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 10In the dry well that is north of Kohlit, with an opening on the north 11and graves by its mouth: a copy of this inventory list, 12with explanations and measurements and full detail for each 13and every hidden item. 4Q88<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q88 is a copy of the Book of Psalms, but in addition to psalms known from the Bible, it includes works new to us. Just prior to the apocryphal psalms translated below, this scroll contained an Address to Zion, which has been preserved virtually intact in another Dead Sea Scroll, Apocryphal Psalms of David (see text 151). Preceding the Address was Psalm 109. Thus, the order in 4Q88 was: Psalm 109, Address to Zion, Psalm on the Last Days, and Address to Judah (the latter two given below). This scroll, and several others like it such as the Apocryphal Psalms of David, suggest that the precise order and content of the book of Psalms were not yet fixed when the scrolls were written.<\/p>\n\n\n\n A psalm on the Last Days, celebrating the wondrous fruitfulness expected in that time.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 9 4[\u2026] Then shall they extol 5the name of the LORD, [fo]r He comes to judge 6every wo[r]k, to make an end of the wicked 7from upon the earth: Evil [men] shall no more 8be found. The heavens [shall give] their dew, 9no ev[il within] their [boun]ds; the earth [offer up] 10fruits in season, its [pro]duce 11never short; fruit trees, 12their cr[op] in their vineyards, 13their [spring]s never failing. The poor 14shall eat, they who [fe]ar the LORD, be satisfied.<\/p>\n\n\n\n An address to Judah. The Address to Zion, in text 151, is similarly addressed to a place.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 10 5[\u2026] So, let heaven and earth praise 6as one, let all the twilight stars give praise! 7Rejoice, O Judah, rejoice, 8rejoice and be very glad! 9Make your pilgrimages, fulfill your vows for Belial is 10nowhere to be found. Lift your hand on high, 11fortify your right hand: behold, enemies 12have perished, all who work evil been scattered. 13For You, O LORD, are etern[al,] 14Your glory enduring foreve[r and ev]er. 4Q158<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q158 is a variety of rewritten Bible, selecting portions from Genesis and Exodus and combining them with other biblical texts. The passages that are added often come from parallel passages in the book of Deuteronomy. Sometimes, in addition to combining biblical portions, the text adds words or whole paragraphs unknown from any version of the Bible that has survived antiquity. Just what are we to make of this exercise? A combination of Genesis 32:24\u201332 and Exodus 4:27\u201328, with extrabiblical additions. The writer adds to Genesis 32:30, reporting the exact wording of the blessing Jacob received from his divine visitant. The writer also transforms what Genesis 32:32 reports as a tradition\u2014one does not eat a certain portion of the thigh muscle\u2014into a direct command from God. Lines 16\u201318 constitute an addition to Exodus 4:28, but the point is unclear.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 1\u20132 3[J]ac[ob] was left there [a]lone; and [a man] wrestled [with him until daybreak. When the man saw that he could not prevail against Jacob, he struck him on the hip socket; 4and Jacob\u2019s hip was put out of joint] as he wrestled with him. [Still,] he held him tight; then the man said, [\u201cLet me go, for the day is breaking.\u201d But Jacob said, \u201cI will not let you go,] 5[unless you bless] me.\u201d So he said to him, \u201cWhat is your name?\u201d And he replied, [\u201cJacob.\u201d Then the man said, \u201cYou shall no longer be called Jacob, but Israel, for you have striven] 6[with God and] humans, and have prevailed.\u201d J[a]cob then asked him, \u201cPlease [te]ll me [your name.\u201d] 7[But the man said, \u201cWhy is it that you ask my name?\u201d And he bless]ed him [there], saying, \u201cMay the LO[RD] make you fruitful, [and multiply] you [\u2026 May He grant you] 8[know]ledge and insight. May he preserve you from all wrongdoing, and [\u2026] 9until this day and forever more [\u2026\u201d] 10Then the man went on his way, having blessed Jacob there. This portion is a variation of Exodus 24:4\u20136. The second half of Exodus 3:12 apparently occupies ll. 1\u20132. The focus of the extrabiblical addition in ll. 6\u20138 is God\u2019s covenant with the patriarchs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 4 1[\u2026 \u201cWhen you have brought] 2the people out of Egypt, you are to worsh[ip Me on this mountain.\u201d \u2026 So Moses built an altar at the foot of the mountain, and set up twelve pillars, corresponding] 3to the number of the twelve tribes [of Israel \u2026] 4Then he offered a burnt offering upon the alta[r \u2026 Moses took half of the blood and put it] 5in basins, and hal[f of the] blood he dashed against the [altar \u2026 And God said to Moses,\u201d \u2026] 6that I revealed to Abraham and to Isaac* [and to Jacob \u2026 the covenant that I made] 7with them to b[e] their God, both theirs and the [pe]ople\u2019s [\u2026] 8[for]ever [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This portion contains Exodus 20:19\u201321, but not in the form familiar to most readers of the Bible. Instead, the text presents a much expanded version of these verses, previously known to scholars from the Samaritan Pentateuch. Most of the expansions come from Deuteronomy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 6 1[like us, and live? Approach and hear everything that the LORD our God says. Then you can tell us everything the LORD our God says] 2[to you, and we will listen and obey. But do n]ot let [God] speak to u[s, or we will die.\u201d Moses said to the people, \u201cDo not fear; for God has come only to test you] 3[and t]o put the fear of [Him upon you so that you do not sin.\u201d Then the people stood at a distance, while Moses drew near to the thick darkness where] 4God was. This portion combines Exodus 20:12\u201317, Deuteronomy 5:30\u201331, Exodus 20:22\u201326, and Exodus 21:1\u201310, with small extrabiblical additions. The first half of l. 5 is such an addition.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 7\u20138 1(Honor) your [father] and your mother, [so that your days may be long in the land that the LORD your God is about to give you. You shall not murder. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not steal. You shall not bear] 2false witness [against] your [neighbor.] You shall not covet [your] nei[ghbor\u2019s] wife, [male or female slave, ox, donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbor.] 3And the LORD said to Moses, \u201cGo say to them, \u2018Return to [your tents.\u2019 But you, stand here by Me, and I will tell you all the commandments, the statutes] 4and the ordinances that you shall teach them, so that they may do them in the land that [I am about to give them as a possession.\u201d \u2026] This portion contains Exodus 21:32\u201322:13, with a few very minor deviations from the familiar biblical text.<\/p>\n\n\n\n *Frags. 10\u201312 1thir[ty shekels] of sil[ver, and the ox must be stoned. If someone leaves a pit open, or digs a pit and fails to cover it, and an ox or a donkey falls into it, the owner] 2of the pit must make resti[tution by payment to its owner, while keeping the dead animal. If someone\u2019s ox hurts the ox of another, so that it dies, then they shall sell the live ox and divide] 3[t]he price; [the dead animal they shall] also [divide.] But if it was kno[wn] th[at the ox was accustomed] to gore [previously, yet its owner has failed to restrain it, the owner must restore] 4[ox for ox, but keep the dead animal.] This is an extrabiblical addition. The precise import is no longer detectable, but God is speaking in the first person, presumably to Abraham (cf. Gen. 15) or Jacob. The setting seems to be prior to the descent of Israel into Egypt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 14 2[all the fl]esh and all the spirits 3[\u2026] as a blessing for the land 4[\u2026] the peoples [\u2026] this; in the land of Egypt 5shall be desolation [\u2026] I shall create in [\u2026 I shall rescue them from] the yoke of Egypt\u2019s power, and redeem them 6from their control. I shall make them My people forever [and ever \u2026 I shall bring them forth] from Egypt. The seed of 7your children I [shall settle in the] land safely for[ever \u2026 but Egypt shall I hurl into] the heart of the sea, into the fasts 8of the deep [\u2026] where they shall dwell 9. [. bo]rders [\u2026] 4Q159, 4Q513\u2013514<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ancient Jews were generally most anxious to obey God. Yet obedience entailed putting into practice all of the biblical laws and precepts, and that is where matters got sticky. The fact was, the Bible often left out important details that one needed to know in order to obey. For example, Exodus 30:13\u201314 stipulates that every man twenty years and older had to pay a half-shekel (equivalent to about two weeks\u2019 wages for a day laborer) to support the activities held at the tabernacle. But the biblical text is unclear: is this payment to be made every year (the actual practice at the time of Jesus, according to Matt. 17:24\u201327), or one time only? Differences of opinion on matters such as this could be seriously divisive. The present work in fact argues for the second method of payment, and thus apparently against prevailing practice. This work is a collection of legal ordinances whose author, by supplying the necessary details as a supplement to the biblical text, intended to help readers obey God. In that sense it is similar to a modern \u201cstatement of faith.\u201d Ordinance concerning atonement (Lev. 16:16, 21?).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q159 Frag. 1 Col. 2 1[\u2026] not [\u2026] for [\u2026] 2[\u2026 Isra]el His co[mmandment]s and to atone for all the[ir] transgressions [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ordinance concerning produce for the poor (Deut. 23:25\u201326).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3[\u2026 and if] one makes from it a threshing floor or a winepress, whoever comes to the threshing flo[or or winepress \u2026] 4the Israelite who has nothing may eat of it and gather for himself but for [his] househ[old he shall not (?) gather \u2026 Whoever enters the grain of] 5the field may himself eat but he may not take anything to his house so as to store it. [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ordinance concerning the half-shekel for the sanctuary (Exod. 30:11\u201316).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6[\u2026 concer]ning [the Ransom:] the money of the valuation which a man gives as ransom for his life shall be half [a shekel in accordance with the shekel of the sanctuary] 7He shall give it only o[nce] in his life. A shekel is twenty gerahs in accordance with [the shekel of the sanctuary.] 8For the six hundr[e]d thousand, one hundred talents; for the third (i.e., three thousand), half a talent, [which is thirty minas; for the five hundred, five minas;] 9and for the fifty, one half a mi[n]a, [which is twenty-]five shekels. The total [is six thousand thirty-five and one half of a] 10mina. [\u2026 me]n for ten minas; [\u2026] 11[\u2026 fi]ve shekels of silver are a tenth of a [mina \u2026] 12[\u2026 the shekel is equivalent to twenty gerahs in accordance with the sheke]l of the sanctuary. A hal[f of a shekel is twelve meahs and two zuzim \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ordinance concerning the ephah and bath, two dry measures of uncertain modern equivalence (Ezek. 45:11).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 13[\u2026] the ephah and the bath are the same measure, [ten tenths. As the ephah of grain is the bath of wine \u2026] 14[And the seah is t]hree and [one-third] tenths [and the tithe of the ephah is a tenth.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ordinance concerning Israelite slaves (Lev. 25:47\u201355).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 2\u20134 1And if [\u2026 to] a stranger or to the offspring of the famil[y of a stranger \u2026] 2before Isra[el,] they shall [not] serve the Gentiles; with an [outstretched] a[rm and great judgments He brought them out from the land] 3of Egypt and commanded them that an Israelite should not be sold as a slave.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ordinance concerning the Council of Twelve (Deut. 17:8\u201313). The Council was to act as a judiciary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n And [\u2026 te]n laymen 4and two priests. And they shall be judged before these twelve [\u2026 and for every] 5matter in Israel concerning a capital offense, they shall be consulted and whoever rebels [\u2026] 6he who has acted with a high hand shall be put to death.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ordinance concerning wearing clothing of the opposite sex (Deut. 22:5). Although not stated, the penalty for this crime, as an \u201cabomination,\u201d would presumably have been death.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Let not men\u2019s garments be found on a woman. Every [\u2026 Let not a man] 7be covered with the mantle of a woman, nor wear a woman\u2019s tunic, because this is an [ab]omination.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ordinance concerning nonvirgin brides (Deut. 22:13\u201321). Note the meager punishment for a man\u2019s false accusation in comparison with the severe consequences for misbehavior by a woman.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8If a man brings an accusation against a virgin of Israel, if [it is at the time] he marries her, let him speak and they shall investigate her 9trustworthiness. If he has not lied about her, she shall be put to death, but if he has testified f[alse]ly against her, he shall be fined two minas 10[and] he may [not] divorce her all of his life. Every [girl] who [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ordinance concerning the half-shekel for the sanctuary (Exod. 30:11\u201316).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q513 Frags. 1\u20132 Col. 1 2[the shekel is equivalent to twe]nty [gerahs] in accordance with the sheke[l of the sanctuary.] Ordinance concerning the dry measures of the ephah and bath (Ezek. 45:11).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4[The ephah and the ba]th, from which is uncleanness, are the same measure, [ten tenths. As the ephah of] grain is the bath of wine. And the seah is 5[three] and one-third [te]nths, [from which is the unclea]nness. And the tithe of the ephah 6[is a tenth.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ordinance concerning the daughters of priests who marry foreigners (Lev. 19:8). They were prohibited from eating any of the sacrificial portions that their fathers received from Temple offerings and ordinarily shared with them and the entire family.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 2 Col. 2 1to add them to the [hol]y food, for [they are] unclean [\u2026] 2mistresses of foreigners and as for all the fornication which [\u2026 which] 3he prov[ided] for himself, to feed them from all the offerings of the s[acred donations \u2026] 4and for [a]ngelic food and to make acceptable atonement with them for I[srael \u2026] 5their food is [\u2026 of] fornication, he has borne the sin for he has profaned al[l \u2026] 6they [\u2026] guilt when they profaned [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ordinance concerning a discharge from the penis, possibly gonorrhea (Lev. 15:13). Ordinary seminal discharges, such as would take place during intercourse, would entail only three days of uncleanness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q514 Frag. 1 Col. 1 1[\u2026] woman [\u2026] 2no one may eat [\u2026] for all the un[cl]ean [\u2026] 3to count for [himself seven days of wa]shing. And he shall bathe and wash on the d[a]y of [his] uncleanness [\u2026 And no man] 4may eat who has not begun to be clean from his seminal (?) f[low. Nor may he eat] 5in his primary uncleanness. And on the day of their [cl]eansing, all those who are unclean of days (i.e., unclean during the seven days) shall bathe 6and wash in water and shall become clean. 4Q160<\/p>\n\n\n\n Samuel, the son of Elkanah of the tribe of Ephraim, was one of the most prominent figures in the early history of Israel. He lived at the time when the age of the judges was giving way before the nascent kingdom of Israel. The Bible portrays Samuel\u2019s mother, Hannah, as a prophetess who determined while the boy was yet unborn that he should be a Nazirite. (A Nazirite was one who vowed not to touch wine or any product of the grape, could not cut his hair, and was forbidden to approach any dead body, even that of his own parent. By reason of these vows, he was especially holy.) When Samuel was very young, his mother attached him in service to the tabernacle at Shiloh. There he served under the judge Eli. When that tabernacle was overthrown by the Philistines, we read the last of the boy Samuel, and only encounter him again later in the Bible as an adult. This fragment paraphrases 1 Samuel 3:14\u201317, which describes God\u2019s judgment upon the house of Eli because of unfaithfulness and his announcement of this judgment to the boy Samuel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 1 1[F]or I sw[ear to] the house of [Eli that the iniquity of Eli\u2019s house shall not be expiated by sacrifice] 2[or offe]ring [forever.\u201d And] Samuel heard the wo[rds of the LORD \u2026] 3And Samuel slept in Eli\u2019s presence, then arose and opened the do[ors of the house of the LORD \u2026 Yet Samuel] 4[was afraid] to relate the oracle to Eli. But Eli spoke to him, [calling, \u201cSamuel, my son.\u201d Samuel answered, \u201cHere I am.\u201d Eli said,] 5[\u201cPlease, te]ll me about God\u2019s vision; do not [hide it from me. May the LORD curse you] 6[and more also,] if you hide from me any[thing of all that He told you.\u201d] 7[So] Samuel [told him everything, hiding nothing from him \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n A prayer of Samuel on behalf of Israel. In ll. 2\u20133, the prayer alludes to Psalm 40:3.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 3\u20135 1[\u2026 O LORD, please hear] Your servant. I have never yet held back until this time, for 2[\u2026] O my God, [let] them be gathered to Your people! Be a help to them, and raise them up 3[from the pit of tumult!\u2026 Deliver their f]ee[t] from the miry bog, [and] establish for them a rock from of old! Surely they are Your praise 4[above all other na]tions. Let Your people find refuge [in Your house,] let [Your anoint]ed sanctify themselves [to You]. In the very fury of those who hate Your people shall Your glory gain strength; 5in lands and seas [shall Your honor increase;] fear of You shall intensify beyond that of any [god, people,] or kingdom. Then shall all the peoples of Your lands know [surely] 6it is You Who has created [them \u2026] The multitudes shall understand surely this is Your people [\u2026 They are] 7Your hol[y ones,] whom You have sanctified [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Samuel rehearses the story of his life, here describing the years he spent with Eli.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 7 2I lived with him from festival to festival, and joined myself to him from [my youth \u2026] 3I [never] sought to cultivate favor by means of wealth, money or bribery [\u2026] 4[I preferred to serve] my Lord, and chose to sleep at the foot of [Eli\u2019s] bed [\u2026] 4Q161\u2013165<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fragments of five commentaries on the book of Isaiah were found among the Cave 4 remains. The ten fragments of the first text have been reconstructed to yield three columns of text and commentary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q161 Col. 1 (Frag. 1) 1[\u2026] God [\u2026] 2[\u2026] Israel is [\u2026] 3[\u2026] the men of his army and [\u2026] 4[\u2026] the priests, for he [\u2026] The verses that follow are taken as a prophecy of the \u201cLeader of the Nation,\u201d a common expression in the scrolls for the Davidic messiah. The interpretation apparently predicts that God will soon overthrow Israel\u2019s enemies, as he once did Egypt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 8\u201cTherefore, t[hus say]s the L[ord GOD of Hosts, Don\u2019t be afraid, my people] 9[liv]ing in Zio[n, of Assyria, of the r]od [he beats you with, of the staff he raises against you as Egypt did;] 10[for] very soon [now my anger will be spent, my wrath against] their [corruption]. Then [the] 11[LORD of Hosts] will st[ir up a Lash, as when Midian was defeated at the Cliff of Or]eb; [his] own S[taff He will raise over the sea] 12[as He did against Egypt. On that day his] burd[en] will drop [from your shoulder, his yoke] 13from your neck!\u201d<\/a>. The verses that originally referred to the advance of the Assyrians on Jerusalem are here taken as a prophecy of the Messiah\u2019s progress to the holy city.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 17\u201cTo Ayath he comes, passes on [to Migron], at Michma[sh] 18[leaves his gear, they make the] ford, stay the night at Geba. [Ramah] si[ckens, Gibeath\u2014] 19[Shaul flees. Shout] aloud, little Gallim! Listen close[ly, Laish! Call out, Anathoth!] 20Madmenah [bolts,] the [in]habitants of Gebim [ha]ve become refugees. One more [day and he will stand in Nob,] 21[waving] his hand at little Zion\u2019s mount, Jerusalem\u2019s hill\u201d (10:28\u201332). The interpreter describes the war against the Kittim, who in this context may be Greeks or Romans or simply a vague eschatological foe. Interestingly, the messianic Leader of the Nation seems not to play a role in the combat, at least in the portions that are preserved.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 3 (Frags. 8\u201310) 1[\u201cRight now, the Lord GOD of Hosts is pruning the treetops with a hook. The tal]lest of all [are h]e[wn down,] 2[the mightiest are laid low. The forest] thickets [will be cut down] with iron tools, the trees of Lebanon, for all their majesty, 3will fall\u201d<\/a>. When the enemies are destroyed, the new David will hold sway over all the earth, although the interpreter is careful to say that the Messiah will decide nothing without conferring with the legitimate priesthood. The messianic passage from Isaiah also plays a role in 4Q285 (text 63).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11[\u201cA rod will grow from] Jesse\u2019s [stock], a sprout [will bloom] from his ro[ots]; upon him wi[ll rest] the sp[irit of] 12[the LORD: a spirit of wisd]om and insight, a spirit of good coun[sel and strength], a spirit of true know[ledge] 13[and reverence for the LORD, he will delight in reverence for] the LORD. [He will not judge only] by what [his eyes] see, 14[he will not decide only by what his ears hear;] but he will rule [the weak by justice, and give decisions] 15[in integrity to the humble of the land. He will punish the land with the mace of his words, by his lips\u2019 breath alone] 16[he will slay the wicked. \u2018Justice\u2019 will be the sash around] his waist, \u2018Truth\u2019 the sash around his hips\u201d<\/a>. The second surviving Isaiah commentary consists of one large fragment containing portions of three columns. The interpreter apparently did not comment on every verse. The first portion is taken as a prediction of calamity and distress in the Last Days; the second focuses on the \u201cMen of Mockery,\u201d that is, the Pharisees.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q162 Col. 1 1[As for the verse that says, \u201cI will remove its hedge so it can be devoured; I will break] down its fence so it can be trampled\u201d (5:5) which 2[\u2026] the passage means that he abandoned them 3[\u2026] and the verse that says, \u201cLet briar 4[and bramble come up \u2026\u201d (5:6) \u2026] and the verse 5[that says \u2026] the way of 6[\u2026] their eyes. 7\u201310[\u2026 As for the verse that says, \u201cFive acres of vineyard will produce only five gallons of wine; ten bushels of seed will yield only one of grain\u201d (5:10),] Col. 2 1the passage refers to the Last Days, when the land itself is condemned by sword and famine; so it shall be 2at the time when the land is punished. The third column contains portions of Isaiah 5:29\u201330. None of the interpretation has been preserved.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The third commentary, written on papyrus, is extremely fragmentary. Of the fifty-seven pieces that remain, most are too small for meaningful translation. Only a few of the others contain both text and interpretation. The references to \u201cBabylon\u201d and the \u201cGentiles\u201d are particularly reminiscent of that vision of the Last Days that one reads in the War Scroll literature (text 11).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q163 Frag. 1 2[\u2026] he [\u2026] 3[\u2026] and He will destroy the way of [\u2026] 4[\u2026 as it stands wr]itten concerning him in Jer[emiah \u2026] The following fragment states that at its founding an important component of the Yahad was the priests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q164 [\u201cI am putting kohl around your stones, I will make sapphires your foundation\u201d (54:11)]. Only a few fragments from this manuscript remain, and only bits of interpretation with the text. The possible mention of the Teacher of Righteousness is the principal interest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q165 Frags. 1\u20132 2[\u2026] and Jerusalem [\u2026] And as for what is written, [\u201cLike a shepherd he will graze his flock\u201d (40:11)], 3this refers to [the Teacher of Righteousness, who] has revealed the Law of righ[teousness.] 4Q166\u2013167<\/p>\n\n\n\n The surviving portion of this text, unlike the other commentaries, deals primarily with the fate of \u201cthe generation God punished,\u201d perhaps Israel before the Exile. It also refers to the \u201ccalendar controversy\u201d reflected in many other Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q166 Col. 1 1\u20133[\u2026] 4and they were pleased [\u2026] 5\u20136they acted deviously [\u2026] The rest of the column contains the text of 2:12, but none of the commentary is preserved.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The few surviving fragments of this portion contain more coded references than the preceding text. As noted in the Introduction, such codes apparently referred to actual historical events and personages, but the meanings of the codes are not always clear to modern scholars. The \u201cLion of Wrath\u201d is elsewhere the name for Alexander Jannaeus (see A Commentary on Nahum, text 23).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q167 Frag. 2 1[\u201cHe cannot heal yo]ur sore\u201d (5:13). 4Q169<\/p>\n\n\n\n The Commentary on Nahum may well be the most important scroll of all for reconstructing the history behind the Dead Sea Scrolls. Unlike the usual enigmatic style of this genre of commentary (see the introduction to A Commentary on Habakkuk, text 2), it mentions one identifiable historical figure: Demetrius III Eukairos, the king of Seleucid Syria, who invaded the Holy Land in 88 B.C.E. The story behind this episode is indirectly retold in the commentary. The first part of Nahum describes the coming of the Almighty in wrath, a theme still relevant to the commentator. Like the original prophet, the writer believed God would judge the Gentiles.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 1\u20132 1[\u2026 in storm and tempest He comes, and] clouds a[re the dust of his feet\u201d (1:3b). The invasion of Demetrius is treated almost incidentally, with the focus on Alexander Jannaeus, the Lion of Wrath, and his severe ways with his enemies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 3\u20134 Col. 1 1[\u201cWhere is the lions\u2019 den, the feeding place for the cubs?\u201d (2:11a). Jerusalem is a veritable lions\u2019 den for the ancient commentator; Gentile lions seek to enter it, and Jewish lions come out of it. The contrast drawn below between the \u201ckings of Greece\u201d and the \u201crulers of the Kittim\u201d confirms that Kittim is the code name for the Romans.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cWhere the old lion goes, there is the lion\u2019s whelp 2[without fear\u201d (2:11b). Although moderns usually consider crucifixion an abhorrent act, the commentator and his community wholly approved of this method of punishing God\u2019s enemies; they believed it was prescribed by the Bible (see Deut. 21:23).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6[\u2026 \u201cHe fills] his cave [with prey], his den with game\u201d (2:12b). It is clear that the ruthless \u201cFlattery-Seekers\u201d are the Pharisees, but it is not as clear what the code names \u201cEphraim\u201d and \u201cManasseh\u201d stand for. Sometimes Ephraim is associated with the Flattery-Seekers, as it is below; at other times, the writer is hopeful that some of Ephraim will come to see things aright. Manasseh may represent the secular followers of Jannaeus, that is, the aristocrats who have no sincere interest in religious controversy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [\u201cI will burn with smoke you]r [horde], the sword will consume your lions, and [I] will annih[ilate] its [p]rey [from the land.] 10[And your messengers\u2019 voice shall] no l[onger be heard\u201d (2:13b). The \u201crule of the Flattery-Seekers\u201d is portrayed here as fully equal to the tyrannical domination of the Assyrians of old. It is clear that from the wording of the commentary that the Flattery-Seekers are in power as the book is being written.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3\u201cPrey is never absent; the sound of the whip, the sound of rumbling wheels, galloping horses, rattling chariots, rearing chargers, blades, 4lashing spears, a mass of slain, a horde of corpses, no end of bodies; one trips over the bodies\u201d (3:1b\u20133). According to Josephus, Jannaeus had to relinquish power over some of his Transjordanian conquests to buy the neutrality of the Arabians. The reference to \u201ccities of the East\u201d being \u201cstripped\u201d may be to this strategy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cSee, I am against you, says the LORD of H[ost]s. You will strip off 11your skirts over your face and show the Gentiles [your] nudity, the kingdoms your shame\u201d (3:5). The historical reference here is unclear. The \u201cdivisive group\u201d may be some of the foreign mercenaries who supported Jannaeus in his struggle; Cush, Egypt, Put, and Libya are Gentile nations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cCush [and Egypt] are her [limitless] strength\u201d (3:9a). 4Q171, 4Q173, 1Q16<\/p>\n\n\n\n In the Qumran commentaries on the Psalter, the Teacher of Righteousness, the Wicked Priest, and the Man of the Lie are on center stage (see the Introduction for an initial discussion of these figures). The largest surviving fragments of 4Q171 preserve a running commentary on Psalm 37, which deals with the necessity of the righteous to keep faith in God despite the apparent successes of the wicked. God will ensure that both righteous and wicked get their due: for the righteous, a reward for their faithfulness; for the wicked, punishment. The righteous, who belong to the sect, must endure suffering, but may expect that a final judgment will set all accounts right.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q171 Frags. 1\u20132 Col. 1 12[\u201cHe will make your innocence shine like the light, and your justice like] noonday\u201d (37:6). The sect\u2019s eschatological timetable allowed that there would be forty years from the time of their Teacher\u2019s death to the final showdown between Good and Evil.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cVery soon there will be no wicked man; 6I look where he was, he\u2019s not there\u201d (37:10). Ephraim and Manasseh are already present as code names in the Commentary on Nahum. They represent the religio-political factions that side with the sect\u2019s enemies. The reference to \u201cthe Priest\u201d is obscure\u2014is he the same as the Teacher of Righteousness or a different leader?<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cThe wicked have drawn a sword, they have bent their bows, to strike down the poor and needy, 16to slaughter those who live honestly. May their sword pierce themselves, may their bows break!\u201d (37:14\u201315). \u201cReturning from the wilderness\u201d may mean that some of the sect were in exile, or it could refer symbolically to those who have repented of their sins and joined the sect.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 26\u201c[They will] n[o]t be put to shame in an evil time\u201d<\/a>. Control over the Temple Mount and the sacrifices made at the Temple was an important ambition of the Qumran group.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cThe wicked borrow and do not repay; 9but the righteous give generously, for those whom God blesses [will in]herit the earth, but those whom He curses [will be exte]rminated\u201d (37:21\u201322). If \u201cthe righteous man\u201d of the following section refers to the Teacher of Righteousness, it may imply that the Teacher was in danger from the Wicked Priest, but still alive, at the time of composition. The writer is confident that the Teacher will live through this time of trial. The mention of the \u201cLaw that he (the Teacher) sent to the Priest\u201d is intriguing, and some have suggested that this \u201cLaw\u201d may be A Sectarian Manifesto (text 100) or the Temple Scroll (text 155).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 7\u201cThe wicked man observes the righteous man and seeks [to kill him. But the LORD] [will not leave him in his power and will not co]ndemn him when he comes to trial\u201d (37:32\u201333). Since the commentary on Psalm 45 comes immediately after that on Psalm 37 it is evident that the writer did not attempt to comment on every verse of the Psalter.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 23\u201cTo the choirmaster, on [Shoshan]im. For the sons of Korah, a wisdom psalm, a song of love \u2026\u201d<\/a>. A very fragmentary interpretation of Psalms was found in Cave 1. The few legible pieces speak, like the Commentary on Habakkuk (text 2), of the \u201cKittim.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1Q16 Frags. 3\u20137 2[\u2026] they had recognized [\u2026] 3[\u2026] \u201cKings of great armies flee, flee away; even the housewife shares the spoil\u201d<\/a>. 4Q174<\/p>\n\n\n\n A few years ago many people were agitated about the dawning of a new millennium. Thoughts turned with new urgency to what that change might portend. Similarly, the author of this text thought that events on earth were moving toward a climax, and he wanted to know what was going to happen. He was concerned not just for himself, but also for the group he belonged to (apparently the Yahad mentioned in various texts above), which he called the \u201cHouse of Judah.\u201d To find out what the future would bring, he turned to various passages in the Scriptures. For the most part, he considered portions of the Prophets, for among Second Temple Jews it was everywhere and by everyone agreed that prophecy meant predicting the future. Where better to find the answers, then? Quotation and interpretation of Deuteronomy 33, Moses\u2019s final blessing upon the Israelites. What remains concerns the blessings of Levi, Benjamin, Zebulun, and Gad.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 1 9[\u201cOf Levi he said: Give to Levi Your Thummim, and Your Urim to Your loyal one, whom You tested at Mass]ah, with whom You con[tes]ted at the waters of Meribah; who s[aid] 10[of his father and mother, \u2018I regard them not\u2019; he ignored his kin, and did not] acknow[ledge his children.] For [they observed Your wo]rd, [and kept Your] covenant. 11[They teach Jacob Your ordinances, and Israel Your law; they place incense] before You, and whole burnt offerings on Your altar. 12[Bless his substance, O LORD, and accept the work of his hands; crush the loins of his adversaries, of those who hate him, so that they never] rise again\u201d (Deut. 33:8\u201311). The author describes a time of trial for his community, the House of Judah, to be followed by a glorious era. This time of future glory shall witness heightened purity, triumph over the community\u2019s enemies, a new temple, an inspired interpreter of Scripture, and a messiah descended from David.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 12[\u2026] who swallow up the offspring of 13[\u2026 en]raged against them in his zeal 14[\u2026] This is the time when Belial shall open his mouth 15[\u2026 to bring] trials [a]gainst the House of Judah, cultivating animosity against them 16[\u2026] and he shall seek with all his might to disperse them 17[\u2026 th]at he brought them to be. The author finds scriptural mention of his community, then turns his mind to the final war against the Gentiles and the time of persecution awaiting the House of Judah.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 14The interpretation of \u201cHappy are those who do not follow the advice of the wicked\u201d (Ps. 1:1a): The meaning is, [th]ey are those who turn aside from the path of [the wicked], 15as it is written in the book of Isaiah the prophet in reference to the Last Days, \u201cAnd it came to pass, while His hand was strong upon me, [that He warned me not to walk in the way of] 16this people\u201d (Isa. 8:11). These are they about whom it is written in the book of Ezekiel the prophet, namely, \u201cThey shall ne[ver again defile themselves with] 17their idols\u201d (Ezek. 37:23). They are the Sons of Zadok, and the m[e]n of the[i]r council who pu[rsue righ]teousness and follow them to join the Yahad. 4Q175<\/p>\n\n\n\n When John Allegro first published this text in 1957, he gave it the title \u201c4QTestimonia.\u201d By the name testimonia he referred to a theory that there circulated among ancient Jews, and even more so among early Christians, collections of passages selected from the Bible for use in disputation. These collections are known as testimonia. According to the theory, the collections were often of texts having messianic significance. These two passages refer to a prophet like Moses, who was expected to arise. Possibly the author did not collate here two passages from Deuteronomy, but rather quoted a single passage from a reworked Bible. Compare text 18 frag. 6 above.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 1 1And the LORD* said to Moses, \u201cI have heard the words of 2this people, which they have spoken to you; they are right in all that they have spoken. 3If only they had such a mind as this, to fear Me and to keep all 4My commandments always, so that it might go well with them and with their children forever!\u201d (Deut. 5:28\u201329). This quotation apparently foretells the coming of a royal messiah who would lead in war.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 9\u201cSo he uttered his oracle, saying: \u2018The oracle of Balaam son of Beor, the oracle of the man 10who sees clearly, the oracle of one who hears the words of God, and knows the knowledge of the Most High, who 11sees the vision of the Almighty, who falls down, but with his eye uncovered: I see him, but not now; 12I behold him, but not near\u2014a star shall come out of Jacob, and a scepter shall rise out of Israel; it shall crush 13the borderlands of Moab, and the territory of all the Shethites\u2019 \u201d (Num. 24:15\u201317).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Next the text quotes a portion of Scripture to foretell a future priestly figure. The Thummim and Urim were oracular stones that the high priest carried in a pouch on his breastplate.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 14\u201cAnd of Levi he said: Give to Levi Your Thummim, and Your Urim to Your loyal one, whom 15You tested at Massah, with whom You contended at the waters of Meribah; who said of his father 16and mother, \u2018I know them not\u2019; he ignored his kin, and did not acknowledge his children. 17For he observed Your word, and kept Your covenant. They shall cause Your ordinances to shine for Jacob, 18Your law for Israel; they place incense before You, and whole burnt offerings on Your altar. 19Bless his substance, O LORD, and accept the work of his hands; crush the loins of his adversaries, of those who hate him, 20so that they do not rise again\u201d (Deut. 33:8\u201311).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Last, the author quotes a portion from Joshua, adding its interpretation from an extrabiblical work, Apocryphal Joshua (text 92). Clearly he thought these lines foretold the rise of several\u2014perhaps three\u2014wicked figures, but no suggestion for precisely whom he meant to describe has won a scholarly consensus.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 21When Joshua finished praying and offering psalms of praise, 22he said, \u201cCursed be anyone who tries to rebuild this city! With the help of his firstborn 23he shall lay its foundation, and with the aid of his youngest he shall set up its gates!\u201d (Josh. 6:26). \u201cBehold, one cursed man, one belonging to Belial, 24is about to arise to be a fow[ler\u2019s n]et to his people and a source of ruin for all his neighbors. Then shall arise 25[so]ns [after him,] the two of them [to b]e instruments of wrongdoing. They shall rebuild 26[this city and s]et up for it a wall and towers, creating a stronghold of evil 27[and a great wickedness] in Israel, a thing of horror in Ephraim and Judah. 28[\u2026] They shall [wo]rk blasphemy in the land, a great uncleanness among the children of 29[Jacob. They shall pour out blo]od like water upon the bulwark of the daughter of Zion and within the city limits of 30Jerusalem\u201d (Apocryphal Joshua frag. 22 col. 2). 4Q176<\/p>\n\n\n\n Sometimes the words of Scripture needed little or no commentary; they just needed a little rearranging. If more of this commentary remained, no doubt we would find more explanatory comments from the compiler of these passages. Yet the proportion of comment to quotation in the fragments that survive shows that in general these verses from the Old Testament Prophets, all foretelling the future comfort of Israel, were allowed to speak for themselves.<\/p>\n\n\n\n If the following fragments belong at or near the beginning of the scroll itself, they seemed to have introduced the anthology with a commentary on Psalm 79:1\u20133: \u201cThe Gentiles have come into your possession; they have defiled your holy temple; they have made Jerusalem a heap of ruins. They have left the corpses of your servants as food for the birds of the air, the bodies of your devotees for the beasts of the earth. They have poured out their blood like water around Jerusalem, with no one to bury them.\u201d The scroll writer felt that the Israel of his day was much in need of the consoling and saving power of God. As in the time of the psalm, something had gone terribly wrong in the conduct of the worship in the sanctuary and priests had been killed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 1\u20132 Col. 1 1So perform Your miracle and do good deeds among Your people and they will be [\u2026] 2Your sanctuary, and so contend with kingdoms for the blood of [Your servants \u2026] 3Jerusalem, and see the corpses of Your priests [\u2026] 4with no one to bury them. Again the voice of the compiler is heard, buttressing the comforting words of the Bible with consolations of his own.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 13[\u2026 one could not g]row tired of these words of comfort, for great honor is written in [\u2026] 14[\u2026] for those who love [Him \u2026] never again [\u2026] 15[Beli]al to oppress His servants [\u2026] 16[\u2026] will rejoice [\u2026] The author of the scroll may have explained the current tribulation of Israel as having been foreseen, and thus it is part of God\u2019s wonderful, though mysterious, plan. Those who continue to trust and obey God can count on sharing in his comfort.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 16 1\u20132[\u2026] my secrets. He has cast the lot [\u2026] 3[\u2026] the sanctuary, and to give human fulfillment to [\u2026] 4[\u2026] for those who love Him and to those who keep [His] command[ments \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 19\u201320 have been recognized as containing parts of the Book of Jubilees (see text 42). 4Q177<\/p>\n\n\n\n The burden of making sense of the Qumran commentaries doubles when the already enigmatic text is fragmentary. Such is the case with the present work. It is a commentary on themes chosen because of their supposed relevance to the \u201cLast Days,\u201d the time of the final showdown between Light and Darkness, Righteousness and Evil. The method and theme have much in common with the Last Days: A Commentary on Selected Verses (text 25), and it has been argued that the two scrolls are actually two copies of the same work that do not happen to overlap. The author sketches the Last Days in general terms: although Belial will make an attempt to destroy the righteous, the children of light, the Angel of Truth will protect them; and in the end, Good will triumph, and Evil will perish.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 12\u201313 Col. 1 6[\u2026] \u201cInstruction [will not perish] from the [priest, or advice from the sage, or oracles] from the prophet\u201d (Jer. 18:18). Before the end comes, the unrighteous will attack the righteous.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 5\u20136 1[\u2026] the boasters who [\u2026] come against the men of the Yah[ad \u2026] 2[as it is written in the book of Isaiah the] prophet, \u201cThis year eat what grows [by itself, and next year the aftergrowth\u201d (Isa. 37:30). The meaning of] \u201cwhat grows by itself\u201d is [\u2026] 3[\u2026] up to the time of purifi[cation that shall come upon them in the Last Days,] and afterwards shall appear [\u2026] 4[\u2026] for all of them are children [\u2026] said the boasters [\u2026] 5[\u2026 that is written] about them in the book of [Isaiah the prophet \u2026 for] the Law of the [\u2026] 6[\u2026] it calls them, as [it is written about them in the book of Isaiah the prophet, \u201cHe] thinks up plots to [destroy the humble with lying words\u201d (Isa. 32:7).\u2026] 7[\u2026] to condemn Israel. [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Those who belong to the sect will go into exile in the face of the enemy persecution.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [\u201cTo the master singer,] to David. In the LORD [I have taken refuge, so how can You say to me, Flee] 8[to your mountain, little bird, for now the wicked are bending their bow,] and fitting arrows to [the string to shoot in the night at the honest in mind\u201d] (Ps. 11:1\u20132). Despite the apparent success of the wicked during this period, the righteous are to regard it as a time when they themselves are tested and purified.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 10 + 11 + 7 + 9 + 20 + 26 1[\u201cThe words of the LORD are pure, like silver purified in a clay furnace,] refined seven times\u201d (Ps. 12:6). As it is written 2[in the book of the prophet Zechariah, \u201cHere is a stone I have placed before Joshua the priest. Upon this one stone are seven eyes. I am] making an inscription on it, says the LORD\u201d (Zech. 3:9). As it 3[says \u2026] concerning them it is written, I will heal 4[\u2026] the men of Belial and all the rabble 5[\u2026] them the Interpreter of the Law, for there is no 6[\u2026] each man on his own rampart when they appear 7[\u2026] those who impede the Children of Light 8[\u2026 \u201cHow long, O LORD?] Will You forget [me forever? How long will You turn away] from me? How long will I turn over 9[thoughts] in my mind, [having pain in] my heart [every day]? How long [shall my enemy exult over me?\u2026\u201d] (Ps. 13:1\u20132). The enemies of the righteous are identified as the \u201cFlattery-Seekers.\u201d They will join forces with the Gentile forces from nearby Edom and Moab to attack the Children of Light.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [As for the verse that says,] \u201cLest the enemy say 12[I have overcome him \u2026\u201d (Ps. 13:4).\u2026] they are the company of the Flattery-Seekers, who [\u2026] who seek to destroy 13[\u2026] in their zeal and in their hostility [\u2026 which] is written in the book of the [prophet] Ezekiel, 14[\u201cBecause Edom and Moab have said, Behold, the house of] Judah is like all the Gentiles\u201d (Ezek. 25:8). Those who are faithful and endure the time of suffering will live to see their vindication, when the true priesthood of God will be revealed and the works of darkness will perish.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cAs for the holy [ones that are] in the land, the nobles, in whom is all my pleasure\u201d (Ps. 16:3). [\u2026] 3[\u2026] has ever happened like this [\u2026] \u201cand knocking of knees and trembling in everyone\u2019s bowels\u201d (Nah. 2:10). [\u2026] 4[\u2026] \u201cHear, [O righteous LORD,] listen to my complaint, give ear to [my prayer \u2026\u201d (Ps. 17:1). [\u2026] 5[\u2026] in the Last Days in the time when He shall seek [\u2026] the party of the Yahad. He is [\u2026] 6[\u201cFrom You shall flow my judgment\u201d (Ps. 17:2).\u2026] The meaning of the verse is that a man shall arise from the children of [\u2026] 7[\u2026] they will be like a fire on the whole earth. They are the ones of whom it is written in the Last [Days \u2026] 8[\u2026] he said concerning the company of the light who shall have grief when Be[lial] rules, [but concerning the company of darkness] who shall have grief [\u2026] 9[\u2026] from him [\u2026] mourning, return, O LORD, [\u2026] God of mercy and God of Israel [\u2026] just deserts [\u2026] 10[who have] indulged themselves in the spirits of [Be]lial, but it will be forgiven them forever, and bless them [\u2026] again forever and bless them [\u2026] their times [\u2026] 11[\u2026] their ancestors by the tally of [their] full names, one after the other [\u2026] and the time of their term of office [\u2026] their tongue [\u2026] 12[\u2026] the descendants of Judah.<\/p>\n\n\n\n All of the events of the Last Days are foreordained, written down on heavenly tablets. Note the reference to the \u201csecond book of the Law\u201d that was \u201crejected.\u201d The identity of this book is unknown; some scholars have suggested that it was the Temple Scroll (text 155), others that it was the Sectarian Manifesto (text 100). Just as likely, perhaps, is that the reference is to a work that has not survived. Another possibility is that the author of the Last Days was passing on a tradition and did not himself know the identity of the book, in which case his description\u2014which makes the book sound substantial, equivalent to the books of Moses\u2014may not have been very precise.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Now, behold, all is written in the tablets that [\u2026] in order to tell him the tally of [\u2026] and he will make [them] inherit 13[\u2026] and to his descendants forever. Then he left there to go from Aram. \u201cBlow the horn in Gibeah\u201d (Hos. 5:8). The \u201chorn\u201d is the [first] book of [the Law. \u201cSound the trumpet in Ramah\u201d (Hos. 5:8).\u2026] 14[The \u201ctrumpet\u201d] is the second book of the Law that [all the] men of his party rejected, and they advised rebellion against it and they sent [\u2026] 15[\u2026] great miracles upon [\u2026] and Jacob is to stand by the winepresses and he will rejoice when descends [\u2026] 16[\u2026] is chosen [\u2026] the men of his party are \u201cthe sword.\u201d As for the verse that says [\u2026] 4Q179<\/p>\n\n\n\n The lamentation for a fallen city was a well-known literary genre in the ancient Near East. One of the oldest known is the \u201cLamentation for the Destruction of Ur,\u201d written in Mesopotamia in the twentieth century B.C.E., and several others are known. The biblical exemplar of the form is the book of Lamentations, comprising five laments over the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in the sixth century B.C.E. Frag. 1 Col. 1 1[\u2026] all our misdeeds and it is not within our power; for [we] did not obey [\u2026] 2[\u2026] Judah, that all these things should befall us, by evil 3[\u2026] his covenant. 4Q180\u2013181<\/p>\n\n\n\n An important theological tenet of the Yahad was the notion of predestination: that from the very beginning, God had foreordained how history would develop, who would inherit eternal life and who was destined for perdition. The Ages of the World is apparently a discussion of this notion, proving the idea using examples drawn from the biblical text. In the surviving portions, the example of the ten generations between Shem and Abraham is the centerpiece.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The introduction to the work, which emphasizes God\u2019s predetermination of history.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q180 Frag. 1 1The prophetic interpretation concerning the ages which God made: an age to complete [all that is] 2and shall be. Before He created them, He established [their] workings [\u2026] 3age by age. And it was engraved upon [eternal] tablets [\u2026] 4[\u2026] ages of their dominion. This is the rule of the so[ns of Noah to] 5[Abraham un]til he bore Isaac, ten [generations (?) \u2026] 6[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n A version of the story of original sin, similar to that known from 1 Enoch 6\u201311 (text 36) and Jubilees 4\u20135 (see text 42 and Gen. 6:1\u20132, 4).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 7The prophetic interpretation concerning Azazel and the angels wh[o went in to the daughters of man,] 8[so that] they bore mighty men to them. And concerning Azazel [who taught them] 9[to love] iniquity and to pass on wickedness as an inheritance, all [\u2026] 10[\u2026] judgments, and the judgment of the council of [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fate of Sodom and Gomorrah was foreknown from creation (Gen. 18\u201319).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 2\u20134 Col. 2 1that [\u2026] He who dwells [\u2026] 2that [this] l[and] was beautiful to Lot [\u2026] to inherit [\u2026] 3[\u2026] three me[n \u2026] 4[who appeared to Abra]m at the oaks of Mamre were angels. [And the Lord said,] 5\u201cHow g[reat] is the [outc]ry against Sodom and Gomorrah, and their sin, how 6very [grea]t! I must go down and see whether [they ha]ve done altogether according to their outcry that has come 7[to me;] and if not, I will kno[w.\u201d \u2026] the word [\u2026 all] 8fle[sh] which [\u2026] concerning every [\u2026] 9speaks [\u2026] \u2026 and I will see that everything [\u2026\u201d] 10[\u2026] before He created them He knew [their] design[s.\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n God has a predetermined plan for man. This plan includes punishment (ll. 1\u20132) and rewards (ll. 3\u20136). For the concept of sitting in the council of the gods, see the \u201cSelf-Glorification Hymn,\u201d 4Q491 frag. 11 col. 1 (text 11) and 1QHa col. 26 (text 12).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q181 Frag. 1 1[\u2026] for the guilt in the Yahad, with the coun[cil of \u2026], to wa[l]low in the sin of humankind, and for great judgments and evil diseases 2in the flesh, according to the powerful deeds of God, and corresponding to their wickedness, according to their uncleanness caused by the council of the sons of h[eaven] and earth, as a wicked association until 3the end. There are sufficient similarities between ll. 1\u20134 of this fragment and ll. 5\u20139 of 4Q180 frag. 1 to suggest that the texts are related.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 2 1[\u2026 Abraham until he bor]e Isaac, [ten generations. The prophetic interpretation concerning Azazel and the angels who went in to] 2[the daughters] of man, so that [they] bore mighty me[n] to them. [And concerning Azazel \u2026] 3[\u2026] He satisfied Israel with plenty (or Israel, in seventy weeks, He entreated) [\u2026] 4and those who love iniquity, and pass on guilt as an inheritance, all [\u2026] 5before all those who know Him [\u2026] 6and there are no bounds to His goodness [\u2026] 7these are the wonders of knowledge [\u2026] 8He established them in His truth and [\u2026] 9in all their ages [\u2026] 10th[eir] creatures [\u2026] 4Q182<\/p>\n\n\n\n The very fragmentary work before us seems to be the remains of a commentary on selected verses, along the lines of the Last Days: A Commentary on Selected Verses (text 25) and the Last Days: An Interpretation of Selected Verses (text 28). Alternatively, it may be that this writing was an interpretation of all or parts of the book of Jeremiah. Although the Qumran caches include commentaries on many of Israel\u2019s prophets, none on Jeremiah has otherwise survived. His many sharp-edged criticisms of the Israel of his day would have lent themselves nicely to new application in the politics of the late Second Temple period.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 1 seems to preserve portions of a criticism directed at Israel generally, at the \u201cFlattery-Seekers,\u201d or perhaps at another code-named group such as Manasseh. Compare the Commentary on Habakkuk (text 2).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 1 1[\u2026 The interpretation applies to] the Last Days, concerning [\u2026] 2[\u2026] who stiffened their neck [\u2026] 3[\u2026] and they arrogantly threw off restraint, so as to defile [\u2026] 4[\u2026 as it] is written about them in the book of Jere[miah, \u201cHow can I forgive you?] 5Your [children] have forsaken me, and have swo[rn by those who are no gods\u201d] (Jer. 5:7). 4Q183<\/p>\n\n\n\n This short text clearly derives from a commentary, perhaps a thematic one such as the Last Days (text 28). None of the biblical text that was the basis of this commentary has been preserved. What remains is a scrap of history from a sectarian perspective: long ago God delivered the righteous and punished the wicked during the time of tribulation\u2014and he still does. If the restoration suggested by the context in l. 2 is correct, we may have here a reaction to the events of the civil war between Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus and their supporters in 67\u201365 B.C.E.; for more on this war and its significance for the setting of the scrolls, see the Introduction (pp. 29\u201333).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 2 1their enemies, and they defiled their sanctuary [\u2026] 2from them, and they advanced to war, each [against his brother \u2026 those who were faithful] 3to his covenant, God delivered and rescued [\u2026 those deserving His] 4good pleasure, and He gave to them a single mind, to wal[k in His ways \u2026 to avoid all] 5wicked lucre, and they abstained from the wa[ys of wickedness \u2026 they withdrew from] 6those who err in spirit, and with a truthful tongue [\u2026] 7and they satisfied the debt of their sins by [their] sufferings [\u2026] 8their sin. [\u2026] And as for the verse that says [\u2026] 4Q184<\/p>\n\n\n\n This work, entitled by its first editor, John Allegro, \u201cThe Wiles of the Wicked Woman,\u201d is another example of wisdom literature (see the introduction to the Book of Secrets, text 6). It is typical of wisdom literature to portray life in terms of a contrast between the wise man and the fool and between the wisdom and folly that they live by. Folly\u2019s evil intent pervades her being.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 1 1[Folly] produces nothingness, and in [\u2026]. She is always seeking error, she whets the words of [her mouth. With raillery] 2and jesting she flatters, and adds derision to useless va[nity]. Her heart creates lewdness, and her inner being [\u2026 Her eyes] 3are befouled with perversity, her hands grip corruption tight. Her feet come down to do evil, and to walk in the crimes of [\u2026 Her thighs are] 4pillars of darkness, a horde of sins is under her hem, her [\u2026] blackest night.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Her clothing and dwelling reveal the corruption of wickedness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Her attire [\u2026] 5her robes are gloom of twilight, while her jewelry is infected with rot. Her bed is a couch of corruption [\u2026] 6pits of hell. Her inns are where darkness lies down, she holds sway at dead of nigh[t]. Among the pillars of gloom 7she pitches her tent, and settles among the tents of silence, in the middle of perpetual flames. She has no part with any of those 8illumined by brightness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Those who follow Lady Folly, like those whom the adulteress seduces, shall be eternally punished (\u201cher house is the way to Hades,\u201d Prov. 7:27).<\/p>\n\n\n\n No, she is the beginning of all evil paths: alas for all who take possession of her, and destruction comes to a[ll] 9who take hold of her, for her ways are deadly, her paths lead to sin, her byways end in 10evil, her tra[ck]s in criminal wrongdoing. Her gates are the gates of Death, in the entrance of her house she walks. To Ha[des] [11a[l]l, [without] return! All who take possession of her descend to the pit.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Folly is always on the lookout for new prey; like the adulteress, \u201cshe lies in wait at every corner\u201d (Prov. 7:12).<\/p>\n\n\n\n She lies secretly in wait [\u2026] 12all [\u2026] in the city streets she hides, in the town gates she takes her stand, and no one will [\u2026] 13[\u2026] her eyes dart here and there, she flutters her eyelids lewdly, lookin[g fo]r a 14righteous man to catch, looking for a [st]rong man to trip up, for someone honest to lead astray, for innocent youths 15to keep from obeying the commandments, for the firm of [purpose] to make empty with lewdness, for those who live honestly to make them break the l[aw]; to cause 16the humble to rebel from God, and to divert their steps from the ways of righteousness, to put arrogance in their [hearts], so that they do not remain 17in the paths of integrity. She seeks to make people go wrong in the ways of Hell, and to seduce the sons of men by flattery. 4Q185<\/p>\n\n\n\n Like the Book of Secrets (text 6), this is a wisdom instruction. It argues that true wisdom can come only from God and is a unique possession of the chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Mortals cannot rank with God and his angels, because their life span is comparatively short. Some of the wording is borrowed from Isaiah 40:6\u20138.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 1\u20132 Col. 1 4[\u2026] pure and holy [\u2026] 5[\u2026] His [\u2026] and His [an]ger [\u2026] 6[\u2026] up to ten times [\u2026] 7[\u2026] there is no strength to stand before His anger and no hope 8before His wrath [\u2026] and who can endure to stand before His angels, for as 9flames of fire [they] mete out judgment [\u2026] of His spirits. And you, O mortals, [\u2026] for just 10like gr[as]s man sprouts from the earth, and his virtue blossoms like the flower; but His spirit blows [on it], 11and [his stalk] dries up, and the wind carries its flower to nothingness, to [\u2026] 12and it is no more, because of the wind. One may seek it, but not find it, and there is no hope for it. 13He is like a shadow [\u2026] upon the lig[ht.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n In view of the brevity of human life, the righteous should devote themselves to learning more about God and his ways.<\/p>\n\n\n\n So now, pray give heed, my people, and learn 14from me, you who are unlearned. Grow wise by learning about the [gr]eat deeds of our God, and call to mind the miracles He did 15in Egypt, and His wonders [in the land of Ham.] Let your hearts tremble before His awesomeness Col. 2 1and do [His will \u2026 Renew] your [sp]irit according to his tender mercies. Seek for yourselves the way 2of life, the highway [that \u2026] something to leave your children after you; why should you give 3your[self] to futility? [\u2026 ju]dgment. Listen to me, my children, and do not defy the commandments of the LORD. 4Do not walk [in wickedness, but in the way He established for] Jacob, and the path He ordained for Isaac. Truly, better is one day 5[in His house] than ten [in the house of fools \u2026] His worship, and not to be burdened by fear or the trapper\u2019s lure 6[\u2026] from His angels, for there is no darkness 7or fog [\u2026] He [\u2026] His [\u2026] and His true knowledge. And you, what 8[\u2026] calamity comes from Him on every people.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Happiness is only to be found by seeking true wisdom from God.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Happy is the man to whom [wisdom] is given 9[\u2026] The wicked should not boast, saying, It is not given 10to me, and it is not [\u2026 wisdom was given] to Israel, and He measures it out generously, and He redeems all His people, 11but kills [those who reject \u2026 nor should] the braggarts say, Truly we have found it by ourselves. Seek it, 12and you will find it. Hol[d fa]st to it, and you will own it, and with it [long l]ife and prosperity and joy of heart, rich[es \u2026] 13His eternal mercies and salvation [\u2026] 4Q186<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q186 is perhaps the closest thing to a scientific treatise that has yet emerged from the caves of Qumran. This writing combines astrology and the ancient \u201cscience\u201d of physiognomy in an attempt to determine the character and destiny of given individuals. As the author of the third century B.C.E. pseudo-Aristotelian tractate Physiognomonica describes it, \u201cThe physiognomist takes his information from movements, shapes, colors, and traits as they appear in the face, from the hair, from the smoothness of the skin, from the voice, from the appearance of the flesh, from the limbs, and from the entire character of the body\u201d (806a). In other words, physiognomy tried to judge a book by its cover, to discover individuals\u2019 true character\u2014as opposed to how they might present themselves\u2014from a close examination of every aspect of their outward appearance. By the time of the scrolls this was already an ancient form of divination. Examples many centuries older than our text are known from ancient Mesopotamia. In the Greco-Roman period, physiognomy was greatly elaborated beyond those Near Eastern forebears, and its practitioners memorized long catalogs of physical traits and the significance assigned to those traits. A fragmentary description of the first individual. The reference in col. 2 to \u201cgranite\u201d suggests that the text may have incorporated ideas about birthstones.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 1 Col. 1 7Anyone, the ha[ir of whose head] shall be [\u2026 and whose head and forehead] 8are broad and curved [\u2026] 9intermediate, but the rest of [his] head is not [\u2026] Col. 2 1[\u2026] unclean 2[\u2026 his stone is] granite.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The second individual, a person more good than bad. \u201cFixed eyes\u201d are a regular category in Greco-Roman physiognomy and are generally a bad sign. Note the virtuous significance of long and slender limbs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3[And] anyone [whose] eyes are 4[\u2026 and lo]ng, but th[e]y are fix[e]d, 5whose thighs are long and slender, whose toes 6are slender and long, and who was born during the second phase of the moon:* 7he possesses a spirit with six parts light, but three parts in the House of 8Darkness. This is the birth sign under which such a person shall be born: 9the haunch of Taurus. He will be poor. This is his animal: the bull.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The third individual. This person has poor potential for righteousness, being eight-ninths bad. In particular, he has hairy thighs. In Greco-Roman physiognomy, hairy thighs signified one whose animal was the goat; like that animal, he tended to be lustful.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 3 5and whose head [\u2026], [whose] ey[es] 6inspire fear [and are \u2026], whose teeth protrude (?), whose 7fingers are thick, whose thighs are thick and extremely hairy, 8and whose toes are thick and short: he possesses a spirit with [ei]ght 9parts in the House of [Darkness] and one from the House of Light [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fourth individual. This person has excellent potential for righteousness, and evidences the \u201cGolden Mean\u201d that was important in Greco-Roman physiognomy: his physical characteristics are extreme in neither direction. Note that he is also relatively hairless.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 2 Col. 1 1regula[r,] whose [e]yes are neither dark n[or] light (?), whose beard 2is sp[arse] and medium curly, whose voice resonates, whose teeth 3are fine and regular, who is neither tall 4nor short but is well built, whose fingers are thin 5and long, whose thighs are hairless, the soles of whose feet 6[and whose to]es are as they should be: he possesses a spirit 7[\u2026] eight parts [from the House of Light] and o[ne] 8[in the House of Darkness. This is the birth sign under which] such a person shall be born [\u2026] Introduction to the Enoch Literature<\/p>\n\n\n\n It is fair to say that the patriarch Enoch was as well known to the ancients as he is obscure to modern Bible readers. Besides giving his age (365 years), the book of Genesis says of him only that he \u201cwalked with God,\u201d and afterwards \u201che was not, because God had taken him\u201d (5:24). This exalted way of life and mysterious demise made Enoch into a figure of considerable fascination, and a cycle of legends grew up around him. These works likely existed separately before they were combined into the anthology now known as 1 Enoch. Each smaller work, in turn, was itself composed of other still smaller works that probably circulated separately before being added to the larger work. The Book of Watchers, for example, after an introduction that warns of the coming judgment on the wicked (chaps. 1\u20135), has the story of the fall of the Watchers (angels) and how they brought sin to the earth (chaps. 6\u201316), and then relates how the angels lifted up Enoch and showed him the entirety of the earth and the underworld (17\u201336). All these sections were probably once independent works. Judging from the Qumran fragments, their \u201cBook of Enoch\u201d was made up of the Book of Watchers, the Dream Visions of Enoch, the Apocalypse of Enoch, the Birth of Noah, and possibly the Book of Giants. 4Q201\u2013202, 4Q204\u2013207, 4Q212, 1Q19<\/p>\n\n\n\n The Book of Enoch begins with Enoch\u2019s description of the coming judgment, in which God will descend with his angels to bring fiery punishment on the wicked (1 Enoch 1).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q201 Frag. 1 Col. 1 1[\u2026 visio]n of Enoch to [the] cho[sen \u2026] Enoch tells the wicked that, although the created world obeys the laws of its Creator, they have transgressed his laws and will receive his punishment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q201 Frag. 1 Col. 2 1[\u2026] and they do not vio[late] their order. Be[hold] the earth, and con[sid]er the work 2[\u2026 from first to l]ast, that n[o]th[ing c]hanges, and all [\u2026] appears. Behold the signs of 3[summer \u2026] upon it, and the signs of winter, that [all] the earth [\u2026] 4[\u2026] and clouds and rain pour out (water). Behold how all the tre[es] wither 5[\u2026 except] for fourteen trees whose leaves remain 6[\u2026] two or three years [\u2026] Behold the signs of 7[summer \u2026 the sun] burns and you seek shade and shelter from before it 8[\u2026] you cannot [t]read on the dust or [o]n the [rock]s because of [\u2026] 9[\u2026] the leaves of all the trees blossom, covering them with greenery [\u2026] 10[\u2026 for ho]nor and praise [\u2026] So consider all these works. 11[\u2026 he who] lives for all eternity has done these works. Year 12[after year \u2026 and] all of them follow his command. But you have perverted your works 13[\u2026 you have spo]ken against him proud and hard words in the time of your impurity. 14[\u2026] there shall be no peace for you. Then you will curse your days [and] the years of 15[your life \u2026 and the year]s of your destruction shall be many because of an [ete]r[nal] cu[rse, and mer]cy 16you shall not find \u2026] for an eternal curse for [\u2026] 17[\u2026] for all [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fall of the angels (1 Enoch 6\u20138). The chief angel Shemihaza causes two hundred angels to swear an oath that, with him, they will descend to earth, mate with human women, and teach the magical arts among the human race. They do so, binding themselves with a curse, and give rise to the race of wicked giants. The giants, in turn, begin to spread sin and destruction on the earth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 3 1and they all said to him, Let us swe[ar \u2026] 2We will [not] turn away, any of us, from th[is] plan [\u2026] 3all of them together and [they] took an oath [\u2026] 4in the days of Jared on [\u2026] 5who swore and took an oath [\u2026] and these [\u2026] 6Shemihaza wh[o \u2026] second to him; Ramat[el \u2026] 7to him; Kokaba[el \u2026 fif]th to him; Raame[l \u2026] 8Daniel sev[enth to him \u2026 eigh]th to him; Barakel nint[h to him \u2026] 9Asael tenth [to him \u2026] to him; Matarel twelf[th \u2026] 10Ananel thirteenth [to him; Se]tawel [fo]urteenth to him; Shamshi[el fif-] 11teenth to him; Sahariel [si]xteenth to him; Tummiel seven[teenth to him;] 12Turiel eighteen[th] to him; Yammiel nine to him; [\u2026] 13These are the leaders of the groups [of] ten; th[ey and th]eir [lieu]tenants [\u2026 they took] 14women of all that they chose and [\u2026] 15and to teach them sorcery [\u2026] 16and the women became pregnant by them and bo[re \u2026 and giants] 17were being born on the earth [\u2026 they consumed] 18the labor of all the sons of men and did not [\u2026] 19were conspiring to slay humankind [\u2026] 20against every bird and [beas]ts of [the] earth [\u2026] 21[and in] the heavens and to devour the fish of the sea; [their own] flesh [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The wicked angels begin to teach the arts of sin to the human race.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q202 Frag. 1 Col. 2 26Asae[l] ta[ug]ht [human]k[ind to] make swords of iron and ar[mor o]f cop[per \u2026] 27to them how [\u2026] g[old] to be made into coins, and silver, how to make it into bracelets [\u2026] 28[\u2026] concerning kohl and eye shado[w \u2026] The complaint of the earth and its inhabitants comes before the unfallen angels remaining in heaven (1 Enoch 9).<\/p>\n\n\n\n And as many as perished [\u2026] from the earth, [their] vo[ice] 6went up be[fore heaven \u2026] Michael looked out [\u2026 and] Raphael and Gabri[el] 7from [the] holy places [\u2026 and they sa]w much blood being sh[ed on] the [earth], and all [\u2026] 8was filled with w[ickedness and] violence that [was being] committed upon it [\u2026] 9and they said before [\u2026] the voice and [\u2026] 10[the] gates of heaven [\u2026 to the holy] ones of he[aven \u2026 the souls] 11who cry out [\u2026] and [they] s[aid \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The good angels bring the complaint of those suffering on earth to God, who commands them to bind the fallen angels and imprison them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q202 Frag. 1 Col. 3 14[\u2026] our great lord, he is the Eternal Lord [\u2026] 15[and the thron]e of your glory endures [for] all generations from eternity [\u2026] 16[\u2026] and blessing unto al[l ages \u2026] God decrees that the giants and those corrupted by them will be destroyed in the Day of Judgment. Afterward the \u201cplant of righteousness,\u201d those chosen by God, will inherit a cleansed earth, which will regain and increase its fertility.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q204 Frag. 1 Col. 5 1And all who are g[uilty \u2026] 2[\u2026] and the end of [all generations.] Then they will perish for al[l ages \u2026] 3[\u2026] And destroy evil from [\u2026] 4[\u2026 p]lant of righteousness and it shall be [\u2026 they shall be plant]ed. 5[\u2026 all the righ]teous will be saved and they will be [\u2026 they will beget thousands, and all the days of 6[\u2026 and] old age [will be fulfilled] in peace. [\u2026] The angels reveal the decree of heaven to Enoch, who is commanded to tell the fallen angels what is to come upon them. When he has done this, the fallen angels ask Enoch to intercede for them and petition heaven for forgiveness. But Enoch is taken to heaven, to the very house of God, and given a message of wrath, not forgiveness, for the fallen angels (1 Enoch 12\u201316).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 6 1with [\u2026] their [peti]tions for all of their [lives], and for each one separately [\u2026] 2[\u2026] While he is in heaven, the angels show Enoch the entirety of earth and the underworld, including the area usually hidden from humanity (1 Enoch 17\u201336). Most of this section has not survived in the scrolls.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Enoch is shown the mountain where the souls of the dead are kept. Enoch hears the voice of Abel continuing to cry out against his murderer, Cain (Gen. 4:10).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q206 Frag. 1 Col. 22 1[soul]s of all the sons of men, and behold these are the pits for a place of imprisonment. 2For this were they made until a day that they are judged, until the very time and day o[f] 3the Great Judgment that will be. passed on them. Fragments survive of Enoch\u2019s journey to the far eastern parts of the earth (1 Enoch 30\u201333).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q204 Frag. 1 Col. 12 23[\u2026 beyon]d these things, I went far [to the east \u2026] 24[\u2026 of] goodly reeds of spice which 25[\u2026] I [saw] the cinnamon spice. Enoch is taken to the Garden of Eden and shown the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil (1 Enoch 32).<\/p>\n\n\n\n And from there I was carried 19[east]ward of all these mountains, far away from them, to the east of the earth, and [I] was made to pass 20[hig]h above [the] Red [Sea], but I went farther still and was carried abo[ve] 21the darkness, far away from it. And I was made to come to the Garden of Truth. The next two sections of the Ethiopic Book of Enoch\u2014the Parables of Enoch (chaps. 37\u201371) and the Book of the Heavenly Luminaries (chaps. 72\u201382)\u2014are not found in the Qumran scrolls as part of the Book of Enoch. In the original Aramaic text, the story of Enoch\u2019s journeys to the ends of the earth (1 Enoch 17\u201336) is followed by a section telling of Enoch\u2019s dream visions (1 Enoch 83\u201390), in which he sees the history of Israel from Adam and Eve to the establishment of the messianic kingdom. All the human figures are portrayed allegorically by means of various animals. This section is sometimes known as the \u201cAnimal Apocalypse.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fall of the wicked angels (1 Enoch 86). Enoch sees stars fall from heaven among a herd of cows. The stars turn into bulls and begin to mate with the cows.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q207 Frag. 1 1[\u2026 the heavens] above [and, behold] a star [\u2026] 2[\u2026 it grazed] among them. Then, behold, [I] saw [\u2026] 3[\u2026] and their sheepfolds [and] t[heir c]alves [\u2026] 4[\u2026] and, behold, man[y] stars [\u2026] 5[\u2026] the [bu]lls in [the] mid[st \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The punishment of the fallen angels (1 Enoch 88). The \u201cfallen stars\u201d are bound and cast into pits by the four archangels Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q206 Frag. 4 Col. 1 11[\u2026] numerous [s]tars 12[\u2026 bound] all of them hand and foot and threw 13[them into the abyss \u2026 one of] the four went to one of the bulls [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The Flood (1 Enoch 89:1\u20139). One of the \u201cbulls\u201d (Noah) builds a boat and is saved from the deluge.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 14[\u2026 and he m]ade himself a boat and dwelt within it 15[\u2026] with him to the boat, and the boat was coated and covered 16[\u2026 I was] watching and, behold, seven sluices were pouring out 17[water \u2026] and, behold, chambers were opened within the earth, and they began 18[\u2026 and] while I was watching, the earth was covered with water 19[\u2026 the water was] standing on the earth, and the bulls sank down, drowning 20[\u2026] but the boat sailed on top of the water, and all the bulls 21[\u2026] and the elephants and the oxen.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The Flood is ended and the ark comes to rest on a mountaintop.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 2 1[\u2026 in] my [dr]eam until [the] s[luices \u2026] 2[\u2026] the chambers were stopped up [\u2026 the water was] 3going down into them until it disappeared [\u2026 the boat] 4came aground [o]n the earth [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The sojourn of Israel in Egypt (1 Enoch 89:10\u201316). A \u201cram\u201d (Jacob) brings eleven \u201csheep\u201d (the sons of Jacob) to dwell among the \u201cwolves\u201d (Egyptians).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 16And the ram brought [the eleven \u2026] 17among the wolves and [they] mul[tiplied \u2026] 18they began to oppress [the] flock [\u2026] 19[to] sink them in the water. T[hen \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The Exodus and Sinai (1 Enoch 89:23\u201337). The wolves pursue the escaping sheep, but are drowned when the waters of the Red Sea close over them. The sheep who led the flock (Moses) supplies them with water and leads them to a high rock (Mount Sinai).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 3 14[\u2026] the [w]olves were pursuing [the] flock [\u2026] 15[\u2026 and] the waters covered them. And [the] f[lock \u2026] 16[\u2026] wasteland, a place which [\u2026] 17[\u2026] and their eyes were opened [\u2026] 18[\u2026] to them, and he gave to th[em] water [to dr]i[nk \u2026] 19[\u2026 w]ent up to the t[op of] a high r[ock], and 20[\u2026 and a]ll of [them s]tood [far] off [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1 Enoch 89:31\u201337: The sheep are afraid to behold the \u201clord of the flock,\u201d and while their leader (Moses) goes to the top of the rock, the flock goes astray and wishes to return to their old sheepfolds (Egypt). But the leading sheep brings them back, is changed into a human being, and builds a tent for the lord of the flock. All of this is a retelling of the story of Israel at Sinai as given in Exodus 24\u201334.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q204 Frag. 4 1[\u2026] all of them were a[f]ra[i]d [\u2026 be]fo[re him] 2[\u2026 the sheep] who was among them, We are not able to sta[nd] before[\u2026] 3[\u2026] a second time and ascended to the top of that rock; but the flock began to be bl[inded] 4[\u2026] them, but the sheep was not aware of them. And the lord of the flock became angry at [\u2026] 5[\u2026] that [sheep], and he came to the flock and found most of them bl[inded] 6[\u2026 feared b]efore him and wanted to re[tu]rn to their folds. 7[\u2026] all the ones who had strayed, and they began to [\u2026] 8[\u2026] that sheep brought back all the flock that had strayed to th[eir] folds. 9[\u2026] not [to] reveal or confront or oppress he swore [\u2026] 10[\u2026] this [s]hee[p] was changed and became a man and made a t[ent.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The last section of the Book of Enoch (1 Enoch 91\u2013107) is an address of Enoch to his son, Methuselah. It combines visions of the coming divine judgment, moral exhortation, and a prophecy of lsrae\u2019s story divided into ten \u201cweeks\u201d (called the \u201cApocalypse of Weeks\u201d).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Enoch foresees the time when the righteous prevail on the earth and every sinner is destroyed (1 Enoch 91).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q212 Frag. 1 Col. 2 13[and] the [righteous \u2026] 14[standi]ng and walk[ing \u2026] 15and to him pra[ise \u2026] 16and [the] ear[th] shall have rest [\u2026] 17all the generations of the age[s \u2026] 18ways of righteousness [\u2026] 19so you will know what [will happen \u2026 the ways of] 20righteousness, to walk in them [\u2026] 21[be]cause he will be destroyed to the uttermost of destruction [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The introduction to the \u201cApocalypse of Weeks\u201d (1 Enoch 92\u201393).<\/p>\n\n\n\n [This is the book] 22[that he wr]ote and gave to Meth[uselah \u2026] 23[and] the wisest of men, and [the] chos[en of the] sons of [\u2026] 24[his] sons [and] for future generations, all who [\u2026] 25[\u2026 Be not] in perplexity, you [\u2026] \u2026 The first and second weeks: creation, the Fall, and the Flood (1 Enoch 93).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 23Enoch took up his discourse and said, I [was born] seventh [\u2026] 24[in the] first [week], and for me there still was righteousness [\u2026] 25[a] second [week], in which deceit and crime shall flourish [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The seventh week: the election of the righteous.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 4 12[\u2026 s]hall be chosen [\u2026] to be witnesses of truth from [the] eter[n]al p[lant] 13of righteousness, to whom shall be given seven[fold] wisdom and knowledge [\u2026] 14And they will uproot the foundations of wrongdoing and the work of deceit, to pass [judgment] on it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The eighth week: the righteous execute judgment on the wicked.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 15And after it shall come an eighth week, one of righteousness, in which [a sword] shall be given 16to all the righteous to execute true judgment on all the wicked, 17and the wicked will be delivered into their hands. When it is over, they will acquire possessions righteously, 18and a great temple of [ki]n[g]ship will be built in majestic splendor to endure for eternal generations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The ninth week: the universal revelation of truth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 19And after it shall come a ninth week, and t[ruth \u2026] will be revealed 20to all those on the entire earth, and all the wor[ks of evil shall depart] from all 21the whole earth, and they will throw [them] into the pit[s \u2026] all of them 22to the way of truth eternal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The tenth week: the final judgment and the revelation of the new heavens and the new earth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n And af[ter it \u2026] 23eternal judgment, and the time of the Great Judgment [\u2026] the 24former heavens will pass away, and [the new] heavens [\u2026 lights of] heaven 25[will] s[hin]e and rise forevermo[re \u2026] weeks, years 26[\u2026] there will be [no] end to [\u2026 and] they will do [righ]teousness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Enoch, alone of all humankind, has become the chosen vessel of God\u2019s revelation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 5 15[\u2026 who is ab]le to know what is in the mind of [the Lord \u2026 is there one] 16[wh]o is able to hear the words of the Holy One? [\u2026] 17Or who is he of all humankind who [is able \u2026] 18the splendor of [\u2026] 19to return and to re[late \u2026] 20Or who is he [who \u2026 is able to know] 21the length and breadth of the whole earth, or [\u2026] 22and its form? And who is he of all humankind who is ab[le \u2026 how great is] 23the height of heaven, or how [its foundations] support [\u2026] 24And now, to you I say, my sons [\u2026] 25[the] ways of truth [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The birth of Noah (1 Enoch 106\u2013107). The grandson of Enoch, Noah, is born with supernatural signs attending his birth: his eyes shine with supernatural radiance, and he is able to speak and praise God from the cradle.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1Q19 Frag. 3 2[\u2026 they] were astoun[ded \u2026] 3[a] firstborn son has been born, for glorious [is his face \u2026 It frightened] 4his father. And when Lamech saw [the child \u2026] 5[light filled] the rooms of the house like rays of the sun [\u2026] 6[\u2026] to frighten [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Lamech is afraid the child is not his, but the offspring of one of the fallen angels. Methuselah goes to Enoch to find out the truth. (The same story appears in Tales of the Patriarchs, text 4.) Enoch replies that the child is sent from God as a response to the wickedness of the earth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q204 Frag. 5 Col. 2 17[\u2026] in the days of Jared [my] fa[ther] 18they transgressed [\u2026 sin]ning and trans[gressing \u2026] they changed [\u2026] 19[\u2026] 20[\u2026 on] the [ear]th [\u2026 this child] 21who is born [unto yo]u [\u2026] his [three sons] will be sa[ved \u2026 on the] earth. Enoch knows this because he has read in the heavenly tablets all that is to come. Although wickedness will continue to grow on the earth, even after Noah, a time will come when righteousness will prevail over evil.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [And a]fte[r them shall] come mighty wicked[ness \u2026] 26in [their] d[a]ys, [fo]r I know the mysteries [of] the Holy Ones. They told me and showed me [\u2026 the tablets of] 27heaven I have read. And I saw written in them that each generation will be more evil than the last, and will continue being evil [until] 28the generations of truth [arise], and evil and wickedness will come to an end, and crime will cease from the earth and [\u2026] 29upon them. 4Q203, 4Q530\u2013532, 6Q8, 1Q23, 2Q26<\/p>\n\n\n\n Besides fragments of the previously known 1 Enoch, fragments of another Enoch story, the Book of Giants, were found at Qumran. This book had been known only through scattered allusions and very fragmentary Central Asian manuscripts of a version known and used by the adherents of the Manichean heresy of the third and fourth centuries C.E. The seven fragmentary Qumran scrolls of Giants show that the composition is at least five hundred years older than previously thought. A summary statement of the descent of the wicked angels, bringing both knowledge and havoc (cf. Gen. 6:1\u20132, 4).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1Q23 Frags. 9 + 14 + 15 2[\u2026] they knew the se[crets of \u2026] 3[\u2026 si]n was great in the earth [\u2026] 4[\u2026] and they killed ma[ny \u2026] 5[\u2026 they begat] giants [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The angels exploit the fruitfulness of the earth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q531 Frags. 2\u20133 2[\u2026 everything that the] earth produced [\u2026] 3[\u2026] the gr[ea]t fish [\u2026] 4[\u2026] all the birds of the sky with all that grew [\u2026] 5[\u2026 and with] plants yielding seed of the earth and all kinds of grain and all the trees [\u2026] 6[\u2026 and with] sheep, small cattle with [\u2026] 7[\u2026 al]l creeping things of the earth and after all [\u2026] 8[\u2026 eve]ry harsh deed and utterance from [\u2026] 9[\u2026] male and female, and among humans [\u2026] 10[\u2026] knowledge [\u2026] wisdom and [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The two hundred angels choose animals, including presumably humans, on which to perform unnatural acts.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1Q23 Frags. 1 + 6 + 22 1[\u2026 two hundred] 2donkeys, two hundred asses, two hundr[ed \u2026 rams of the] 3flock, two hundred goats, two hundred [\u2026 beasts of the] 4field from every animal, and thousands from every [bird \u2026] 5[\u2026] then [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The outcome of the demonic corruption was violence, perversion, and a brood of monstrous beings (cf. Gen. 6:4, and the Book of Watchers from 1 Enoch, text 36).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q531 Frag. 1 1[\u2026] they defiled [\u2026] 2[\u2026 they begot] giants and monsters [\u2026] 3[\u2026] they begot and, behold, a[ll the earth was corrupted \u2026] 4[\u2026] with its blood and by the hand of [\u2026] 5[giants] which did not suffice for them and [\u2026] 6[\u2026] and they were seeking to devour many [\u2026] 7[\u2026] 8[\u2026] the monsters [destro]yed it. The giants begin to be troubled by a series of dreams and visions. Mahway, the titan son of the angel Barakel, reports the first of these dreams to his fellow giants. He sees a tablet being immersed in water. When it emerges, all but three names have been washed away. The dream may symbolize the destruction of all but Noah and his sons by the flood.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2Q26 1[\u2026] they drenched the tablet in the wa[ter \u2026] 2[\u2026] the waters went up over the [tab]let [\u2026] 3[\u2026] they lifted out the tablet from the waters, the tablet [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The giant goes to the others and they discuss the dream.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q530 Frag. 1 Col. 1 2[\u2026 this vision is for] cursing and sorrow. I am the one who confessed 3[\u2026] and all the whole group of the castaways that I shall go to [\u2026] 4[\u2026 the spirits of the sl]ain complaining about their killers and crying out 5[\u2026] that we shall die together and be made an end of 6[\u2026] much [wra]th, and I will be sleeping, and bread 7[\u2026] the vision had shut my eyelids, and moreover 8[\u2026] entered into the gathering of the giants 9[\u2026] The giants realize the futility of fighting against the forces of heaven. The first speaker may be Gilgamesh or Hobabish.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q531 Frag. 22 3[\u2026 I am a] giant, and by the mighty strength of my arm and my own great strength 4[I went up against a]ll mortals, and I have made war against them; but I am not 5[\u2026] able to stand against them, for my opponents 6[are angels who] reside in [Heav]en, and they dwell in the holy places. And not 7[\u2026 they] are stronger than I. 8[\u2026] of the wild beast has come, and the wild man they call [me.] Ohya\u2019s dream vision is of a tree that is uprooted except for three of its roots; the vision\u2019s import may be the same as that of the first dream.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 6Q8 Frag. 2 1three of its roots [\u2026] 2[while] I was [watching,] there came [\u2026 they moved the roots into] 3this garden, all of it [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ohya discusses the vision. The reading of the fragment and the resulting translation is not certain.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q530 Frag. 2 Col. 2 1concerns the death of our souls. [Then en]tered all his comrades, [and Oh]ya told them what Gilgamesh said to him 2[\u2026] and it was said [\u2026] concerning his soul, the guilty one has cursed the potentates 3and the giants were glad concerning him. Then he turned and [\u2026] concerning him.<\/p>\n\n\n\n More dreams afflict the giants. The details of this vision are obscure, but it bodes ill for the giants. The dreamers speak first to the monsters, then to the giants.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Thereupon two of them had dreams 4and the sleep of their eyes fled from them, and [they] a[rose \u2026 and o]pened their eyes 5and came to [\u2026] and told their dreams, and in the assembly of [their] c[omrades] 6the monsters [\u2026 In] my dream I was watching this very night 7[and there was a great garden \u2026] gardeners and they were watering 8[every tree in the garden \u2026 two hundred trees and] large shoots came out of their root 9[\u2026] while flames of fire from 10[heaven \u2026] in all the waters, and the fire burned in all 11[\u2026] the earth when [\u2026] 12[\u2026] and this was the end of the dream. Someone suggests that Enoch be found to interpret the vision.<\/p>\n\n\n\n This [dre]am you should tell [to Eno]ch, the noted scribe, and he will interpret for us 15the dream. Thereupon his brother Ohya [de]clared and said to the giants, 16I too had a dream this night, O giants, and, behold, the Ruler of Heaven came down to earth 17and thrones were set out and the Great Holy One sa[t \u2026 were] serving him a thousand thousands 18[\u2026 be]fore him were standing and behold [\u2026] were opened and a judgment was uttered and judgment 19[\u2026 wr]itten and signed with a mark [\u2026] all that lived and everything mortal and 20[\u2026] that was the end of the dream. [Thereupon] all the giants [and monsters] grew afraid 21and called Mahway. He came to [them and the] giants sent him to Enoch 22[the noted scribe]. They said to him, Go [\u2026] to you that 23[\u2026] you have heard his voice. And he said to him, He will tell [y]ou the me[ani]ng of the dreams and that all [\u2026] 24[\u2026] in truth. Truly they brought [\u2026] Frag. 7 Col. 2 3request for mercy of the giants [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n After a cosmic journey, Mahway comes to Enoch and makes his request.<\/p>\n\n\n\n [\u2026 Mahway mounted up in the air] 4like strong winds, and flew with his hands like an ea[gle \u2026 he left behind] 5the inhabited world and passed over Desolation, the great desert [\u2026] 6and Enoch saw hi[m] and hailed him, and Mahway said to him [\u2026 I was sent] 7hither and to [\u2026] a second time to you [\u2026 The giants await] 8your words, and all the monsters of the earth. If [\u2026] has been carried [\u2026] 9from the days of [\u2026] their [\u2026] and they will be added [\u2026] 10[\u2026] we would know from you their meaning [\u2026] 11[\u2026 two hundred garden]ers that from heaven [came down \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Enoch sends back a letter on a tablet with a grim message of judgment, but with hope for repentance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q203 Frag. 8 1The scribe [Enoch \u2026] 2[\u2026] 3a copy of the sec[o]nd tablet of the l[etter.] 4in the very handwri[ti]ng of Enoch the noted scribe [\u2026 In the name of God the great] 5and holy one, to Shemihaza and all [his] c[ompanions \u2026] 6let it be known to you th[at \u2026] 7and the things you have done, and that your wi[ves \u2026] 8they [and their] sons [and] the [w]ives o[f their sons \u2026] 9by your licentiousness on the earth, and there has been [up] on you [\u2026 and the land is crying out] 10and complaining about you [and] the deeds of your sons [\u2026] 11the harm that you have done to it. [\u2026] 12unto Raphael it has reached; and, behold, destruc[tion is coming, a great flood, and it will destroy all living things] 13and whatever is in the deserts and the seas. And the meaning of [the] matter [\u2026] 14upon you for evil. But now, loosen the bonds [\u2026] 15and pray.<\/p>\n\n\n\n This fragment may possibly belong with Enoch\u2019s speech above.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q531 Frag. 7 1[\u2026] and to Ahiram [\u2026] 2[\u2026 and to] Anael and to Barake[l and to the mo]nsters [\u2026] 3[\u2026] and to Naamel and to Ra[ziel] and to Ammiel [\u2026] 4[\u2026 and to] all these giants: What are these sins to you that [you] killed [\u2026] 5[\u2026] Behold, all of these have gone away through your sword [\u2026] 6[\u2026 blood] like great rivers on [the] ea[rth \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fragments apparently detailing another vision that Enoch saw.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 24 1[\u2026] a thousand thousands [were serving] him 2[\u2026] not frightened at any king or [\u2026] 3[\u2026 great fear] seized me and I fell on my face; [I] hea[rd] his voice [.\u2026] 4[\u2026] dwelt among human beings but he did not learn from them [\u2026] 4Q208\u2013211<\/p>\n\n\n\n As noted in the \u201cIntroduction to the Enoch Literature\u201d above, the work known as 1 Enoch contains seven discrete works, all of which presumably once circulated separately. The third division in the Ethiopic tradition, chapters 72\u201382, bears the Ethiopic title \u201cBook of the Revolution of the Heavenly Luminaries.\u201d Four Aramaic manuscripts among the Dead Sea Scrolls contain a substantially longer form of this part of 1 Enoch, and these manuscripts are collectively called Astronomical Enoch to differentiate them from the \u201cReader\u2019s Digest\u201d form that has come down in Ethiopic. None of the Qumran manuscripts of Astronomical Enoch preserve any of the other six divisions of 1 Enoch, so it appears that Astronomical Enoch did indeed circulate separately from the other Enochic literature. This fragment probably fits either in the third or fourth month of the synchronistic calendar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q208 Frag. 1 1[and a] ha[l]f [sevenths.] And the moon shines on [the eleventh night of this month] 2at five and a hal[f] sevenths strength. [Then it sets and enters the] 3first gate, and it is dark the rest [of this night \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Because this portion is broken at crucial points, no certain placement is possible. It can belong to any one of six months of the year: the second, third, fourth, eighth, ninth, or tenth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 19 + 21 1fiv[e]. [And the moon\u2019s light equals five-sevenths strength. Then it exits and rules] 2over the rest of this day [with two-sevenths strength. It shines on the tenth night of this month with] 3five-[sevenths strength.] Then it [se]ts [and] enters [gate x and is dark the rest of] 4this night at two-sevenths darkness. And [it increases during this day to five] 5and one-half [sevenths] strength. Its light equals [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This portion may tentatively be restored as representing portions of days 6\u201311 of the third or fourth month of the synchronistic calendar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q209 Frag. 1 Col. 1 1[\u2026 And the moon\u2019s light shines on the sixth night of this month at three-sevenths strength. T]hen it set[s and enters the fourth gate] 2[and is dark the rest of this night at four-sevenths darkness. It increases during this day to three and one-half sevenths strength, so] its light [equals] three and [one-hal]f sevenths. 3[Then it exits from the fourth gate and rules over the rest of this day at three and one-half sevenths strength. And the moon\u2019s light shines] on the [se]venth night of this month at three and one-half sevenths strength. 4[Then it sets and enters the third gate and is dark the rest of this night at three and one-half sevenths darkness. It increas]es during this day to four-sevenths strength, so its [light] equals 5[four-sevenths strength. Then it exits from the third gate and rules over the rest of this day at three-sevenths strength.] And it shines on the eighth night of this month at [four]-sevenths strength. 6[Then it sets and enters and is dark during the rest of this night at three-sevenths darkness. It increases during this day to] four-[seve]nths and one-half, so its light equals 7[four and one-half sevenths strength. Then it exits and rules over the rest of this day at two and one-half sevenths strength. And] it shines on the ninth night of this month at [four and one-half]-sevenths strength. 8[Then it sets and enters the second gate and is dark during the rest of this night at two and one-half sevenths darkness. It increases during] this [day] to five-sevenths strength, 9[so its light equals five-sevenths strength. Then it exits from the second gate and reigns over the rest of this day at two-sevenths strength. It shines on the tenth night of this month at five-sevenths strength.] 10[Then it sets and enters and is dark during the rest of this night at two-sevenths darkness. It increases during this day to five and one-half sevenths strength, so its light equals] 11[five and one-half sevenths strength. Then it exits and rules over the rest of this day at one and one-half sevenths strength. Then it shines on] the eleventh [nigh]t of this month [at five] 12[and one-half sevenths strength. Then it sets and enters and is dark during the rest of this night at one and one-half sevenths darkness. It increases during this day to] six-[sevenths strength, so its light equals six-s[evenths \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This is the description of a twenty-nine-day month. The ancients reworked the scheme of the synchronistic calendar in various ways, one of which reveals itself in l. 9, where one would expect \u201csix-sevenths,\u201d not \u201csix and one-half sevenths.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 2 Col. 2 2[And the moon\u2019s light shines on] the twelfth [night] of this month at [three-se]ve[nths strength. Then it sets and enters and is dark during the rest of this night at one-seventh darkness.] 3[And it increases during] this [da]y up to six and one-half sevenths strength, so [its light] equals [six and one-half sevenths. Then it exits and rules over the rest of this day] 4[at a strength of one-]half seventh. And it shines on the thir[teenth] night [of this month at six and one-half sevenths strength. Then it sets and enters and is dark during the rest of] 5this [night] at one-seventh darkness. It increases this entire day, becoming full. [\u2026] 6And the moon shines on the entire fourteenth night of [this] mon[th as full \u2026] 7On the fifteenth ni[gh]t of this month it is one-seventh covered, one-seventh being subtra[cted from its light. Then it exits and shines] 8during the rest of [th]is ni[gh]t at six-sevenths strength. The moon\u2019s darkening increases during [this] day [to one-seventh darkness. Then it sets and enters and is covered during the rest of] 9this day to six and one-half sevenths strength. On [the sixteenth] ni[ght of this month it is covered up to one-seventh darkness,] one-[se]venth [being subtracted from its light.] 10Then it exits and shines during the [re]st of [th]is night [at six-sevenths strength. It increases during this day to one and one-half sevenths, then] 11[sets and] enters and is covered during the rest of this day at [five and one-half] seve[nths darkness \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This fragment most probably describes days 2\u20134 of the eleventh month.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 3 2[And the moon\u2019s light shines on] the seco[nd night] of this month at one-seventh strength. [Then it sets and enters the second gate, and is dark during the rest of this night at six-sevenths darkness.] 3[It increases] during the day to one and one-half sev[enths] strength, so [its light] equals [one and one-half sevenths. Then it exits from the second gate and rules over the rest of] 4[this day] at five and one-half [sev]enths strength. [And the moon shines on the third night of this month at one and one-half sevenths. Then it sets, enters and is dark] 5[during the rest of this night] at fiv[e and one-half] sevenths strength. [It increases during this day to two-sevenths, so its light equals two-sevenths strength. Then it exits] 6[and rules over the rest of] this [d]ay [at five-sevenths strength. And it shines on the fourth night of this month at two-sevenths strength, then] 7[sets and] enters the thir[d gate. It is dark during the rest of this night at five-sevenths darkness, then increases during this day to two and one-half sevenths strength, so its light equals] 8two and one-half [sevenths.] And [then it exits from the third gate \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This fragment concerns either days 22\u201323 of a twenty-nine-day month or days 23\u201324 of a thirty-day month.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 4 1[four. Then the moon exits and shines during the rest of] this [night at three-s]ev[enths strength. Its darkness increases during this day up to four and one-half sevenths,] 2[then it sets and enters and is covered the rest of] this [day] at [two and] one-half sevenths. 3[On the twenty-fourth night of this month the moon is covered at] four [and] one-half [seve]nths, [four and one-half sevenths] being subtracted [from its light.] 4[Then it exits and shines during the rest] of this [night] at [two and] one-half seventh[s. It increases during this day to five-sevenths \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The calculations that appear in this description of a thirty-day month are incorrect; l. 2 should read not \u201ctwo-sevenths\u201d but \u201cone and one-half sevenths.\u201d This sort of error makes clear the difficulty of transcribing technical material as well as the fact that ancient scribes did not always understand what they copied. It was very easy to make mistakes, and they were often difficult to detect at a quick reading.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 5 1[fi]ve and one-half [sevenths. And on the eighteenth night of this month the moon is covered at two-sevenths. Subtracted from its light are] 2two-[seventh]s. Then [it exits and shines during the rest of this night at five and one-half sevenths. It increases during] 3this [day] to two-sevenths strength, then s[ets and enters and is covered during the rest of this day at five-sevenths darkness.] 4On the nineteenth night of this month it is cov[ered at two-sevenths, two-sevenths being subtracted from its light. Then] 5it exits and shines during the rest of this night at [five-]sevenths strength. [It increases during this day to two and one-half sevenths, then] 6[sets and en]ters. [It is covered during the r]est of this day at [four and one-half] seventh[s. On the twentieth night of this month the moon is covered at two and one-half sevenths,] 7[two and one-half sevenths being subtracted from] its [li]ght. [Then it exits \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n This portion concerns the last days of a thirty-day month, but it cannot be the ninth month since frag. 7, col. 2 (below) contains that description.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 6 4[five and one-half sevenths. Then the moon exits and shines during the rest of this night at one and one-ha]lf [sevenths strength.] Darkness increases during this day to [six-]seven[ths. Then] 5[the moon sets and enters and is covered during the rest of this day at one-seventh. On the twe]nty-[seventh] night of this month it is six-sevenths covered, there [being subtra]cted from its li[g]ht 6[six-sevenths. Then it exits and shines during the rest of this night at one-seventh strength. Darkness increases during] this [d]ay to six and one-half sevenths. Then the moon se[ts] 7[and enters and is covered during the rest of this day at one-half of a seventh. On the] twenty-eighth [night] of this month the moon is covered at six and one-half sevenths darkness, there being subtracted from [its li]ght 8[six and one-half sevenths. Then it exits and shines] during the rest of this night with one-half of a seventh. Darkness increases during this day, becoming complete. Then the moon sets and enters 9[the x gate. It is completely dark during the rest] of this da[y]. The rest of its light is removed and its disk exits, empty of all light, hidden by [the] s[un \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Days 24\u201321 of the ninth month.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 7 Col. 2 2[and darkness increases during this day to four and one-half sevenths. Then the moon sets and enters and is covered during the rest of] this day at [two and one-half] sevenths. 3[On the twent]y-[fourth night] of this month, the moon is covered at four and one-half sevenths. Subtracted from its light are 4[four and one-half sevenths. T]hen it exits and shines during the rest of this night at two and one-half sevenths strength. Darkness increases 5[during] this [d]ay to five-sevenths, then it sets and enters. It is covered during the rest of this day at two-sevenths. 6On the twenty-fifth night of this month the moon is covered at five-sevenths, five-sevenths being subtracted from its light. 7Then it exits and shines during the rest of this night at two-sevenths strength. Darkness increases during this day to five and one-half sevenths. 8Then the moon sets [and] enters the second gate and is covered during the rest of this day at one and one-half sevenths. 9On the twenty-sixth night of this month it is covered at five and one-half sevenths darkness; subtracted from its light are five 10and one-half sevenths. Then the moon exits from the second gate and shines during the rest of this night at one and one-half sevenths strength. Darkness increases during this day 11to six-sevenths. Then the moon sets and enters and is covered during the rest of this day at one-seventh. On the [tw]enty-seventh night 12of this month the moon is covered at six-sevenths, [six]-sev[enths] being subtracted from its light. [Then it exits and shines] 13[during the re]st of this night at one-seventh strength. Darkness increases during this day [to six and one-half sevenths. Then the moon sets and enters \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Partial description of the tenth lunar month. This fragment also provides the key to the system of the synchronistic calendar found in 4Q208\u2013209. The statements in ll. 1\u20132 and 5\u20136 allow one to deduce that we have here detailed the end of the ninth solar month and beginning of the tenth, since the first day of the tenth solar month in a 364-day calendar equates with the tenth day of the tenth lunar month in a 354-day lunar calendar (i.e., 10\/1 solar = 10\/10 lunar).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 3 1[And the moon shines on the eighth night] of this month at four-[s]ev[enths] strength. Then it sets and enters. During this night the sun compl[etes] 2its traversal of all the sections of the first gate, and begins to traverse and exit its sections yet again. [The moon] 3sets and enters and grows dark during the rest of this night to three-sevenths darkness. Its light increases during this day to four and [one-half] sevenths. [Then] 4the moon exits and rules over the rest of this day at two and one-h[al]f-sevenths darkness. On the ninth night of [this month] the moon shines 5at four and one-half [sevenths] strength. Then the moon sets and enters. During this night the sun begins once more to traverse [its] section[s and to set] 6in them. Then the [moo]n sets and enters the fifth gate, and is dark during the rest of the night at [two-] 7and one-half seve[nths.] Its light increases during th[is] day to five-[sevenths] and is exactly equivalent to five-sevenths. [Then the moon exits] 8from the [f]if[th] gate [and rules over the rest of this day at two-sevenths darkness. The moons shines on the tenth night of this month] 9[at five-sevenths strength. Then it sets and enters and is dark during the rest of this night at two-sevenths. Its light increases during this day to] 10[five and one-half] sev[enths \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n One may tentatively place these fragments as belonging to the tenth month.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frags. 15\u201316 1[\u2026 Then the moon exits and shines during the rest of this night at four and one-half seven]ths strength. [Darkness increases] 2[during this day to three-sevenths. Then the moon sets and enters] the third gate [and is covered the rest] 3[of this day at four-sevenths. On the tw]enty-[first night] of this month the moon is covered [at four-sevenths, there being subtracted] 4[from its light] three-[sevenths]. Then it exi[ts from] the third [gate] and shin[es during the rest of this night] 5[at four-sevenths strength]. Darkness increases during [this] day [to three] and one-hal[f sevenths. Then the moon sets and enters] 6[the x gate and] is cov[ered the] re[st of this day at three and one-half sevenths \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The verbal tables of the synchronistic calendar completed, Enoch explains to his son, Methuselah, other sorts of heavenly mysteries. For additional conversation between these two men, compare Tales of the Patriarchs (text 4). The equations with 1 Enoch, given before the lines they reference, are only approximate as the wording is somewhat different.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q210 Frag. 1 Col. 2 1And three gates after those, on the north, [and three gates after those, on the west. (76:4) Through four of these exit the winds that] 2will serve to heal the earth and to bring it back to life. And [through eight of these gates exit damaging winds when they are sent to destroy all the earth,] 3the waters, and all that is in them that grows, sprouts, and creep[s in the waters and upon dry ground, and all humankind who dwells in it. (76:5) First,] 4the east wind exits through the first gate that is in the east facing south. Destruction, drought, heat, and desolation exit from it too.<\/a> 5Through the second gate exits the east-ea[st] wind\u2014[the gate in the middle: rain, fruitfulness, revival, and dew. And through the third gate exits the] 6northeast wind, that is near the north[ern] quarter: [cold and drought. And after them, from the three gates of the heavens that face south,] 7exit first, through the first gate, [a south wind that is in the south and faces west: a hot wind. And through the second gate exits a south wind] 8that they call \u201cSouth\u201d: dew [and rain, health and revival. And through the third gate exits a southwest wind: dew and rain and locusts and destruction. (76:10) 9[And] after it exits a [north wind \u2026] 10[And des]truction [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Note in this portion the interesting etymologies Enoch offers for the names of the four directions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q209 Frag. 23 + 4Q210 Frag. 1 Col. 2 1\u2026<\/a> so completing 2the twelve gates of the four quarters of heaven. [I ha]ve shown you their fullness and explanation, Methuselah, my son.<\/a> 3[They call the first quarter \u201cEast\u201d (qedim)] because it is first (qadmay). They call the south \u201cSouth\u201d (derom) because the Great One dwells (dar) there. And th[ere \u2026] 4[\u2026 fr]om eternity. (77:2) The great quarter they call \u201cWest\u201d (maarav) because there 5the [st]ars of heaven [go,] hundreds setting (mein aravin) and hundreds entering, all of them stars. Accordingly, they call it \u201cWest.\u201d (77:3) 6[The north is \u201cNorth\u201d (tsippun)] because all the ships of heaven hide (tsepan) and gather and make their circuits there, traveling to the eastern heaven. 7[The east is \u201cEa]st\u201d (madnah) because there the vessels of heaven rise (denah), and it is also \u201cEast\u201d (mizrah) because the vessels shine (zerah). 8[And I saw the three \u2026] of the earth; one of them for humankind to live in, and one of them [for \u2026] 9[\u2026 and one of them] for the deserts and for the Se[v]en [and] for the [Parad]ise of righteousness. (77:4) 10[And I saw se]ven mou[ntains higher than al]l [the mountains on ear]th. Upon them [des]cends the snow [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Here Enoch discusses general principles of the moon\u2019s movement and the waxing and waning of its light.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q210 Frag. 1 Col. 3 3[\u2026 (78:6) And when the moon rises, one-half of one-seventh of its light sh]ines in the heavens, so as to be se[en upon the earth.] 4[\u2026 and the portions of light become more fu]ll each day until the fourteenth day, 5[when all its light is made fu]ll. (78:7) And its light increases by one-fifteenth, being made more complete day by day until day] fifteen, when all its light is made full. 6[\u2026] and it directs the moon\u2019s phases by halves of sevenths. (78:8) 7[And during its waning the moon\u2019s light decreases: on the first day, one-fourte]enth; on the second day, one-thi[rteenth;] 8[on the third day, one-twelfth; on the four]th [day,] one-elev[enth \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The single surviving fragment of 4Q210 above belongs to the conclusion to Astronomical Enoch. The conclusion was once fuller than the form that has come down in the Ethiopic version, and this portion was a part of that fuller conclusion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q211 Frag. 1 2[(After 82:20) \u2026 the clouds that make dew] and rain to fall upon the earth, and seed 3[\u2026] herbs of the earth and tree. And [the sun] falls and enters 4[\u2026] and winter comes, and the foliage of all the trees 5[withers and falls, except for four]teen trees for which such is not natural 6[\u2026] their leaves [re]m[ain \u2026] 4Q213, 4Q213a\u2013b, 4Q214, 4Q214a\u2013b, 4Q540\u2013541, 1Q21, Geniza Fragments, Mt. Athos Greek Text<\/p>\n\n\n\n A prominent form of religious literature in ancient Judaism and Christianity was the \u201ctestament,\u201d containing the edifying teaching and prophetic words that bygone heroes of the faith were feigned to have uttered before their deaths. One of the most popular collections of testaments was the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, composed of the imagined last words of the sons of Jacob, the forefathers of the twelve tribes of Israel. Although parts of the collection contain Christian ideas added by later copyists, these testaments were originally Jewish works composed during the same period as the Dead Sea Scrolls. They are preserved only in Greek, but most now agree that the testaments were modeled after Aramaic or Hebrew originals. This fact is particularly clear in the case of the Testament of Levi. Although the Greek Testament of Levi was not found at Qumran, scholars did discover the present work, an Aramaic composition that seems to have influenced it. The prayer of Levi. According to the Words of Levi, Levi was the most righteous and zealous of all the sons of Jacob. His desire to please God is embodied in his prayer for righteousness. The prayer of Levi is partially preserved in 4Q213a and completely in the Mt. Athos manuscript, which has been used to restore any missing text below. (The line numbers are for the Qumran fragment only.)<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q213a Frag. 1 Col. 1 6[Then] I [washed my clothing and purified them with clean water,] 7[and] I bath[ed all over in fresh water, so making] all 8[my ways correct. Then] I raised my eyes [and face] to heaven, 9[I opened my mouth and spoke,] and my fingers and hands 10[I spread out properly in front of the holy angels. So I prayed and] said: Levi\u2019s first vision. After Levi\u2019s prayer, he is granted a vision of the heavens, in the course of which God reveals to him that he has been chosen to be the priest of Israel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11Then I went on [\u2026] 12to my father Jacob, and whe[n \u2026] 13from Abel-Main. Then [\u2026 where] 14I lay down. And I remained o[n \u2026] 15Then I was shown visions [\u2026] 16in the appearance of a vision, and I saw heav[en \u2026 and a mountain] 17under me so high it reached heave[n \u2026 and they opened] 18for me the gates of heaven and an angel [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Revenge on Shechem and Hamor. Genesis 34 relates how Levi and Simeon kill Hamor and his son Shechem, who had raped Jacob\u2019s daughter, Dinah. In the Words, Levi apparently resists the suggestion of Jacob and Reuben that Hamor and Shechem be brought into the family by circumcision. The fragments (preserved only in the Geniza texts from Cambridge) do not preserve the narrative of the actual killing. What does remain is often difficult to follow.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Cambridge Geniza Text Col. A 15[\u2026] region of Is[rael \u2026] 16so that all [\u2026] 17to act in this way against [\u2026] 18Jacob my father and Reu[ben my brother \u2026] 19and we said to them [\u2026 If] 20you want our daughter, so that we all would become br[others] 21and partners, you must circumcise the flesh of your foreskin, 22so that you may appear li[ke us] and become sealed 23like us with the [tru]e circumcision. Then we will be yo[ur \u2026] Levi\u2019s second vision. After Levi had further displayed his zeal for God in the slaughter of the Shechemites, seven messengers from God visit him in a dream to confirm his appointment to the priesthood. No notion of this vision appears in the Bible. In the vision, only the end of which is preserved, the seven tell him some of the rights and responsibilities of his new office.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Oxford Geniza Text Col. A (+ 1Q21, 4Q213b) 1[\u2026] peace, and the choicest firstfruits of the 2whole land to eat. But during the reign of the sword there is only strife, 3war, slaughter, toil, 4hardship, killing, and famine. Sometimes you will eat, 5sometimes you will hunger; sometimes you will toil, sometimes 6you will rest; sometimes you will sleep, sometimes 7sleep will evade you. See now how we have magnified you (4Q213b: I have favored you) 8more than anyone (4Q213b: more than all humanity), and how we have given you the anointing of 9peace eternal. Levi installed as priest by his father, Jacob.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 14So we went to my father Isaac, and he too blessed me. 15Then when Jacob my father was tithing 16everything he had in accordance with his vow, 17[\u2026] I ranked first, at the head of 18[the priesthood]; and to me, of all his sons, he gave the gift of 19a ti[the] to God, and he dressed me in priestly vestments, and 20officially appointed me as priest to God Eternal. 21I offered all his sacrifices and blessed my father 22for life and also my brothers. Then all of them 23blessed me, and my father too blessed me. When I finished Col. B 1Offering the sacrifices in Bethel, we left 2Bethel and lived in our great-grandfather Abraham\u2019s palace 3with Isaac our grandfather.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Instructions from Isaac. Levi\u2019s grandfather Isaac instructs Levi in the practical and moral duties of the priesthood.<\/p>\n\n\n\n When 4Isaac our grandfather saw us all, he greeted us 5joyfully. When he recognized that I had become priest to God 6Most High, the Lord of Heaven, he began 7to teach me authoritatively the 8priestly way of life. Levi\u2019s children and later life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Now when four weeks of years in my life had passed, when I was twenty-eight, I took a wife from the stock of my great-grandfather Abraham: Milkah, daughter of Bathuel, the son of Laban, my mother\u2019s brother. She became pregnant by me and bore a first son, and I called his name Gershom, for I said, My descendants shall be homeless in the land where they are born; and indeed we are considered homeless in this land today. And concerning this child I saw in my vision that both he and his descendants would be removed from the high-priesthood. I was thirty years old when he was born; it was in the tenth month, toward sunset. Levi\u2019s teaching in praise of wisdom. After a long life serving God, Levi passes on to his sons the duty to pursue wisdom. Levi\u2019s praise of wisdom echoes similar themes in other Jewish literature, particularly the poem commending wisdom in Sirach 51:13\u201330.<\/p>\n\n\n\n (Col. E + 4Q213): In the one hundred and eighteenth year 4of my life, the y[ear] that 5my brother Joseph died, I called together my s[ons and] their sons 6and I began to command them everything that was 7in my mind. I raised my voice and said to [my] sons, The prophecy of Levi. Along with edifying narrative and moral exhortation, prophecies of future woes and blessings are typical ingredients of the testament genre. Levi\u2019s prophecy is specially concerned with the fate of the priesthood and of the high priests of Israel. Only disconnected portions of Levi\u2019s prophecy survive among the scrolls. Occasionally there are indications of a conversation between two parties, either between Levi and his sons or between a messenger angel and Levi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q213 Frags. 3\u20134 1[\u2026 to] you all the peoples 2[\u2026 the] moon and stars 3[\u2026 for]ever 4[\u2026] to the moon 5[\u2026] you will grow dark [in your thoughts \u2026] 6[\u2026] truly [En]och had received [\u2026] 7[\u2026] So on whom will the guilt rest? [\u2026] 8[\u2026] Is it not on me and you, my sons, for they will know it [\u2026] 9[\u2026] you shall leave the ways of truth, and all the paths of 10[goodness] you will give up, and you will walk in d[arkness \u2026] 11[\u2026] da[rk]ness will come upon you, and you will be handed over 12[\u2026] The placement of this fragment is uncertain, but it seems to be an admonition about sexual immorality.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q213a Frags. 3\u20134 3[\u2026] as wife. She will profane her name and her father\u2019s name 4[and the name of] her husband [\u2026] and shame. Every 5[vir]gin who has corrupted her reputation and the reputation of her ancestors, and brought shame to her brothers 6[\u2026] her father. The name of her disgrace will never be erased from all her people 7[\u2026] for all generations [\u2026] the holy ones of the people 8[\u2026] tithe of holy things an offering for teaching [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Possibly from the same prophetic section are two scrolls describing the fate of certain high priests of Israel. The first (4Q540) describes a priest who will lose his possessions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q540 1[\u2026] Again tribulation will come upon him, and the lesser will lack possessions [\u2026] 2[\u2026] Again privation will come upon him and he will lack possessions [\u2026] 3[\u2026] He will not be [like] a man who lacks possessions, but on the Great Sea [\u2026] 4[\u2026] The house he was born in he shall depart, and another home [\u2026] 5[\u2026] the servant [\u2026] temple [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Another scroll (4Q541), unfortunately very fragmentary, also preserves parts of Levi\u2019s prophecy about his descendants. The numbering of the fragments does not necessarily reflect their original order.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q541 Frag. 1 1[\u2026] everything. Meditate on [\u2026] 2false gods shall fall [\u2026] 3and all the[ir] souls [\u2026] A large fragment of 4Q541 describes a priest who is to appear in the future, whose righteous teaching brings light to his generation, but who also arouses fierce opposition. Like Jesus, he is a \u201clight for revelation,\u201d but also \u201ca sign to be spoken against\u201d (Luke 2:32, 34).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 9 Col. 1 2[\u2026] his wisdom. And he shall make atonement for all those of his generation, and he shall be sent to all the children of his 3[peo]ple. His command is like the command of Heaven, and his teaching is like the will of God. The Sun everlasting will shine 4and its fire will give warmth to all the ends of the earth. It will shine on darkness; then will darkness vanish 5[fr]om the earth, and mist from the land. Another brief fragment apparently speaks of the same priest\u2019s great wisdom and insight and mentions his power over the \u201cgreat sea,\u201d recalling Jesus\u2019s power to calm the winds and seas (cf. Mark 4:39\u201341).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 7 1The hid[den mysteries] he shall reveal [\u2026] 2[for the one] who does not understand he shall write [\u2026] 3the Great Sea shall be quiet because of him [\u2026] 4Then the books of wis[dom] shall be opened [\u2026] 5his command; and like [\u2026 his] wis[dom \u2026] 6[his t]eaching [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The final fragment speaks of books or scrolls entrusted to the descendants of Levi through which the reader may find joy and wisdom in \u201cthe light of the world\u201d (cf. John 8:12).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 24 2Do not mourn [for him \u2026] 3God will prepare many [books? scrolls?\u2026] many revelations and [\u2026] 4Examine them and seek and know what will befall you. But do not damage them by erasure or [we]ar like [\u2026] 5Do not touch the priestly headplate. 4Q215<\/p>\n\n\n\n This work is another example of the testament genre. As seen in the Words of Levi, testaments often have similar outline: an autobiographical sketch of the speaker, followed by a heavy dose of moral exhortation, and concluding with a prophetic glimpse into the future. Only part of the biography survives in the present fragment of Naphtali. Frags. 1\u20133 1Bilhah [my mother] was with my father\u2019s sisters. [\u2026] Deborah who had nursed Re[bekah \u2026]. 2He had been taken captive, but Laban sent and redeemed him, and gave him for a wife Hannah, one of [his] maidservants. 4Q215a<\/p>\n\n\n\n This prophecy, formerly considered to be part of the Last Words of Naphtali, contains themes very typical of the Dead Sea sect, particularly the division of history into \u201ceras\u201d predetermined by the plan of God.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 1 Col. 2 2[\u2026 \u201chow much more the] heart of man\u201d (Prov. 15:11) and [\u2026] iniquity [\u2026] \u201cfurnace of [miser]y\u201d (Isa. 48:10), 3and the affliction of the oppressor and the ordeal of the pit; and they will be purified by these things for the chosen ones of righteousness; and He will efface all their wickedness 4for the sake of those who are devoted to him; for the era of wickedness is complete, and all iniquity [\u2026 For] 5the time of righteousness is coming, and the land is full of true knowledge and the praise of God in [\u2026] 6the era of peace is coming, and the reliable statutes and the proper times, making wise [everyone] 7in the ways of God, and in His powerful deeds [from this time and] for the eternal ages. Every tongue 8shall bless Him, and every person shall bow down to Him, [and He will make] their he[art] on[e], for He [prepared] 9their actions before they were created; and the right way of worship He apportioned, their borders [\u2026] 10in their generations, for the dominion of Good is coming and the [holy] throne will be exalted [\u2026] 11and strength, majesty, wisdom, insight, and perception are tested by [His] holy pur[pose \u2026] 12[\u2026] 1Q17\u201318, 2Q19\u201320, 3Q5, 4Q176b, 4Q216\u2013224, 11Q12<\/p>\n\n\n\n The Book of Jubilees is a fascinating ancient Jewish work unfamiliar to most modern readers. Containing an account of things revealed by an angel to Moses on Mt. Sinai that he was ordered to keep secret, Jubilees presents an overview of the history of humankind and of God\u2019s chosen people until Moses\u2019s time. Usually categorized as rewritten Bible, the book may be divided into seven sections:<\/p>\n\n\n\n The author follows the general outline of Genesis and the early part of Exodus, but in the process of retelling the biblical narratives, he frequently omits, condenses, expands, supplements, or otherwise alters the biblical accounts. For example, the long account of the plagues in Exodus 7\u201310 receives only a few verses in Jubilees (48:4\u201311), whereas the account of Reuben\u2019s apparent incest (Gen. 35:22) is expanded to become Jubilees 33:2\u201320. The author is also very concerned to date precisely\u2014in terms of years, \u201cweeks of years,\u201d and jubilee periods\u2014as many of the biblical events as possible. This use of jubilee periods for dating is what gives the book its modern name. Prologue.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q216 Col. 1 3[\u2026 Sinai, when he went up to] re[ceive the tablets of stone, the law and the commandment,] by the word of the LORD [as He had told] 4[him, \u201cCome up] to the summit of the moun[tain.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n Moses is summoned to go up onto the mountain (Exod. 31:18; 32:15; Deut. 9:11).<\/p>\n\n\n\n (1:1) And on the first year] of the exodus of [the Israel]ites 5[from Egypt, in] the thi[rd mon]th, [on the sixteenth of t]his [month,] the LORD spoke t[o] 6[Moses, saying, \u201cCome up to Me on] the mountain [and I will give you] the [two tablets of] stone, the law 7[and the commandment which I have written so that you might t]ea[ch them.\u201d (1:2) So Moses went up to the mountain of the LORD and the g]lory of the LOR[D settled] 8[on Mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it for six days. Moses is instructed to write a book documenting the future transgressions of his people (Exod. 34:27).<\/p>\n\n\n\n (1:5) He said to him: \u201cPay attention to all the wor]ds which I tell you 13[on this mountain. Write them in a book so that] their generations [might kno]w that I have not abandoned them 14[because of all the evil that they have done, breaking the covenant that] I am making between Me and you today 15[for all their generations on Mount Sinai. (1:6) So when] all of [these] things [happe]n to t[hem] 16[they will understand that I have been more faithful than they in all] their [judgments] and [in all] their curses. [They] will understand 17[that I have truly been with them. The second command to write is directed to the \u201cangel of the presence.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 4 3[(1:26) \u2026 the first and the] last thing[s] 4[and that which will come about during all the divisions of the times for the la]w and the testi[mony] 5[and for the weeks of the jubilees forever, until I come down] and dwell w[ith them] 6[for all the ages of eternity. The description of the six days of creation (Gen. 1).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Col. 5 1[(2:1) The angel of the presence said to Moses by the word of the LORD, \u201cWrite all the wor]ds of the creation, ho[w] 2[on the sixth day the LORD God completed all His works and everything that He had created] and then rested on the [seventh] day. 3He consecrated it for all ages and appointed it as a sign for all] His works. The Sabbath day (Gen. 2:1\u20132).<\/p>\n\n\n\n (2:17) He gave us as a great sign, the] 6Sabbath [day,] on [which] He rested [\u2026] 7were made in six days [\u2026] 8and we should rest on the se[venth] day [from all our work. (2:18) For we, with all the angels of the presence and all the angels of holiness\u2014] 9these [two] kinds\u2014He to[ld us to keep Sabbath with Him in heaven and on earth. (2:19) He said to us, \u201cI am separating for myself] 10a people from among My nations. And [they shall keep the Sabbath. I will consecrate them as My people, and I will bless them. They will be my people and I will be their God.] 11(2:20) And {He} chose the offspring of Jacob from among [all of those whom I have seen. I have recorded him as my firstborn son and have consecrated him for Myself] 12forever and ever. [I will tell them about] the [seventh] day [so that they might rest on it from everything,\u201d (2:21) as He blessed them and consecrated them for Himself as a special people] 13out of all the nations that [they] might [rest] together [with us. (2:22) He offered up His commands as a sweet savor, acceptable before Him] 14for all time. Sabbath laws (Exod. 20:8; 31:13).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q218 Frag. 1 1[(2:26) \u2026] to con[secrate it, not to do any work on it, and not to defile it, for] 2it is holier [than] all the other days. (2:27) Anyone [who profanes it shall surely die,] 3[and any]one who does work on it will be cut off [fore]v[e]r [so] t[h]at [the Israelites may obser]ve 4thi[s] day [throughout] their [generatio]ns and not be cut off from the ea[rth].<\/p>\n\n\n\n The murder of Abel (Gen. 4:1\u201314).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 11Q12 Frag. 1 1[(4:6) \u2026] we [make known,] when [we] co[me] 2[before the LORD our God, all the sins] which are done in [heaven] 3[and on earth, and in the light and in the darkness and everywhere.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The descendants of Adam (Gen. 4:17\u20135:12).<\/p>\n\n\n\n [(4:7) And] Adam and his wife [mourn]ed 4[four weeks for Abel. And] in the fourth year of the f[ifth] week 5[they rejoiced. And Adam knew his wife once again] and she bore him a son, and he named [him Seth] 6[for he said, \u201cThe LORD has granted us] another [child on] the earth in place of Abel, since [Cain] killed him.\u201d 7[(4:8) In the sixth week he fathered Azu]ra his daughter. (4:9) And Cain took [his] sister 8[Awan as his wife, and she bore him Enoch at the end of the] fourth [jubi]lee. The birth of Enoch (Gen. 4:17).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 3 1[(4:16) \u2026 in the fourth week of the jubilee. And she bore him a son in the f]ifth [week, in the fourth year] 2[of the jubilee, and he called him Enoch.] The life of Adam just short of a thousand years (2 Pet. 3:8).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 5 1[(4:29) \u2026 he was the first to be bu]ried in [the ground. (4:30) He lacked seventy years of one thousand] 2[years, for] a thousand [y]ears [are one day in the testimony of heaven. Therefore] 3[it is written about the tre]e of knowledge: \u201cFor on [the day you eat from it, you shall die.\u201d Therefore] 4[he did not complete] the years of [this] day [because he died during it. (4:31) At the end of this jubilee \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Abel\u2019s death is avenged.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 6 1[(4:31) \u2026 Cain was killed] after him [in the same year. His house fell on him, and he died in his house,] 2[and he was killed by] its [stone]s for [with a stone he had killed Abel \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The union of angels and humans (Gen. 6:1\u20135; 1 Enoch 6\u201311 [text 36]).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 7 1[(5:1) \u2026 they bore them, and these are the g]i[ant]s. (5:2) And [violence] increased [on the earth, and all flesh corrupted] 2[its way, alike men and] animals, and b[easts and birds and everything that creeps] 3[on the earth, and they all c]orrupted their way and [their] or[ders, and they began to eat one] 4[another. And violence increased on the earth, and al]l [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Noah\u2019s sacrifice (Gen. 8:20).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 7a 1[\u2026 (7:4?) And he put some of its blood upo]n the flesh of [the sacrificial offering that is on the altar \u2026] 2[and] he shall of[fer al]l their [burnt o]ff[ering]s [upon the altar \u2026] 3[(7:5?) \u2026 and] their [food offer]ing and their sacrificial offering [were offered] as an ac[ceptable sacrifice before the LORD his (?) God \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Abram\u2019s night watch.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 8 1and [\u2026 (12:15) \u2026] 2with [Terah his father in Haran for two weeks of years.] Terah\u2019s blessing on Abram\u2019s departure for Canaan.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Frag. 9 2\u2026<\/a> And in the sev[enth year of the sixth week] 3[he spoke with his father and told him that] he was going to leave [Haran to go to the land of] 4[Canaan to see it, and that he would return to him. (12:29) And] Terah [his] f[ather said] to him: [\u201cGo in peace.] 5[May the eternal God make your way straight, may the LORD be wit]h you and pro[tect you from all evil,] 6[and may no man have power over you to d]o you evil. [Go in peace.\u201d \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n The testament of Abraham and the length of his life (Gen. 25:5, 7).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q219 Col. 1 10[\u2026 (21:1) And in the sixth year,] 11[in] the seventh [week] of [this jubilee, Abraham called his son Isaac,] 12and he commanded him, saying, \u201cI am ol[d but do not know the day of my death, though I have reached] 13a ripe old age. (21:2) I am now [one hundred seventy-]two [years old. Throughout my life I have remembered] 14our [G]od alwa[ys] and sought [Him with all my heart \u2026] 15[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n Continuation of the testament of Abraham (Lev. 3:7\u201311; reconstructed with the aid of 4Q219 1:32\u201338).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q220 Frag. 1 1[(21:5) \u2026 observe His statutes, His] commandments, [and His judgments, and do not go a]fter idols, [images, or] 2molten images.<\/a> And do not [eat any blo]od of an animal, cattle, or any bird that [flies in the sky.] Continuation of the testament of Abraham (Lev. 17:13\u201316; reconstructed with the aid of 4Q221 frag. 1:1\u20139).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q219 Col. 2 7[(21:12) \u2026 olive wood, myrtle, bay wood, j]uniperceda[r, and balsam. Abraham\u2019s blessing on Jacob.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q221 Frag. 2 Col. 1 1[(22:22) \u2026 there is no] hope [for th]em in the land 2[of the living. For they will descend into Sheol and will go into the place of judgment. There will be no remem]brance of them all on the earth. 3[Just as the Sodomites were destroyed from the eart]h, so all [who serve idols] will be destroyed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The burial of Abraham (Gen. 25:8\u201310).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3Q5 Frag. 3 1[(23:6) And a voice] was heard [in the house of Abraham,] 2[and Ishmael his son arose and] went to A[braham his father, and wept over Abraham his father,] 3[he and all the me]n of the house of A[braham, and they wept bitterly.] 2Q19 Frag. 1 1[(23:7) His sons, Isaac and Ishmael, buried him in the cave of Ma]chpelah ne[ar Sarah, his wife.] 2[They mourned him] for forty days, all the men [of his house, and Isaac and Ishmael, and all their sons, and all] 3[the sons of Keturah in their places.] The decline in longevity (reconstructed with the aid of 3Q5 frag. 1).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q221 Frag. 3 1[(23:10) \u2026 justly all the days of his life, but even he did not complete four jubilees in] his life until h[e] 2[had grown old because of wickedness and came to an end of his days. The future evil generation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q176b Frags. 19\u201320 1[(23:21) \u2026 and they will name the great name, but not in trut]h nor in righteousness 2[and they shall defile the holy of holies with impur]ity and the corruption of their abominations.<\/a> And there will be great anger against the deeds of [that] generation 3[from the LORD. And He will hand th]em [over] to the sword and to judgment and [to captivity] and for plunder and for devouring. [(23:23) And] He will rouse against them 4[the wicked ones of the gentiles who have neither mercy nor com]passion, and [who shall] resp[ect] n[o one,] nor [\u2026] Jacob responds to his mother\u2019s instruction regarding marriage (Gen. 28:1).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4Q222 Frag. 1 1[(25:9) \u201c\u2026 all] the days of my life [I will] not [take a wife for myself from any of the daughters of Canaan and I will not act wickedly as] 2my brother Esau has done.<\/a> Fear not, my mother. Be assured [that I will do your will and will walk uprightly] 3[and] will [no]t ever corrupt my ways.\u201d Jacob directed to go to Haran.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 16[This refers to] the priest who rebelled 17[and violated] the commandments of [God \u2026 they mis]treated him [\u2026] Col. 9 1his afflictions with the punishments due to such wickedness, perpetrating upon him the horrors of painful 2diseases, acts of retaliation against his mortal body. But the verse that 3says, \u201cYes, you yourself have plundered many nations, now the rest of 4the peoples will plunder you\u201d (2:7\u20138a), refers to the later priests of Jerusalem, 5who will gather ill-gotten riches from the plunder of the peoples, 6but in the Last Days their riches and plunder alike will be handed over to 7the army of the Kittim, for they are \u201cthe rest of the peoples.\u201d
\n 8\u201cFor the murder of a man and injustice in the land, the city and all who live in it\u201d (2:8b).
\n 9This refers to the Wicked Priest. Because of the crime he committed against the Teacher of 10Righteousness and the members of his party, God handed him over to his enemies, humiliating him 11with a consuming affliction with despair, because he had condemned 12his chosen.
\n \u201cAh, you who amass evil plunder for your own house, placing 13your perch in a high place to escape the clutch of disaster\u2014you have given shameful advice 14to your house, destroying many peoples and the sinners of your soul. Surely even 15the stonew[ork] from the wall will denounce you, a rafter in the ceiling will echo it\u201d<\/a>.
\n 16[This refers] to the p[ries]t who [\u2026] 17[\u2026] Col. 10 1that its stones were laid by tyranny and the wooden rafters by robbery. The verse that 2says, \u201cdestroying many peoples and the sinners of your soul\u201d (2:10b). 3refers to the place of judgment, when God will pronounce 4sentence in the presence of many peoples; from there He will bring him up for judgment, 5and in their presence He will condemn him and punish him with fire and brimstone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 9This refers to the Spreader of Lies, who deceived many, 10building a worthless city by bloodshed and forming a community by lies 11for its own glory, making many toil at useless labor, teaching them 12to do false deeds. In the end, their toil will be for nothing. As a result, they will undergo 13fiery punishments because they blasphemed and reviled God\u2019s chosen ones.
\n 14\u201cThe earth will be full of the knowledge of the LORD\u2019s glory as waters 15cover the sea\u201d (2:14).
\n This means [that] 16when they repent [\u2026] 17[\u2026 Spreader of] Col. 11 1Lies, and afterwards true knowledge will be revealed to them, as water of 2the sea for abundance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 4This refers to the Wicked Priest, who 5pursued the Teacher of Righteousness to destroy him in 6the heat of his anger at his place of exile. At the time set aside for the repose of 7the Day of Atonement he appeared to them to destroy them 8and to bring them to ruin on the fast day, the Sabbath intended for their repose.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 12This refers to the priest whose disgrace became greater than his honor, 13because he had not circumcised his heart\u2019s foreskin, and he walked in the ways of 14drunkenness in order to put an end to thirst. But the cup of God\u2019s wrath 15will destroy him, increas[ing only his dis]honor and pain [\u2026] 16[\u2026]
\n 17[\u201cFor the crimes perpetrated against Lebanon he will bury you, for the robbery of beasts,] Col. 12 1he will smite you; because of murder and injustice in the land, he will destroy the city and all who live in it\u201d (2:17).
\n 2The passage refers to the Wicked Priest, that he will be paid back 3for what he did to the poor, for \u201cLebanon\u201d refers to 4the party of the Yahad, and \u201cbeasts\u201d refers to the simple-hearted of Judah who obey 5the Law. God will condemn him to utter destruction, 6just as he planned to destroy the poor. As for the verse that says, \u201cbecause of murder in the 7city and injustice in the land,\u201d \u201cthe city\u201d refers to Jerusalem, 8where the Wicked Priest committed his abhorrent deeds, defiling the 9Temple of God. \u201cInjustice in the land\u201d refers to the cities of Judah where 10he stole the assets of the poor.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n This refers to all 13idols of the Gentiles that they made to worship and bow down to, 14though they will not save them on the day of judgment.
\n \u201cWoe 15to those [who say] to mere wood, \u2018Be alert,\u2019 or \u2018W[ake up,\u2019] to dumb [st]one.16[Can it enlighten you? It may indeed be covered with gold and silver,] 17[but there is no life in it. But the LORD really is in his holy temple.] Col. 13 1keep silence before him, all the earth\u201d (2:19\u201320).
\n This refers to all the Gentiles 2who have worshiped stone and wood. In the day of 3judgment God will exterminate all those who worship false gods, 4as well as the wicked, from the earth.
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nA clear example of this concern is the case of Abraham\u2019s wife, Sarah, and an unnamed Egyptian pharaoh. (Throughout the surviving portions of Tales, however, Abraham is referred to as \u201cAbram,\u201d and Sarah as \u201cSarai\u201d; the reason is that these portions of the Tales correspond to chapters of Genesis that precede Genesis 17, the biblical portion wherein Abraham and Sarah receive their new, but to us more familiar, names.) According to Genesis 12, this pharaoh took Sarah from Abraham when the patriarch had gone down to the pharaoh\u2019s territory in search of food. Our author had a definite view of the chronology of Genesis, even where the Bible says nothing of such matters directly, and believed that Sarah must have been with the pharaoh for some two years. Had she then been violated repeatedly? If so, this was a sordid tale indeed, bringing shame upon the Jewish people. To obviate this implication of the biblical text, our author decided that the pharaoh must be shown to have been impotent the entire time. Then, of course, Sarah\u2019s purity would have been preserved. So he introduced a long addition to the biblical text at the proper point, explaining that God smote the pharaoh with \u201ca baneful spirit.\u201d Because of this spirit s effect\u2014a disgusting discharge, perhaps gonorrhea\u2014not just the pharaoh, but all his men were rendered impotent. Only with the help of the righteous Abraham\u2019s prayer on his behalf was the Egyptian monarch cured, and then only on condition of Sarah\u2019s restoration to her husband.
\nThe description of Abraham\u2019s prayer is noteworthy: \u201cSo I prayed for him, that blasphemer, and laid my hands upon his head. Thereupon the plague was removed from him, the evil spirit exorcised from him, and he was healed\u201d (20:28\u201329). This is a description of an exorcism, one roughly contemporary with the New Testament passages that record the frequent exorcisms performed by Jesus of Nazareth. The scroll\u2019s description is particularly reminiscent of an exorcism described in Mark 9. Jesus\u2019 disciples had tried and failed to exorcise a spirit that continually threw a young boy into convulsions. Jesus had to perform the exorcism himself. Later, when asked by his disciples why they had failed, Jesus replied, \u201cThis kind can come out only through prayer\u201d (Mark 9:29).
\nAnother example of the author\u2019s concern with the purity of Abraham\u2019s line appears in what may first seem but an insignificant detail added to the biblical text. After the Flood, Noah\u2019s family was essentially in the same situation as Adam, Eve, and their children. With no other people around, whom could the young people marry? The Bible is silent on this problem, though it does provide genealogical information about Noah\u2019s sons and grandsons. The scroll adds details about Noah\u2019s granddaughters. The author claims the following: Shem, Noah\u2019s oldest son, had five sons and five daughters; Ham had four sons and seven daughters; and Japheth had the reverse: seven sons and four daughters. The point: for the chosen lineage of Shem, intermarriage with the lines of his brothers might introduce corruption; thus, his sons married his daughters. For the other two sons, intermarriage of their lines was not dangerous, so they had congruent numbers of sons and daughters who could then marry their cousins.
\nIn such ways the author of this rewritten Bible text dealt with the patriarchs Enoch, Lamech, Noah and his sons, and Abraham.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. 10 10to the king of all the ages, forever and ever, for all eternity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 18Then the Most High [\u2026]
\n Col. 11 1[\u2026] I, Noah, was in the door of the ark with the lion in fr[ont \u2026] 9[\u2026] for the mountains and the deserts, for the [\u2026] no 10[\u2026] four.
\n 11[Then] I, Noah, debarked and walked about the length and breadth of the land [\u2026] 12[\u2026] upon it, pleasure in their leaves and in their fruit. For the whole land was filled with grass, herbs and grain.
\n Then I praised the Lord of 13[Heaven, for] it is he who works praise forever, and the glory is his. Again I blessed him because he had mercy upon the earth, and because he removed and destroyed from upon it 14all who work violence, evil, and deceit, but rescued a righteous man for [\u2026] for all creation, for his own sake.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. 12 1[\u2026] And it served as a sign for me in the cloud, and as a [\u2026] 2[\u2026 e]arth 3[\u2026] it was revealed to me 4\u20137[\u2026] 8[\u2026 one among] the mountains of Ararat.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 13I then turned to watch the olive tree, and behold, the olive tree grew tall, with many perfumed blossoms in the radiance of its dense foliage [\u2026] 14fru[it \u2026] and I gazed upon them. I considered this olive tree, and especially the abundance of its leaves [\u2026] 15[\u2026] attaching to it. And I wondered at this olive tree, amazed at the exceeding abundance of its leaves [\u2026 Then I saw] 16[four] winds of heaven, blowing with destructive force upon this olive tree, stripping it of leaves and breaking it. First 17[\u2026] a western [wind] battered it, shaking off some of its leaves and fruit, scattering them in every direction. After it [\u2026] 18[\u2026] and some: of the fruit [\u2026]
\n Col. 14 7[\u2026] knowing [\u2026] 8[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. 15 8And I [\u2026] 9[\u2026] In that you saw all of them [\u2026], they will apostatize; the majority of them will be evil. In that you saw 10the man coming from the south of the land, the sickle in his hand, and fire with him: he has torn and [\u2026] 11[\u2026 and goo]dness he is [\u2026], who shall come from the south of the land [\u2026] 12[\u2026] and evil. He shall hurl upon the fire all who reb[el \u2026] 13and he shall come between the [\u2026]. In that you saw [\u2026] 14[\u2026] with them a cord, four angels [\u2026] 15[\u2026] to them a cord from all [\u2026] the earth that [\u2026] 16[\u2026] and large and [\u2026] 17[\u2026] 18[\u2026] between all the peoples. And all of them will be serving and dominated by [\u2026] 19[\u2026] Be not amazed about it [\u2026] and do not [\u2026] 20[\u2026] He has made all known to you in righteousness, and thus is it written about you [\u2026] 21[Then] I, Noah, [awoke] from my sleep, and the sun [\u2026] 22[\u2026] I to [\u2026] because I was blameless [\u2026] 23the righteous man [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 14The second lot for an everlasting inheritance fell to Shem and his sons. 15[\u2026] the waters of the River Tina em[pt]y [\u2026] 16until the River Tina [\u2026] 17[to] the Great Salt Sea. And this boundary went as a spring from this inlet [\u2026] 18[\u2026] that faces westward, and it crossed [\u2026] 19[\u2026] until it reached the [\u2026] 20[\u2026] to the east [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 16Japheth [also] divided his inheritance among his sons. First, to Gomer he allotted the north extending to the River Tina. After him, he gave portions to Magog, then 17to Madai, then to Javan. The latter he allotted all the islands along the coast of Lud\u2019s portion, and what lay between the bay alongside L[u]d\u2019s portion and the second ba[y], that of Tubal. [\u2026] 18[\u2026] in the land. And to Moshok, the sea [\u2026 And] to Tiras [\u2026] the [f]our [islands] in the bay belonging to 19[the sea bordering] the [po]rtion of the sons of Ham [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Nevertheless, after five years had passed 23[there came] three men, councilors from the Egyptian court [and advisers] of the Pharaoh of Zoan. They came having heard of [my] words and my wife, and kept plying me 24[with many gifts.] They as[ked] me [for knowledge] of goodness, wisdom, and righteousness, so I read to them the [Book] of the Words of Enoch. 25[\u2026] in the famine that [\u2026] the Book of the Words of Enoch [\u2026] 26[\u2026] with much eating and drinking [\u2026] wine [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Her feet, 6how attractive! How perfect are her thighs! Neither virgins nor brides entering the bridal chamber exceed her charms. Over all 7women is her beauty supreme, her loveliness far above them all. Yet with all this comeliness, she possesses great wisdom, and all that she has 8is beautiful.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 12That night I prayed, entreating and seeking mercy. In anguish, tears running down my cheeks, I said, \u201cBlessed are You, O God Most High, Eternal 13Lord, for You are Lord and Master over all. Over all the kings of the earth You are Lord, to work justice among them. And now, 14I seek redress, O Lord, against the Pharaoh of Zoan, king of Egypt, for my wife has been taken from me by force. Render me a verdict against him, and display Your mighty hand 15against him and all his house. May he not be empowered this night to defile my wife! Thus they may know You, O my Lord, that You are Lord over all the kings 16of the earth.\u201d So I wept and spoke to none.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n So he called me to himself and asked me, \u201cWhat have you done to me because of your wife [Sar]ai? You told 27me, \u2018She is my sister,\u2019 yet she was actually your wife! I took her as my own wife! Here she is; take her, go, depart from 28all the provinces of Egypt! But first, pray for me and my house that this evil spirit may be exorcised from us.\u201d So I prayed for him, that blasphemer, 29and laid my hands upon his [he]ad. Thereupon the plague was removed from him, the evil [spirit] exorcised [from him,] and he was healed. The king rose and gave 30to me on that [day] many gifts, and the king swore to me with an oath that [he had not touched] her. Then he returned Sarai 31to me. The king gave her much [silver and g]old, and great quantities of linen and purple-dyed garments. [\u2026 He put them] 32before her, and before Hagar as well. He restored her to me and assigned men to escort [me out of Egypt \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 8Thereafter God appeared to me in a vision of the night and told me, \u201cGo up to Ramath Hazor, which is on the north of 9Bethel where you now live, and lift up your eyes. Look to the east, west, south, and north. Survey all 10this land that I am about to give to you and your descendants forever.\u201d So I went up the next day to Ramath Hazor and surveyed the land from 11that height, from the River of Egypt to Lebanon and Senir, and from the Mediterranean to the Hauran, and all the land of Gebal as far as Kadesh, and all the 12Great Desert to the east of the Hauran and Senir as far as the Euphrates. And He said to me, \u201cI will give all this land to your descendants; they will inherit it forever. 13Moreover, I will multiply your descendants like the dust of the earth that none can count. Your descendants shall be numberless. Arise, walk about, go 14see how long and how wide it is, for I will give it to you and to your descendants after you, forever.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Shortly thereafter I went to dwell at the Oaks of Mamre that are in Hebron, 20actually somewhat to the northeast of Hebron. There I built an altar and offered up a burnt offering and a cereal offering to God Most High. I ate and drank there, 21I and all the men of my household, and invited Mamre, Arnem, and Eshkol, three Amorite brothers and my friends. They ate and drank together 22with me.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n For twelve years they continued 27to pay their tribute to the king of Elam, but in the thirteenth they rebelled against him. Consequently, in the fourteenth year the king of Elam sallied forth with all 28his allies, and they ascended by way of the desert. They smote and plundered beginning from the Euphrates. They kept smiting\u2014smiting the Rephaim who were in Asteroth 29Kernaim, the Zumzammim who were in Amman, the Emim [who were in] Shaveh Hakerioth, and the Horites who were in the mountains of Gebal\u2014until they reached El 30Paran, in the desert. Then they turned back and struck [En-mishpat and the people] who were in Hazazon Tamar. 31Thereupon the king of Sodom went out to confront them, along with the king of [Gomorrah, the k]ing of Admah, the king of Zeboiim, and the king of Bela. [They wa]ged war 32in the Valley of [Siddim] with Chedorla[omer, the king of Elam, and the kings] who were his allies. The king of Sodom was put to flight, while the king of Gomorrah 33fell into pits [of tar \u2026] of Sodom and 34[Gomorrah \u2026]
\n And Lot, Abram\u2019s nephew who had been living in Sodom, was taken captive Col. 22 1along with them, he and all his flocks. One of the herdsmen of the 2flock that Abram had given Lot escaped from the captives and came to Abram\u2014at the time Abram 3dwelled in Hebron. The herdsman informed him that his nephew Lot and all his flocks had been taken into captivity, but that Lot had not been killed. He also told him that 4the kings were marching along the trail of the Great Valley toward their own territory, taking captives and plunder, smiting and killing, heading 5for the city of Damascus.
\n Abram wept over his nephew Lot, but then gathered his strength and arose 6to select from among his servants elite warriors, three hundred and eighteen of them. Arnem, 7Eshcol, and Mamreh set out with him. He pursued the kings as far as Dan, where he found them 8encamped in the Valley of Dan. He attacked by night from four directions, killing 9some of them that night. Some he slaughtered, others he pursued; they fled before him 10until they reached Helbon, located to the north of Damascus. Thus Abram recovered from them everyone they had taken captive 11and everything they had taken as spoils, and despoiled their own property as well. He further saved his nephew Lot and all his flocks. All 12those who had been captured he brought back.
\n The king of Sodom heard that Abram had recovered all the captives 13and plunder, so he went up to meet him. He came to Salem, that is, Jerusalem, whereas Abram was encamped in the Valley 14of Shaveh, that is, the Valley of the King, the Valley of Beth Hakerem. Now Melchizedek, the king of Salem, provided 15food and drink for Abram and all the men with him. He himself was a priest of God Most High, and he blessed 16Abram, saying, \u201cBlessed be Abram by God Most High, the Lord of heaven and earth. Blessed be God Most High 17who has closed your grasp about your enemies.\u201d Then Abram gave him a tithe of all the flocks that had belonged to the king of Elam and his allies.
\n 18At that point the king of Sodom drew near and said to Abram, \u201cMy lord Abram, 19give me my men, the captives with you, whom you have rescued from the king of Elam; as for the plunder, 20let it all pass to you.\u201d Abram replied to the king of Sodom, \u201cI lift my 21hand and swear this day by God Most High, the Lord of heaven and earth: I shall not take even a thread or sandal strap 22from all that is yours, lest you go on to say \u2018All Abram\u2019s wealth derives from plunder of what 23once was mine.\u2019 I exempt from this oath what my men have already eaten, and the portion belonging to the three men who 24marched with me. They are sovereign over their own portion, and can restore it to you or not.\u201d So Abram returned all the plunder and 25captives, giving them to the king of Sodom. As for all the captives accompanying him who were natives of this land, these he freed 26and sent on their way.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Abram replied, \u201cMy Lord God, my wealth and flocks are already vast. But what good are 33all [th]ese things to me, inasmuch as when I die, I go childless, having no sons? In fact, one of my household staff will inherit what I have. 34Eliezer, a member of [my household staff], that [\u2026] young man is set to be my heir.\u201d God said to him, \u201cNo, this man shall not be your heir, but rather one who shall be [your own] issue.\u201d
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThe text here translated, the Words of Moses, follows a similar plan. Although fragmentary (and reconstructed with remarkable acumen by J. T. Milik), the scroll apparently was a rewriting of parts of Moses\u2019 last farewell as given in the book of Deuteronomy. Since most of the composition has perished, we can only guess what purpose lay behind its writing. The parts that remain emphasize the dangers of apostasy and the judgment that inevitably follows\u2014a theme quite in keeping with the original book.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nOften the collections of proverbs are framed by what scholars call an \u201cinstruction,\u201d that is, the literary device of a wise sage instructing his pupils or his children in the ways of wisdom. Sometimes the instruction is patently fictional, and the sage who \u201cspeaks\u201d through the proverbs is anonymous; sometimes the teacher is a real historical figure, such as Jesus ben Sira, who wrote the book of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus, in the second century B.C.E. Several compositions among the Dead Sea Scrolls are wisdom instructions, including the Book of Secrets and the longer work called the Secret of the Way Things Are (text 105). In the Book of Secrets, although the name of the sage is not preserved, one can hear the distinctive voice of a real, and redoubtable, teacher.
\nThe wisdom movement in Israel had fairly humble beginnings in homely proverbs, but grew to produce intense speculation about God\u2019s ways of governing the world. The idea that a basic order lay hidden behind the apparent randomness and injustice of daily life was fundamental to the religion of the ancients, and this divine order was in Israel known as hokhmah, \u201cwisdom.\u201d But the difficulty of grasping the essence of wisdom through practical maxims later led to deeper ruminations on God\u2019s way with the world. Ben Sira came to identify God\u2019s pattern with the Law revealed to Israel, in this way reconciling ancient \u201cphilosophy\u201d with Israel\u2019s covenant faith.
\nThe scroll writers generally took a different tack in their wisdom instructions. Although honoring the Law as much as Ben Sira, the hiddenness of the divine pattern impressed them as much as its splendor. It was clear to them that, unaided, the human mind could not grasp wisdom; it would have to be given to individuals as a gift. Certain men, then, were singled out to be the lucky recipients of revelation, and they would then know the \u201csecrets\u201d of God, especially the \u201csecret of the way things are,\u201d a sectarian title for divine hokhmah. The scroll writers did not believe that the unaided human mind, however pious, could understand the ways of God. The path to true understanding was through revelation, not reason.
\nThe order of the fragments below is topical and does not necessarily reflect the original order of the Book of Secrets.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nDiscovery can be a deceitful process. What is discovered, and when, frequently depends on nothing so much as sheer chance. Unavoidably and often, the order of discovery is a decisive factor in historical reconstructions\u2014to the detriment, occasionally, of accurate understanding. The fortuitous is not always fortunate. But that is not the case with the present text.
\nIt was among the first seven scrolls found and has been central to discussions about the Dead Sea Scrolls ever since. But this work\u2019s centrality has depended less on the accident that it was among the first scrolls discovered (though that has been a factor) than on its character, and on the fact that the Cave 1 copy was virtually intact. Also, the sheer number of copies of this work discovered in the caves\u2014thirteen, almost as many as copies of Genesis and Exodus, and more than almost any of the other books of the Bible\u2014dictates this work\u2019s centrality in any attempt to understand the phenomenon of the scrolls. Clearly sectarian, this writing uses striking language and imagery to express the mindset of outsiders.
\nScholars commonly refer to this work as the \u201cCommunity Rule.\u201d According to the Standard Model described in the Introduction, this work is supposed to have governed a community living at Qumran. But that idea is at least partly wrong; the work itself refers to various groups or chapters scattered throughout Palestine. Therefore it did not attach specifically to the site of Qumran (whatever the connection of the Dead Sea Scrolls to the site, and whatever the nature of that site). This text does not merely reflect a small community living there. Since \u201ccommunity\u201d usually implies a definite and restricted geographical location and thereby calls this mistaken notion to mind, it seems better to find a different word for the text\u2019s users. As we have explained in the Introduction, to avoid the misleading connotations of various possible English semiequivalents we have decided to use one of the association\u2019s most common self-designations, Yahad, \u201cunity.\u201d
\nThe present text is essentially a constitution or charter for the Yahad. That it is a charter becomes clear by comparison with charters from elsewhere in the contemporary Greco-Roman world. Research by Moshe Weinfeld and Matthias Klinghardt, among others, has shown that virtually every structural element of this ancient Jewish writing has analogs in the charters of guilds and religious associations from Egypt, Greece, and Asia Minor. Yet it seems that something more is going on in this writing than simply chartering a club.
\nThe first-century Jewish historian Josephus described the major Jewish groups as philosophical schools, not clubs. His portrayal is usually dismissed by scholars as a misleading adaptation of the true Jewish situation, done for the sake of his Greek-reading audience. If, however, we give the historian\u2019s characterization a bit more credence, we note that in some ways the group described by our text indeed was more like a philosophic academy than a club. Such academies were more all-embracing than clubs generally tended to be, more definitive of the members\u2019 total worldview; clubs were more nearly analogous to our guilds or unions. In his classic 1933 study Conversion, A. D. Nock delineated the hallmarks of the philosophies: they offered intelligible explanations of phenomena, offered a life with discipline, fostered ideal types (saints), had the influence of a living teacher, made a literary appeal, and demanded a change in lifestyle akin to the Judeo-Christian concept of conversion. All of these elements are present here. Thus, though the group described by our charter was formed like a club, it functioned more like a philosophic academy.
\nAs the work describes it, the association is made up of priests, Levites (a secondary priestly order), \u201cIsrael,\u201d and Gentile proselytes. In this context \u201cIsrael\u201d means not the generality of Jews, but only those who accept the teachings of the group. Other Jews, along with the surrounding Gentile nations, are considered \u201cMen of Perversity\u201d who \u201cwalk in the wicked way.\u201d Entry into the group is through conversion. Following repentance from sin, the initiate begins a two-year process leading to full membership. During this period he (women are not specifically mentioned) receives instruction in the group\u2019s secret knowledge and passes through progressively higher stages of purity. Some of the convert\u2019s wealth (according to 7:6\u20138 he retained an unspecified portion of his funds) is merged with that of the group, a marked similarity to the practice of early Christians described in the New Testament book of Acts. Eventually the association assigns him a rank based upon his obedience to the Law of Moses as they understand it. Rank and advancement in group life depend in large measure upon doing \u201cworks of the Law\u201d (Hebrew, maase ha-torah), a phrase significant also in writings of the apostle Paul.
\nEach chapter of the association has a leader known as the Instructor, probably the foremost priest, who guides deliberations about rules for the group\u2019s government, association funds, and biblical interpretation. Indeed, the heading of the text from Cave 1 states that this copy belonged to an Instructor, who may well have referred to the work when instructing new converts.
\nDecisions are by majority rule. The local chapters comprise at least ten men who meet for meals and Bible study. Each year they conduct a full review of the membership. At that time a man\u2019s rank can change, for better or worse, according to his behavior and biblical understanding.
\nThe use of military terminology is notable. Members are described as \u201cvolunteers\u201d and are organized into groups of thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens. The method of organization is that of the holy war conducted under Moses and Joshua when Israel first attacked the Canaanites and took possession of the land of Israel. This choice of terminology was, of course, deliberate. The group thought of itself as warriors awaiting God\u2019s signal to begin the final war against the nations and the wicked among the Jews. Meanwhile they sought to live in a heightened state of purity, as the Bible required for holy warriors.
\nAmong the Jews, similar purity groups are known from rabbinic literature. Designated by the Hebrew term haburot, these other Jewish purity groups (perhaps made up of Pharisees) required an oath of admittance and ate their meals together. Further similarities between our group and the haburot include a period of probation for prospective members and separation from the generality of Jews. Some early Christian groups also organized themselves in similar fashion, so far as the details are described in the book of Acts.
\nMany of this work\u2019s theological ideas are familiar to us from other Jewish writings and early Christianity (which was, of course, itself a Jewish movement when it began). As with Christianity, members of the association envision themselves as entering a new covenant with God, truly fulfilling the old Mosaic covenant. The charter calls this new covenant variously the Covenant of Mercy, the Covenant of the Eternal Yahad, the Eternal Covenant, and the Covenant of Justice. Believers are presently living in an era when Satan (here called Belial) rules the world. The New Testament terms Satan \u201cthe Prince of this world.\u201d Ultimately, that fact explains why believers, who know and live by the truth, have such difficulties in this world. Believers are Children of Light, nonbelievers Children of Darkness\u2014terminology also used in the New Testament. Among other names, the association calls itself \u201cThe Way\u201d (e.g., 9:18), a self-designation that some of the first Christians also used (Acts 9:2).
\nIn the future the charter anticipates a \u201cgracious visitation\u201d of God. Then adherents will enter into the Day of Vengeance, and this world\u2019s power structures will be overturned: the last shall be first and the first, last. Those who enter the Yahad of God can anticipate long life, bountiful peace, multiple progeny, and eventually life everlasting. One passage of the text may speak of the hope of resurrection (11:16\u201317). Believers will one day receive a \u201ccrown of glory\u201d and a \u201crobe of honor.\u201d On the other hand, everyone not belonging to the group is fated to everlasting damnation, an eternity of torture by the evil \u201cangels of perdition,\u201d all the while burning in utter darkness. The charter\u2019s long descriptive passages on hell and the fate of unbelievers are chilling, their detail doubtless a reflection of the almost palpable hatred of outsiders.
\nParticularly striking is the notion of hidden teaching, called the \u201cmystery.\u201d Early Christianity and rabbinic Judaism also embraced similar but distinct notions of \u201ccontinuing revelation\u201d not known to outsiders. This is the idea that God continued to reveal new truth in their own day and that the Bible was neither the only, nor the final, repository of his communication with humankind. Paul speaks often of \u201cthe mystery that has been hidden throughout the ages and generations but has now been revealed to his saints\u201d (Col. 1:26). The rabbis thought of themselves as tradents, \u201chanders-down\u201d of additional revelation given to Moses at Sinai, the \u201coral law\u201d\u2014passed on from generation to generation only by word of mouth. This revelation could not be found in the Bible. Likewise, the mystery cults of the Greco-Roman world promised their initiates insight into some otherwise unattainable secret to life. In no small part this common emphasis on mysterious new revelation expressed a dissatisfaction with centuries-old cults and religious teachings. Among Jews, for example, many thinking people in the period of the New Testament had difficulties with the notion of animal sacrifice. As the New Testament book of Hebrews formulates the issue, \u201cIt is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins\u201d (10:4). Thus, for the author of Hebrews, sacrifices are ineffectual and pointless in the light of what Jesus has accomplished.
\nThe members of this charter\u2019s association likewise believed that sacrifice was in itself ineffectual. They were not so radical as the early Christians, however, and could not simply discontinue sacrifice altogether, since it was, after all, commanded by God and regulated in great detail by the writings of Moses. They conceived of themselves as atoning for sin through sacrifice offered in the context of prayer, righteousness, and blameless behavior (9:4\u20135). Without the proper inner attitude, sacrifice meant nothing (3:11).
\nPerhaps the most striking conceptual\u2014even verbal\u2014similarity between early Christian thought and that of this charter is the notion of community as temple. Paul speaks of the believers being \u201cbuilt upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Christ Jesus himself as the cornerstone. In him the whole structure is joined together and grows into a holy temple in the Lord; in whom you also are built together spiritually into a dwelling place for God\u201d (Eph. 2:20\u201322). Our text describes the believers as a \u201ctemple for Israel and \u2026 Holy of Holies \u2026 the tested wall, the precious cornerstone whose foundations shall neither be shaken nor swayed \u2026 a blameless and true house in Israel\u201d (8:5\u20139). Thus both early Christians and members of this association conceived of themselves abstractly as the true temple. They had replaced the physical structure in Jerusalem. This was an idea with a transcendent implication, since the Bible could be read as saying that God lived in the Jerusalem temple. For both of these groups, God did not dwell in that mere hollow edifice built by human hands. He lived in them.
\nThe charter underwent literary development in the course of use and circulation among local chapters of the association. Sometimes the changes were profound. Still, it remains unclear just how much the changes in the text reflect changes in the actual life of the membership. We are all familiar with the phenomenon in our own culture whereby laws remain on the books that are no longer enforced, while new ones that get passed may or may not supersede the older legislation even when, theoretically, they should.
\nWe have provided a translation of the text known as 1QS, with damaged portions filled in from time to time on the basis of other, more fragmentary, copies from Cave 4. Though 1QS is the best preserved copy of the Charter, it represents only one of three basic forms of the work and is arguably the latest form of the Charter. To represent to the reader something of the nature of the differences among the different forms of the Charter, a second, apparently earlier, version of col. 5 is appended to the end of the translation that follows.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n All who volunteer for His truth are to bring the full measure of their knowledge, strength, and 12wealth into the Yahad of God. Thus will they purify their knowledge in the verity of God\u2019s laws, properly exercise their strength 13according to the perfection of His ways, and likewise their wealth by the canon of His righteous counsel. They are not to deviate in the smallest detail 14from any of God\u2019s words as these apply to their own time. They are neither to advance their holy times nor to postpone 15any of their prescribed festivals. They shall turn aside from His unerring laws neither to the right nor the left.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 21The priests are to rehearse God\u2019s gracious acts made manifest by mighty deeds, 22heralding His loving mercies on Israel\u2019s behalf. The Levites in turn shall rehearse 23the wicked acts of the children of Israel, all their guilty transgressions and sins committed during the dominion 24of Belial. All the initiates into the Covenant are to respond by confessing, \u201cWe have been wicked, 25transgressed, and [sin]ned. We have been wicked\u2014we and our fathers before us\u2014walking 26[in rebellion to the laws] of truth and righteousness, [wherefore God] has judged us, both we and our fathers. Col. 2 1Yet He has also requited us with the loving deeds of His mercy, long ago and forever more.\u201d
\n Then the priests are to bless all 2those foreordained to God, who walk faultless in all of His ways, saying \u201cMay He bless you with every 3good thing and preserve you from every evil. May He enlighten your mind with wisdom for living, be gracious to you with the knowledge of eternal things, 4and lift up His gracious countenance upon you for everlasting peace.\u201d The Levites in turn shall curse all those foreordained to 5Belial. They shall respond, \u201cMay you be damned in return for all your wicked, guilty deeds. May the 6God of terror give you over to implacable avengers; may He visit your offspring with destruction at the hands of those who recompense 7evil with evil. May you be damned without mercy in return for your dark deeds, an object of wrath 8licked by eternal flame, surrounded by utter darkness. May God have no mercy upon you when you cry out, nor forgive so as to atone for your sins. 9May He lift up His furious countenance upon you for vengeance. May you never find peace through the appeal of any intercessor.\u201d 10All the initiates into the Covenant shall respond to the blessers and cursers,\u201d Amen, amen.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n For only through the spirit pervading God\u2019s true society can there be atonement for a man\u2019s ways, all 7of his iniquities; thus only can he gaze upon the light of life and so be joined to His truth by His holy spirit, purified from all 8iniquity. Through an upright and humble attitude his sin may be covered, and by humbling himself before all God\u2019s laws his flesh 9can be made clean. Only thus can he really receive the purifying waters and be purged by the cleansing flow. Let him order his steps to walk faultless 10in all the ways of God, just as He commanded for the times appointed to him. Let him turn aside neither to the right nor the left, nor yet 11deviate in the smallest detail from all of His words. Then indeed will he be accepted by God, offering the sweet savor of atoning sacrifice, and then only shall he be a party to the Covenant of 12the Eternal Yahad.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n All that is now and ever shall be originates with the God of knowledge. Before things come to be, He has ordered all their designs, 16so that when they do come to exist\u2014at their appointed times as ordained by His glorious plan\u2014they fulfill their destiny, a destiny impossible to change. He controls 17the laws governing all things, and He provides for all their pursuits.
\n He created humankind to rule over 18the world, appointing for them two spirits in which to walk until the time ordained for His visitation. These are the spirits 19of truth and falsehood. Upright character and fate originate with the Habitation of Light; perverse, with the Fountain of Darkness. 20The authority of the Prince of Light extends to the governance of all righteous people; therefore, they walk in the paths of light. Correspondingly, the authority of the Angel 21of Darkness embraces the governance of all wicked people, so they walk in the paths of darkness.
\n The authority of the Angel of Darkness further extends to the corruption 22of all the righteous. All their sins, iniquities, shameful and rebellious deeds are at his prompting, 23a situation God in His mysteries allows to continue until His era dawns. Moreover, all the afflictions of the righteous, and every trial in its season, occur because of this Angel\u2019s diabolic rule. 24All the spirits allied with him share but a single resolve: to cause the Sons of Light to stumble.
\n Yet the God of Israel (and the Angel of His Truth) assist all 25the Sons of Light. It is actually He who created the spirits of light and darkness, making them the cornerstone of every deed, 26their impulses the premise of every action. God\u2019s love for one spirit Col. 4 1lasts forever. He will be pleased with its actions for always. The counsel of the other, however, He abhors, hating its every impulse for all time.
\n 2Upon earth their operations are these: one enlightens a man\u2019s mind, making straight before him the paths of true righteousness and causing his heart to fear the laws 3of God. This spirit engenders humility, patience, abundant compassion, perpetual goodness, insight, understanding, and powerful wisdom resonating to each 4of God\u2019s deeds, sustained by His constant faithfulness. It engenders a spirit knowledgeable in every plan of action, zealous for the laws of righteousness, holy 5in its thoughts, and steadfast in purpose. This spirit encourages plenteous compassion upon all who hold fast to truth, and glorious purity combined with visceral hatred of impurity in its every guise. It results in humble deportment 6allied with a general discernment, concealing the truth, that is, the mysteries of knowledge. To these ends is the earthly counsel of the spirit to those whose nature yearns for truth.
\n Through a gracious visitation all who walk in this spirit will know healing, 7bountiful peace, long life, and multiple progeny, followed by eternal blessings and perpetual joy through life everlasting. They will receive a crown of glory 8with a robe of honor, resplendent forever and ever.
\n 9The operations of the spirit of falsehood result in greed, neglect of righteous deeds, wickedness, lying, pride and haughtiness, cruel deceit and fraud, 10massive hypocrisy, a want of self-control and abundant foolishness, a zeal for arrogance, abominable deeds fashioned by whorish desire, lechery in its filthy manifestation, 11a reviling tongue, blind eyes, deaf ears, stiff neck, and hard heart\u2014to the end of walking in all the ways of darkness and evil cunning.
\n The judgment 12of all who walk in such ways will be multiple afflictions at the hand of all the angels of perdition, everlasting damnation in the wrath of God\u2019s furious vengeance, never-ending terror and reproach 13for all eternity, with a shameful extinction in the fire of Hell\u2019s outer darkness. For all their eras, generation by generation, they will know doleful sorrow, bitter evil, and dark happenstance, until 14their utter destruction with neither remnant nor rescue.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Until now the spirits of truth and perversity have contended within the human heart. 24All people walk in both wisdom and foolishness. As is a person\u2019s endowment of truth and righteousness, so shall he hate perversity; conversely, in proportion to bequest in the lot of evil, one will act wickedly and 25abominate truth. God has appointed these spirits as equals until the time of decree and renewal. He foreknows the outworking of their deeds for all the ages 26[of eternity.] He has granted them dominion over humanity, so imparting knowledge of good [and evil, de]ciding the fate of every living being by the measure of which spirit predominates in hi[m, until the day of the appointed] visitation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n They are to practice truth together with humility, 4charity, justice, loving-kindness, and modesty in all their ways. Accordingly, none will continue in a willful heart and thus be seduced, not by his heart, 5neither by his eyes, nor yet by his lower nature. Together they shall circumcise the foreskin of this nature, this stiff neck, and so establish a foundation of truth for Israel\u2014that is to say, for the Yahad of the Eternal 6Covenant. They are to atone for all those in Aaron who volunteer for holiness, and for those in Israel who belong to truth, and for Gentile proselytes who join them in community. Both by trial and by verdict 7they are to condemn any who transgress a regulation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n If he does proceed in joining the party of the Yahad, he must not touch the pure food 17of the general membership before they have examined him as to his spiritual fitness and works, and not before a full year has passed. Further, he must not yet admix his property with that of the general membership. 18When he has passed a full year in the Yahad, the general membership shall inquire into the details of his understanding and works of the Law. If it be ordained, 19in the opinion of the priests and the majority of the men of their Covenant, then he shall be initiated further into the secret teaching of the Yahad. They shall also take steps to incorporate his property, putting it under the authority of the 20Overseer together with that of the general membership, and keeping an account of it\u2014but it shall not yet be disbursed along with that of the general membership.
\n The initiate is not to touch the drink of the general membership prior to 21passing a second year among the men of the Yahad. When that second year has passed, the general membership shall review his case. If it be ordained 22for him to proceed to full membership in the Yahad, they shall enroll him at the appropriate rank among his brothers for discussion of the Law, jurisprudence, participation in pure meals, and admixture of property. Thenceforth the Yahad may draw upon his counsel and 23judgment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n If there be found among them a man who has lied 25about money and done so knowingly, they shall bar him from the pure meals of the general membership for one year; further, his ration of bread is to be reduced by one-fourth.
\n Anyone who answers 26his comrade defiantly or impatiently, thereby rejecting the instruction of his fellow and rebelling against the orders of his higher-ranked comrade, 27has usurped authority; he is to be punished by reduced rations and [exclusion from the pure meals] for one year.
\n Anyone who speaks aloud the M[ost] Holy Name of God, [whether in \u2026] or Col. 7 1in cursing or as a blurt in time of trial or for any other reason, or while he is reading a book or praying, is to be expelled, 2never again to return to the party of the Yahad.
\n If anyone speaks angrily against one of the priests who are inscribed in the book, he is to be punished by reduced rations for 3one year and separated from the pure meals of the general membership, eating by himself. If, however, he spoke without premeditation, he shall suffer reduced rations for only six months.
\n Anyone who knowingly lies 4is to be punished by reduced rations for six months.
\n The man who accuses his comrade of sin, fully aware that he cannot prove the charge, is to suffer reduced rations for one year 5and be separated from the pure meals.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n If a man is 6drawn unawares into a fraudulent scheme by his comrade, then he is to be punished by reduced rations for only three months.
\n If money belonging to the Yahad is involved in a fraudulent scheme and lost, the man responsible must repay the sum 7from his own funds. 8If he lacks sufficient resources to repay it, then he is to suffer reduced rations for sixty days.
\n Whoever nurses a grudge against his companion\u2014in blatant disregard of the Yahad statute about reproof on the selfsame day\u2014is to be punished by reduced rations for six months 9The same applies to the man who on any matter takes vengeance into his own hands.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Anyone interrupting his companion while in session: 10ten days.
\n Anyone who lies down and sleeps in a session of the general membership: thirty days.
\n The same applies to the man who leaves a session of the general membership 11Without permission and without a good excuse three times in a single session. Up to the third time he shall be punished by reduced rations only ten days. But if they have risen for prayer 12when he leaves, then he is to suffer thirty days\u2019 reduced rations.
\n Anyone who walks about naked in the presence of a comrade, unless he be sick, is to be punished by reduced rations for six months.
\n 13A man who spits into the midst of a session of the general membership is to be punished by reduced rations for thirty days.
\n Anyone who brings out his penis from beneath his clothing\u2014that is, his clothing is 14so full of holes that his nakedness is exposed\u2014is to be punished by thirty days\u2019 reduced rations.
\n Anyone who bursts into foolish horselaughter is to be punished by reduced rations for thirty 15days.
\n A man who draws out his left hand to gesture during conversation is to suffer ten days reduced rations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n The man who murmurs against the secret teaching of the Yahad is to be banished, never to return. But if he murmurs against a comrade 18and cannot prove the charges, he is to be punished by reduced rations for six months.
\n The man whose spirit deviates from the secret teaching of the Yahad, such that he forsakes the truth and 19walks in the stubbornness of his heart\u2014if he repents, he is to be punished by two years of reduced rations. During the first, he is not to touch the pure food of the general membership; 20during the second, he is not to touch their drink. He shall rank lower than all the men of the Yahad. When 21two full years have passed, the general membership shall inquire into his particulars. If they allow him to proceed, he shall be enrolled at the appropriate rank and thereafter take part in discussions of community precepts.
\n 22Any man who, having been in the party of the Yahad for ten full years, 23backslides spiritually so that he forsakes the Yahad and leaves 24the general membership, walking in his willful heart, may never again return to the party of the Yahad.
\n Also, any man belonging to the Ya[had who sh]ares 25with him his own pure food, his own wealth [or that of] the Yahad, is to suffer the same verdict: he is to be exp[elled.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n When such men as these come to be in Israel, 5then shall the party of the Yahad truly be established, an \u201ceternal planting\u201d (Jubilees 16:26), a temple for Israel, and\u2014mystery!\u2014a Holy 6of Holies for Aaron; true witnesses to justice, chosen by God\u2019s will to atone for the land and to recompense 7the wicked their due. They will be \u201cthe tested wall, the precious cornerstone\u201d (Isa. 28:16) whose 8foundations shall neither be shaken nor swayed, a fortress, a Holy of Holies 9for Aaron, all of them knowing the Covenant of Justice and thereby offering a sweet savor. They shall be a blameless and true house in Israel, 10upholding the covenant of eternal statutes. They shall be an acceptable sacrifice, atoning for the land and ringing in the verdict against evil, so that perversity ceases to exist.
\n When these men have been grounded in the instruction of the Yahad for two years\u2014provided they be blameless in their conduct\u201411they shall be set apart as holy in the midst of the men of the Yahad. No biblical doctrine concealed from Israel but discovered by the 12Interpreter is to be hidden from these men out of fear that they might backslide.
\n When such men as these come to be in Israel, 13conforming to these doctrines, they shall separate from the session of perverse men to go to the wilderness, there to prepare the way of truth, 14as it is written, \u201cIn the wilderness prepare the way of the LORD, make straight in the desert a highway for our God\u201d (Isa. 40:3). 15This means the expounding of the Law, decreed by God through Moses for obedience, that being defined by what has been revealed for each age, 16and by what the prophets have revealed by His holy spirit.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 20These are the rules by which the men of blameless holiness shall conduct themselves, one with another. 21Any covenant member of the Yahad of Holiness (they who walk blamelessly as He commanded) 22who transgresses even one commandment from the Law of Moses intentionally or deviously is to be expelled from the party of the Yahad, 23never to return. Further, none of the holy men is to do business with that man or advise him on any 24matter whatsoever.
\n But if the sinner transgressed unintentionally, then he is to be separated from the pure food, community deliberations, 25and jurisprudence for two years. He may return to study sessions and deliberations if he does not again sin by inadvertence for two full years. Col. 9 1A single unintentional sin may be punished by this two-year process, but the intentional sinner shall never again return. Only the accidental sinner 2shall be tested by the general membership over a two-year period for blameless conduct and right understanding. Afterwards, he may be enrolled at the appropriate rank within the Yahad of Holiness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n At that time the men 6of the Yahad shall withdraw, the holy house of Aaron uniting as a Holy of Holies, and the synagogue of Israel as those who walk blamelessly. 7The sons of Aaron alone shall have authority in judicial and financial matters. They shall decide on governing precepts for the men of the Yahad 8and on money matters for the holy men who walk blamelessly. Their wealth is not to be admixed with that of rebellious men, who 9have failed to cleanse their path by separating from perversity and walking blamelessly. They shall deviate from none of the teachings of the Law, whereby they would walk 10in their willful heart completely. They shall govern themselves using the original precepts by which the men of the Yahad began to be instructed, 11doing so until there come the Prophet and the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n The Instructor must not reprove the Men of the Pit, nor argue with them about proper biblical understanding. 17Quite the contrary: he should conceal his own insight into the Law when among perverse men. He shall save reproof\u2014itself founded on true knowledge and righteous judgment\u2014for those who have chosen 18the Way, treating each as his spiritual qualities and the precepts of the era require. He shall ground them in knowledge, thereby instructing them in truly wondrous mysteries; if then the secret Way is perfected among 19the men of the Yahad, each will walk blamelessly with his fellow, guided by what has been revealed to them. That will be the time of \u201cpreparing the way 20in the desert\u201d (Isa. 40:3). He shall instruct them in every legal finding that is to regulate their works in that time, and teach them to separate from every man who fails to keep himself 21from perversity.
\n These are the precepts of the Way for the Instructor in these times, as to his loving and hating: eternal hatred 22and a concealing spirit for the Men of the Pit! He shall leave them their wealth and profit like a slave does his master\u2014presently humble before 23his oppressor, but a zealot for God\u2019s law whose time will come: even the Day of Vengeance. He shall work God\u2019s will when he attacks the wicked and 24exercise authority as He has commanded, so that He is pleased with all that is done, as with a freewill offering. Other than God\u2019s will he shall delight in nothing, 25finding pleasure only in [ev]ery word of His mouth. He shall desire nothing that He has not command[ed,] ceaselessly seeking the [la]ws of God. 26He shall bless his Creator [for all of His good]ness, and re[count His loving-kindness] in all that is to be.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 8When weeks of years begin, jubilee by jubilee, while I live, on my tongue shall the statute be engraved\u2014with praise its fruit, even the gift of my lips.
\n 9With knowledge shall I sing out my music, only for the glory of God, my harp, my lyre for His holiness established; the flute of my lips will I lift, His law its tuning fork. 10At break of day and darkling sky shall I enter the covenant of God, and when they depart I shall recite His laws; then shall I prescribe 11my bounds, never to turn back.
\n By His law shall I convict myself, my wickedness the measure, my sin before my eyes, as a statute engraved. To God shall I say \u201cO, my Righteousness,\u201d 12to the Most High \u201cO, Seat of my good, source of knowledge and Fount of holiness; height of glory, Almighty, eternal Splendor.\u201d What He teaches me, 13that shall I choose; as He judges me, so shall I delight.
\n When first I begin campaign or journey, His name shall I bless; when first I set out or turn to come back; 14when I sit down or rise up, when I spread my bed, then shall I rejoice in Him.
\n I will bless Him with the offering, the issue of my lips when in ranked array; 15before I lift hand to mouth to savor the delightful bounty of the earth; when fear or terror break out, in habitation of dire straights or desolation, 16Him shall I praise.
\n Upon His miracles and deeds of power shall I meditate; upon His loving-kindness I shall rely all the day. Then shall I know that in His hand resides the judgment 17of all the living, and all His works are truth. When distress breaks out I shall praise Him, and in His salvation shall I rejoice.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n The multitude of evil men I shall not capture until the Day of Vengeance; yet my fury shall not 20abate from Men of the Pit, and I shall never be appeased until righteousness be established.
\n I shall hold no angry grudge against those repenting of sin yet neither shall I love 21any who rebel against the Way; the smitten I shall not comfort until their walk be perfected. I shall give no refuge in my heart to Belial.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n For thanksgiving shall I open my mouth, the righteousness of God shall my tongue recount always. Human rebellion, made full 24by sin, as vain I shall purge from my lips; impure and crafty design I shall expunge from my mind.
\n Counseled by wisdom, I shall recount knowledge; 25both prudent and wise, I shall compass it close about, so to preserve faith and strict judgment\u2014conforming to the righteousness of God.
\n I shall mete out 26the statute by the measure proper to each time and [\u2026 dispense] righteousness and loving-kindness to those cast down, even strong encouragement to those who are fearful.
\n Col. 11 1[l shall teach] the errant of spirit understanding, instructing those who murmur with wisdom\u2014so humbly to answer the haughty with broken spirit them who 2oppress, scorn, speak vainly, and are zealous only for wealth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n He who is eternal is the staff of my right hand, upon the Mighty Rock do my steps tread; before nothing shall they retreat. For the truth of God\u20145that is the rock of my tread, and His mighty power, my right hand\u2019s support. From His righteous fount comes my justification, the light of my heart from His wondrous mysteries.
\n Upon the eternal 6has my eye gazed\u2014even that wisdom hidden from men, the knowledge, wise prudence from humanity concealed. The source of righteousness, gathering 7of power, and abode of glory are from fleshly counsel hidden.
\n To them He has chosen all these has He given\u2014an eternal possession. He has made them heirs in the legacy 8of the Holy Ones; with the Angels has He united their assembly, a Yahad party. They are an assembly built up for holiness, an eternal Planting for all 9ages to come.
\n As for me, to evil humanity and the counsel of perverse flesh do I belong. My transgressions, evils, sins, and corrupt heart 10belong to the counsel of wormy rot and those who walk in darkness.
\n Surely a man\u2019s way is not his own; neither can any person firm his own step. Surely justification is of God; by His power 11is the way made perfect. All that shall be, He foreknows, all that is, His plans establish; apart from Him is nothing done.
\n As for me, if 12I stumble, God\u2019s loving-kindness forever shall save me. If through sin of the flesh I fall, my justification will be by the righteousness of God which endures for all time.
\n 13Though my affliction break out, He shall draw my soul back from the Pit, and firm my steps on the way. Through His love He has brought me near; by His loving-kindness shall He provide 14my justification.
\n By His righteous truth has He justified me; and through His exceeding goodness shall He atone for all my sins. By His righteousness shall He cleanse me of human 15defilement and the sin of humankind\u2014to the end that I praise God for His righteousness, the Most High for His glory.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Surely apart from You the way cannot be perfected, nor can anything be done unless it please You. You teach 18all knowledge and all that shall be, by Your will shall it come to pass. Apart from You there is no other able to contest Your counsel, fathom 19the design of Your holiness, penetrate the depth of Your mysteries, or apprehend Your wonders and surpassing 20power.
\n Who can Your glory measure? Who, indeed, is man among Your glorious works? 21As what can he, born of a woman, be reckoned before You? Kneaded from dust, his body is but the bread of worms; he is so much spit, 22mere nipped-off clay\u2014and for clay his longing. Shall clay contest, the vessel plumb counsel?<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n They are to practice humility, charity, justice, loving-[kindness, and mod]esty in all their ways. 4[Accordingly,] none will continue in a willful heart and thus be seduced; rather, they are to establish a [foundation] of truth for Israel\u2014a Yahad for all 5those in Aaron who volunteer for holiness, a house of truth for Israel and for Gentile proselyte[s] who join th[em] in community. Every initiate into the party of the 6[Yah]ad is to ta[ke] upon himself a binding oath to [return t]o the [L]aw of Mos[es] with all his heart and with all his mind, to all that has been revealed from 7the L[aw ac]cording to the party of the me[n] of the Yaha[d. Each is to separate himself from all of the] perverse [men;] none of the perverse men is to enter purifying waters used by the Men of 8[Holine]ss, and one shall not eat with such a man. None of the [m]en of the Yahad is [to discuss] with such men matters of 9[Law] or legal judgment; [none is to be yoked] with such a man in his wealth or work. Nor shall any man of the Men of Holiness eat 10[from their wealth, nor] yet [take any]thing [from them.] They shall not depend on [any of the wo]rks of vanity, for vanity defines all who [do not know 11His Covenant. All those who despi]se His word, He shall destroy from upon the face of the earth. Their deeds are an abomina[tion] be[fore Him, a]ll [that is theirs being infested with impurity.]
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nTwo aspects of this text are particularly remarkable. First, it describes a banquet or feast in which all Israel will take part in the Last Days. The feast is associated with the arrival of the \u201cMessiah of Israel\u201d and is comparable with the early Christian agape, or \u201clove,\u201d feasts described by such ancient writers as Hippolytus. These Christian meals were attached to the sacrament of communion. We read in the New Testament and other early Christian literature of disorderly behavior associated with these meals. Thus the strict regulation of the banquet described here finds a context. Doubtless this future banquet was an idealization of the Yahad\u2019s ordinary practice. According to text 7, it regularly held less exalted communal meals. The connection of the meal here to the arrival of the messiah further recalls Christian imagery of the \u201cmarriage supper of the Lamb,\u201d the great banquet at which believers are said to join Jesus after all evil has been vanquished (Rev. 19:6\u20139).
\nThe second remarkable aspect of this writing is its possible reference in 2:11 to God\u2019s \u201cfathering\u201d of the Messiah of Israel, that is, of the war leader who was to arise from the line of David. The Hebrew verb used here is holid, the same verb used in the biblical \u201cbegetting\u201d passages. Because it has been damaged, however, this passage of our text has long been controversial. The reading of the Hebrew letters is difficult, but the scholars who saw the manuscript when it was first discovered (when it was more legible than it is today; the texts have deteriorated) agreed on this reading. Yet the most recent examinations of the difficult passage continue to breed controversy. Geza Vermes, of Oxford, wrote in 1994: \u201cThis reading, which has been queried by many, including myself in [the past], seems to be confirmed by computer image enhancement.\u201d But in the same year \u00c9mile Puech, also relying upon improved photographic technology, came to a different conclusion: the difficult letters should be read as another verb meaning \u201cbe revealed.\u201d The matter requires further study, but for now the reading of the earliest scholars should probably be preferred, simply because they were able to study the text in its less deteriorated state.
\nIf the traditional reading is correct, then this Qumran text is describing a messianic figure who is in a special way a \u201cson of God.\u201d The notion that a messiah would be such is, of course, an idea held in common with early Christianity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 4As they arrive, all the newcomers shall be assembled\u2014women and children included\u2014and read 5[a]ll the statutes of the Covenant. They shall be indoctrinated in all of their laws, for fear that otherwise they may sin accidentally.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n When he is thirty years old, he may begin to take part in legal disputes. 14Further, he is now eligible for command, whether of the thousands of Israel, or as a captain of hundreds, fifties, or 15tens, or as a judge or official for their tribes and clans. Command appointments shall [be decided by] the Sons of 16[Aar]on, the priests, advised by all the heads of the congregation\u2019s clans. Anyone so destined must take his pla[ce] in service publicly, 17[and likewise go for]th to battle and return while the congregation looks on.
\n In proportion to his intelligence and the perfection of his walk, let each man strengthen his loins for his assignm[ent among the tr]oops, 18for the performance of his works among his brothers. [What]ever his rank, high or low, let [ea]ch man seek honor for himself, striving to outdo his fellow.
\n 19When a man is advanced in age, let him be assigned a task in the se[rvi]ce of the congregation that is commensurate with his remaining strength.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Whenever the entire congregation is required to assemble, whether to deliver a legal verdict, 26as a party of the Yahad, or as a war council, then the Levites shall consecrate them for three days, ensuring that everyone who comes 27is properly prep[ared for the counc]il.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n If [one] of these people has some[thing] to say to the holy congregation, 10let an oral [de]position be taken, but the man must n[ot] enter [the congregation,] for he has been smitten.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[When] they gather [at the] communal [tab]le, [having set out bread and w]ine so the communal table is set 18[for eating] and [the] wine (poured) for drinking, none [may re]ach for the first portion 19of the bread or [the wine] before the Priest. For [he] shall [bl]ess the first portion of the bread 20and the wine, [reac]hing for the bread first. Afterw[ard] the Messiah of Israel [shall re]ach 21for the bread. [Finally,] ea[ch] member of the whole congregation of the Yahad [shall give a bl]essing, [in descending order of] rank.
This procedure shall govern 22every me[al], provided at least ten me[n are ga]thered together.
\u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nIn this text we find mention of the group\u2019s belief that they would someday be joined to the angels. The priests, in particular, are envisioned as serving in a future temple with the \u201cAngels of the Presence.\u201d With these exalted beings the priests would \u201corder destiny,\u201d that is, determine the course of events on earth. Thus the group held no mean view of their own importance. We also read of the group\u2019s intense hatred for their enemies and of their confident belief in ultimate victory, not only over other Jews, but over the entire earth. As in text 8, the notion of a final war against the Gentiles is prominent, and selected portions of the Bible are understood as applying to the son of David (Prince of the Congregation) who will lead that campaign.
\nOnly this one copy of the work has survived, as an appendix to text 7.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u201cMay the L[ord] bless you [from His holy habitation;] may He throw open for you an everla[st]ing fount from hea[ven], 4ne[ver fail]ing. [\u2026] 5May He [gra]ce you with every blessing [of the heavenlies]; [may He teach] you the knowledge of the angels! 6[\u2026 May He open for you] an eternal [fou]nt; may He never wi[thhold living water from] the thirsty. You sha[ll be] 7[\u2026 May He] deliver you from all [your enemies; may He smite] whom you hate so that none sur[vive.]\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. 3 1\u201c \u2018May the LORD lift up His countenance upon you\u2019 (Num. 6:26); [may He delight in] the savor [of your sacrifices.] May He choose all who abide in [your] pries[thood.] 2May He be specially present at all your holy times and fest[ivals \u2026] all your seed. May He lift up 3His countenance toward your entire congregation! May He place [a crown] upon your head [\u2026] 4with [perpetual] glo[ry. May He] sanctify your descendants with glory without end! May He lif[t up His countenance toward \u2026] 5[\u2026] May He grant you eter[na]l [pea]ce and a kingdom of [\u2026] 6[\u2026] from the flesh, and with the h[oly] angels [\u2026] 7May He wage war [at the head] of your thousands [to exterminate] a perver[se] generation \u2026
\n 18[\u2026 to bring to their kn]ees ma[n]y pe[opl]es on your behalf, and not 19[\u2026] all the wealth of the earth to turn you away from the [eternal] fount 20[\u2026 S]eek him, for God has laid all the foundations of 21[\u2026] He has established peace for you forever and ever.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u201cMay the Lord bless you from His [ho]ly [habitation]! May He set you, perfected in honor, in the midst of 26the Holy Ones; [may He re]new for you the [eternal] covenant of the priesthood. May He make a place for you in the holy [habitation]. 27May He ju[dge a]ll princes by the measure of your works, all [leaders] of the nations by 28what you say. May He make the firstfruits of [every pleas]ing thing your inheritance; may He bless all mortal counsel by your hand!\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Surely 27[all] His [pr]ecepts are truth! May He establish you as holy among His people, as the \u2018greater [light\u2019 (Gen. 1:16) to illumine] the world with knowledge, and to shine upon the face of many 28[with wisdom leading to life. May He establish you] as consecrated to the Holy of Holies! [You shall] indeed [be sanc]tified to Him, glorifying His name and His Holy Ones!
\n Col. 5 17[\u2026 F]or He has ord[ained you to the priesthood \u2026] 18[wi]th never-[ending] time [and] with all the ages of eternity. May He never gi[ve] your glory [to another \u2026 May] 19God [put] the fear of you [upon] all who hear a report of you, and of your majesty [upon all who \u2026]\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u201c[May] the Lord li[ft] you up to an eternal height, a mighty tower in a wall 24securely set on high! Thus may you \u2018be r[ighteous] by the might of your [mouth,] lay waste the earth with your rod! With the breath of your lips 25may you kill the wicked!\u2019 (Isa. 11:4, modified). May He give [you \u2018the spirit of coun]sel and may eternal might [rest upon you], the spirit of knowledge and the fear of God\u2019 (Isa. 11:2). May \u2018righteousness 26be the belt [around your waist, and faithful]ness the belt around your loins\u2019 (Isa. 11:5). May He \u2018make your horns iron and your hoofs bronze!\u2019 (Mic. 4:13). 27May you gore like a bu[ll \u2026 May you trample the nati]ons like mud in the streets! For God has established you as \u2018the scepter\u2019 (Num. 24:17) 28over the rulers; bef[ore you peoples shall bow down, and all nat]ions shall serve you. He shall make you mighty by His holy name, 29so that you shall be as a li[on among the beasts of the forest;] your [sword will devour] prey, with none to resc[ue.] Your [sw]ift steeds shall spread out upon [the earth \u2026]\u201d
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThis is not the only respect in which modern scholarship differs from ancient Jewish understanding of the Urim and Thummim. Most English translations of Exodus 38:30 indicate that the stones were carried in a pouch or pocket on the priest\u2019s breastplate. Jewish tradition, on the contrary, has understood that these stones were part of the breastplate itself. Tongues of Fire agrees with this latter understanding, and so does Josephus.
\nThe author of Tongues of Fire expected that the Urim and Thummim would be called upon for especially momentous decisions. The remaining fragments of the work describe their use to decide whether a prophet was true or false and to decide military strategy.
\nFor other occurrences of the Urim and Thummim among the Dead Sea Scrolls, see the Commentaries on Isaiah (text 21), the Last Days (text 25), A Collection of Messianic Proof Texts (text 26), and the Temple Scroll (text 155).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Frags. 3\u20134 (with 4Q408 Frag. 2) 1[\u2026] 2[\u2026 the L]ORD your God [\u2026] 3[\u2026 al]l Israel [shall answer \u2026] 4[\u2026 O LOR]D, in all Your judgments [\u2026] 5[\u2026 an] abundance of strength, honored [and awesome \u2026]
\n 4Q376 Frags. 5\u20137 1[\u2026] these words, according to all [\u2026] 2[\u2026 and the]n the priest shall interpret all His will, a[ll \u2026] 3[\u2026] the congregation. [\u2026]
\n 4[\u2026 O Children of I]s[rae]l, keep all of these words [\u2026] 5[\u2026 to d]o al[l \u2026] 6[\u2026] the number of com[mandments (?) \u2026] 7[\u2026] their [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014M.G.A.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThe first lines of the scroll (1QM 1:1\u20137) lay the framework for a three-stage conflict between the Sons of Light\u2014that is, members of the Yahad (see 1QS 3:13, text 7)\u2014and the Sons of Darkness. The first battle finds the adversaries led by the Kittim of Assyria. (Although the name Kittim is most often used in the scrolls as a reference to the Romans, its basic sense seems to have been \u201carchetypical bad guys.\u201d) The Kittim of Assyria come in alliance with the biblical enemies Edom, Moab, Ammon, and Philistia. Cooperating with this unholy alliance are the \u201cviolators of the covenant\u201d: Jews who had spurned the message of the Yahad, and in so doing aligned themselves with the Sons of Darkness. The second stage expands the war\u2019s influence to the Kittim who dwelt in Egypt, and then finally to the Kings of the North.
\nAlthough this war is said to extend over forty years, the writer of the scroll was particularly concerned with the details of the very final day of battle. After six bloody engagements during this last battle, the Sons of Light and Sons of Darkness are deadlocked in a 3\u20133 tie. In the seventh and final confrontation \u201cthe great hand of God shall overcome [Belial and al]l the angels of his dominion, and all the men of [his forces shall be destroyed forever]\u201d (1QM 1:14\u201315).
\nAlong the way, in true apocalyptic fashion, the scroll goes into elaborate detail concerning the battle trumpets (2:15\u20133:11), banners (3:12\u20135:2), and operational matters (5:3\u20139:16). Then turning to the liturgical, priestly prayers for the various phases of the conflict are recorded (9:17\u201315:3). Finally, the seven savage engagements of the final day of battle are detailed (15:4\u201318:8), culminating in a ceremony of thanksgiving on the day following the victory (18:10\u201319:14).
\nAs with biblical representatives of apocalyptic literature, Ezekiel 38\u201339 and the Revelation to John as pertinent examples, one can easily lose sight of the primary purpose of the work. It is not to be found in the intricate and often mysterious details of the text. Rather, the author was concerned with the tribulation and hopelessness that his readers were currently experiencing. He built his encouragement on a biblical theology of rescue: the defeat of Goliath at the hand of David (1QM 11:1\u20132), and Pharaoh and the officers of his chariots at the Red Sea (11:9\u201310). Coupled with this aspect was his understanding that great suffering was part of God\u2019s will for the redeemed. Indeed, God\u2019s crucible (17:9) was seen as a necessary component of human existence so long as evil continued to exist in the world. Ultimately, God\u2019s purpose was to exalt the Sons of Light and to judge the Sons of Darkness. The message is one of hope. In the face of such perverse evil, the Sons of Light are encouraged to persevere to the end. God was preparing to intervene and bring a permanent solution for the problem of evil.
\nThe scroll itself is one of the first seven texts found by the Bedouin in 1947. Nineteen columns of text are preserved, lacking only a few lines at the bottom edge and the final page or pages of the composition (see text 63). Although six additional manuscripts were found seven years later in Cave 4 (4Q491\u2013496), they are only moderately helpful in reconstructing the missing portions of 1QM.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 8Then [the Sons of Rig]hteousness shall shine to all ends of the world, continuing to shine forth until the end of the appointed seasons of darkness. Then at the time appointed by God, His great excellence shall shine for all the times of 9e[ternity;] for peace and blessing, glory and joy, and long life for all Sons of Light. On the day when the Kittim fall there shall be a battle and horrible carnage before the God of 10Israel, for it is a day appointed by Him from ancient times as a battle of annihilation for the Sons of Darkness. On that day the congregation of the gods and the congregation of men shall engage one another, resulting in great carnage. 11The Sons of Light and the forces of Darkness shall fight together to show the strength of God with the roar of a great multitude and the shout of gods and men; a day of disaster. It is a time of 12distress fo[r al]l the people who are redeemed by God. In all their afflictions none exists that is like it, hastening to its completion as an eternal redemption. On the day of their battle against the Kittim, 13they shall g[o forth for] carnage in battle. In three lots the Sons of Light shall stand firm so as to strike a blow at wickedness, and in three the army of Belial shall strengthen themselves so as to force the retreat of the forces 14[of Light. And when the] banners of the infantry cause their hearts to melt, then the might of God will strengthen the he[arts of the Sons of Light.] In the seventh lot the great hand of God shall overcome 15[Belial and al]l the angels of his dominion, and all the men of [his forces shall be destroyed forever.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 18[\u2026] 19[\u2026 which \u2026] 20[\u2026 they shall write \u2026 the trumpets of] Col. 3 1the battle formations, and the trumpets for assembling them when the gates of the war are opened so that the infantry might advance, the trumpets for the signal of the slain, the trumpets of 2the ambush, the trumpets of pursuit when the enemy is defeated, and the trumpets of reassembly when the battle returns. On the trumpets for the assembly of the congregation they shall write, \u201cThe Called of God.\u201d 3On the trumpets for the assembly of the chiefs they shall write, \u201cThe Princes of God.\u201d On the trumpets of the formations they shall write, \u201cThe Rule of God.\u201d On the trumpets of the men of 4renown {they shall write}, the heads of the congregation\u2019s clans when they are assembled at the house of meeting, they shall write, \u201cThe Testimonies of God for a holy congregation.\u201d On the trumpets of the camps 5they shall write, \u201cThe Peace of God in the camps of His holy ones.\u201d On the trumpets for their campaigns they shall write, \u201cThe Mighty deeds of God to scatter the enemy and to put all those who hate 6justice to flight and a withdrawal of mercy from all who hate God.\u201d On the trumpets of the battle formations they shall write, \u2018Formations of the divisions of God to avenge His anger on all Sons of Darkness.\u201d 7On the trumpets for assembling the infantry when the gates of war open that they might go out against the battle line of the enemy, they shall write, \u201cA Remembrance of requital at the appointed time 8of God.\u201d On the trumpets of the slain they shall write, \u201cThe Hand of the might of God in battle so as to bring down all the slain because of unfaithfulness.\u201d On the trumpets of ambush they shall write, 9\u201cMysteries of God to wipe out wickedness.\u201d On the trumpets of pursuit they shall write, \u201cGod has struck all Sons of Darkness, He shall not abate His anger until they are annihilated.\u201d 10When they return from battle to enter the formation, they shall write on the trumpets of retreat, \u201cGod has gathered.\u201d On the trumpets for the way of return 11from battle with the enemy to enter the congregation in Jerusalem, they shall write, \u201cRejoicings of God in a peaceful return.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 6When they go to battle they shall write on their banners, \u201cThe Truth of God,\u201d \u201cThe Righteousness of God,\u201d \u201cThe Glory of God,\u201d \u201cThe Justice of God.\u201d And after these the list of their names in full. 7When they draw near for battle they shall write on their banners, \u201cThe Right hand of God,\u201d \u201cThe Appointed time of God,\u201d \u201cThe Tumult of God,\u201d \u201cThe Slain of God.\u201d After these their names in full. 8When they return from battle they shall write on their banners, \u201cThe Exaltation of God,\u201d \u201cThe Greatness of God,\u201d \u201cThe Praise of God,\u201d \u201cThe Glory of God,\u201d with their names in full.
\n 9The Rule of the Banners of the Congregation: When they set out to battle they shall write on the first banner, \u201cThe Congregation of God,\u201d on the second banner, \u201cThe Camps of God,\u201d on the third, 10\u201cThe Tribes of God,\u201d on the fourth, \u201cThe Clans of God,\u201d on the fifth, \u201cThe Divisions of God,\u201d on the sixth, \u201cThe Assembly of God,\u201d on tie seventh, \u201cThose called 11by God,\u201d and on the eighth, \u201cThe Army of God.\u201d They shall write their names in full with all their order. When they draw near for battle they shall write on their banners, 12\u201cThe Battle of God,\u201d \u201cThe Recompense of God,\u201d \u2018The Cause of God,\u201d \u201cThe Reprisal of God,\u201d \u201cThe Power of God,\u201d \u201cThe Retribution of God,\u201d \u201cThe Might of God,\u201d \u201cThe Annihilation by God of all the vainglorious nations.\u201d And 13their names in full they shall write upon them. When they return from battle they shall write on their banners, \u201cThe Deliverance of God,\u201d \u201cThe Victory of God,\u201d \u201cThe Help of God,\u201d \u201cThe Support of God,\u201d 14\u201cThe Joy of God,\u201d \u201cThe Thanksgivings of God,\u201d \u201cThe Praise of God,\u201d and \u201cThe Peace of God.\u201d
\n 15[The Length of the Bann]ers. The banner of the whole congregation shall be fourteen cubits long; the banner of th[ree tribes, thir]teen cubits [long;] 16[the banner of a tribe,] twelve cubits; the banner of ten thousand, eleve[n cubits; the banner of a thousand, ten cubits; the banner of a hu]ndred, [n]ine cubits; 17[the banner of a fifty, ei]ght cubits; the banner of a ten, sev[en cubits \u2026] 18[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 16And when the [\u2026] stand, they shall arrange seven battle lines, one behind the other, 17and there shall be a space [between \u2026 t]hirty cubits, where the infan[try] shall stand 18[\u2026] forward [\u2026] [\u2026] 19\u201320[\u2026] Col. 6 1seven times, and return to their position. After them, three divisions of infantry shall advance and stand between the battle lines. The first division shall heave into 2the enemy battle line seven battle darts. On the blade of the first dart they shall write, \u201cFlash of a spear for the strength of God.\u201d On the second weapon they shall write, 3\u201dMissiles of blood to fell the slain by the wrath of God.\u201d On the third dart they shall write, \u201cThe Blade of a sword devours the slain of wickedness by the judgment of God.\u201d 4Each of these they shall throw seven times and then return to their position. After these, two divisions of infantry shall march forth and stand between the two battle lines, 5the first division equipped with a spear and a shield and the second division with a shield and a sword; to bring down the slain by the judgment of God, to subdue the battle line 6of the enemy by the power of God, and to render recompense to all the vainglorious nations for their evil. So the kingship shall belong to the God of Israel, and by the holy ones of His people He shall act powerfully.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. 8 1The trumpets shall blow continually to direct the slingmen until they have completed hurling seven 2times. Afterwards the priests shall blow on the trumpets of return, and they shall go along the side of the first battle line 3to take their position. The priests shall blow on the trumpets of assembly, and 4the three divisions of infantry shall go out from the gates and stand between the battle lines, and beside them the cavalrymen, 5at the right and at the left. The priests shall blow on their trumpets a level note, signals for the order of battle. 6And the columns shall be deployed into their formations, each to his position. When they have positioned themselves in three formations, 7the priests shall blow for them a second signal, a low legato note, signals for advance, until they draw near to 8the battle line of the enemy and take hold of their weapons. Then the priests shall blow on the six trumpets 9of the slain a sharp staccato note to direct the battle, and the Levites and all the people with rams\u2019 horns shall blow 10a great battle alarm together in order to melt the heart of the enemy. With the sound of the alarm, 11the battle darts shall fly out to bring down the slain. Then the sound of the rams\u2019 horns shall quiet, but on the tru[m]pets 12the priests shall continue to blow a sharp staccato note to direct the signals of battle until they have hurled into the battle line 13of the enemy seven times. Afterwards, the priests shall blow for them the trumpets of retreat, 14a low note, level and legato.
\n According to this rule the [pr]iests shall blow for the three divisions. When 15the first division throws, the [priests and the Levites and all the people with rams\u2019] horns shall blow a great alarm 16to direct the bat[tle until they have hurled seven times. Afterwards,] the priests [shall blow] for them 17on the trumpe[ts of retreat \u2026 and they shall take their stan]d in their positions in the battle line, 18[\u2026] and shall take up position 19[\u2026 the sl]ain, 20[and all the people with rams\u2019 horns shall blow a very loud battle alarm, and as the sound goes out] Col. 9 1their hands shall begin to bring down the slain, and all the people shall quiet the sound of alarm, but the priests shall continue sounding on the trumpets 2of the slain to direct the fighting, until the enemy are defeated and turn in retreat. The priests shall blow the alarm to direct the battle, 3and when they have been defeated before them, the priests shall blow the trumpets of assembly, and all the infantry shall go out to them from the midst of 4the front battle lines and stand, six divisions in addition to the division which is engaged in battle. Altogether, seven battle lines, twenty-eight thousand 5soldiers, and six thousand horsemen. All these shall pursue in order to destroy the enemy in God\u2019s battle; a total annihilation. 6The priests shall blow for them the trumpets of pursuit, and they shall divide themselves for a pursuit of annihilation against all the enemy. The cavalry 7shall push the enemy back at the flanks of the battle until they are destroyed. When the slain have fallen, the priests shall continue blowing from afar and shall not enter 8into the midst of the slain so as to be defiled by their unclean blood, for they are holy. They shall not allow the oil of their priestly anointment to be profaned with the blood 9of vainglorious nations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 17And[\u2026] for to the four [\u2026 They] shall establish an ambush for the [battle line] of[\u2026] 18and[\u2026 they shall fal]l on the s[lain \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 13For into the hand of the oppressed You will deliver the [ene]mies of all the lands; into the hands of those who are prostrate in the dust, in order to bring down all mighty men of the peoples, to return the recompense 14of the wicked on the head of [\u2026,] to pronounce the just judgment of Your truth on all humankind and to make for Yourself an everlasting name among the people. 15[\u2026] the wars, and to show Yourself great and holy before the remnant of the nations, so that [they] may know [that] 16[\u2026 when You] carry out judgments on Gog (Ezek. 39:11) and on all his company that are as[semb]led [abou]t [us \u2026] 17[\u2026] for You will do battle against them from the heave [ns \u2026] 18[\u2026] upon them for confusion [\u2026] 19\u201320[\u2026] Col. 12 1For You have a multitude of holy ones in the heavens and hosts of angels in Your holy abode to pr[aise] Your [truth.] The chosen ones of the holy people 2You have established for Yourself in a [community. The nu]mber (or The b]ook) of the names of all their host is with You in Your holy dwelling, and the n[umber of the holy one]s is in the abode of Your glory. 3The mercies of [Your] blessing and Your covenant of peace You engraved for them with a stylus of life in order to reign o[ver them] for all time, 4commissioning the hos[ts of] Your [e]lect by their thousands and tens of thousands together with Your holy ones [and] Your angels, and directing them 5in battle [so as to condemn] the earthly adversaries by trial of Your judgments. With the elect of heaven [they] shall prev[ail.]
\n 7And You, O God, are awe[some] in the glory of Your dominion, and the company of Your holy ones is in our midst for etern[al] support. We [shall direc]t our contempt at kings, derision 8and disdain at mighty men. For the Lord is holy, and the King of Glory is with us together with the holy ones. Migh[ty men and] a host of angels are with our commissioned forces. 9The Hero of Wa[r] is with our company, and the host of His spirits is with our steps. Our horsemen are [as] the clouds and as the mist covering the earth, 10and as a steady downpour shedding judgment on all her offspring.
\n Rise up, O Hero. Take Your captives, O Glorious One. Take 11Your plunder, O You who do valiantly. Lay Your hand upon the neck of Your enemies, and Your foot upon the backs of the slain. Crush the nations, Your adversaries, and may Your sword 12devour guilty flesh. Fill Your land with glory, and Your inheritance with blessing, an abundance of cattle in Your fields; silver, gold, and precious 13stones in Your palaces. O Zion, rejoice greatly, and shine with joyful songs, O Jerusalem. Rejoice, all you cities of Judah, open 14your gate[s] forever. That the wealth of the nations might be brought to you, and their kings might serve you. All those who oppressed you shall bow down to you, and the dust 15[of your feet they shall lick. O daughter]s of my people, shout out with a voice of joy, adorn yourselves with ornaments of glory. Rule over the ki[ngdom of the \u2026,] 16[\u2026 and I]srael to reign eternally [\u2026]
\n [\u2026] 17[\u2026] them the mighty men of war, O Jerusalem [\u2026] 18[Be exalt]ed above the heavens, O Lord, [and let Your glory be above all the earth \u2026] 19[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 4And cursed is Belial for his contentious purpose, and accursed for his guilty dominion. And cursed are all spirits of his lot for their wicked purpose.
\n 5Accursed are they for all their impure unclean service. For they are the lot of darkness, but the lot of God is light 6[eterna]l.
\n 7Y[o]u are the God of our fathers. We will bless Your name forever, for we are an [eter]na[l] people. You made a covenant with our fathers, and established it for their seed 8throughout the ages of eternity. In all the appointed times of Your glory there has been a remembrance of Your [kindnesses] in our midst as a help for the remnant and provision for Your covenant 9and to re[count] Your works of truth and the judgments of Your wondrous strength. And You, [O God,] created us for Yourself as an eternal people, and into the lot of light You cast us 10for Your truth. You appointed the Prince of Light from of old to assist us, for in [His] l[ot are all sons of righteous]ness and all spirits of truth are in his dominion. You yourself 11made Belial for the pit, an angel of malevolence, his [dominio]n is in darkne[ss] and his counsel is to condemn and convict. All the spirits 12of his lot, the angels of destruction, walk in accord with the rule of darkness, for it is their only [des]ire. But we, in the lot of Your truth, rejoice in 13Your mighty hand. We rejoice in Your salvation, and revel in [Your] hel[p and] Your [p]eace. Who is like You in strength, O God of Israel, and yet 14Your mighty hand is with the oppressed. What angel or prince is like You for [Your] effe[ctual] support, [fo]r from of old You appointed for Yourself a day of gre[at] battle [\u2026] 15[\u2026] to [sup]port truth and to destroy iniquity, to bring darkness low and to lend might to light, and to [\u2026] 16[\u2026] for an eternal stand, and to annihilate all the Sons of Darkness and joy for [al]l [the Sons of Light.\u2026] 17[\u2026]
\n [\u2026] 18[\u2026 f]or You Yourself appointed us for an app[ointed time \u2026] 19\u201320[\u2026] Col. 14 1like the fire of His fury against the idols of Egypt.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n But we are the remn[ant of Your people. Blessed is] Your name, O God of loving-kindness, the One who kept the covenant for our forefathers. Throughout 9all our generations You have made Your mercies wondrous for the rem[nant of the people] during the dominion of Belial. With all the mysteries of his hatred they have not lead us astray 10from Your covenant. His spirits of destruction You have driven [away from us, and when the me]n of his dominion [condemned themselves], You have preserved the lives of Your redeemed. And You raised up 11the fallen by Your strength, but those who are great in height You will cut dow[n to humble them. And] there is no rescuer for all their mighty men, and no place of refuge for their swift ones. To their honored men 12You will return shame, and all [their] vain existence [shall be as not]hing. But we, Your holy people, shall praise Your name for Your works of truth. 13Because of Your mighty deeds we shall exalt [Your] sp[lendor in all] epochs and appointed times of eternity, at the beginning of day, and at night 14and the exit of evening and morning. For Your [glorio]us p[urpose] is great and Your wondrous mysteries are in [Your] high heavens, to [raise u]p those for Yourself from the dust 15and to humble those from the gods.
\n 16Rise up, rise up, O God of gods, and raise Yourself in power, [O King of Kings \u2026] 17let all the Sons of Darkness [scatter from before You.] Let the light of Your majesty shi[ne forever upon gods and men, as a fire burning in the dark places of the damned.] 18Let it burn [the damned of Sh]eol, as an [eternal] burning [among the transgressors \u2026 in all the appointed times of eternity.\u201d]
\n 19[They shall repeat all the thanksgiving hymns of battle there and then return to their camps \u2026] 20[\u2026] Col. 15 1For it is a time of distress for Isra[el, an appoin]tment for battle against all the nations. The purpose of God is eternal redemption, 2but annihilation for all nations of wickedness. All those pr[epared] for battle shall set out and camp opposite the king of the Kittim and all the forces 3of Belial that are assembled with him for a day [of vengeance] by the sword of God.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 3They shall carry out all this Rule [on] that [day] at the place where they stand opposite the camps of the Kittim. Then the priests shall blow for them the trumpets 4of remembrance. The gates of w[ar] shall open, [and] the infantry shall go out and stand in columns between the battle lines. The priests shall blow for them 5a signal for the formation and the columns [shall deplo]y at the sound of the trumpets until each man has taken his station. Then the priests shall blow for them 6a second signal, [signs for confron]tation. When they stand near the battle line of the Kittim, within throwing range, each man shall raise his hand with his weapon of 7war. Then the six [priests shall blow on the tr]umpets of the slain a sharp staccato note to direct the fighting. The Levites and all the people with 8rams\u2019 horns shall blow [a battle signa]l, a loud noise. As the sound goes forth, the infantry shall begin to bring down the slain of the Kittim, and all 9the people shall cease the signal, [but the priest]s shall continue blowing on the trumpets of the slain and the battle shall prevail against the Kittim.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 15And he shall say in response: [\u201cBlessed is God, for] he tests the he[ar]t of His people in the crucible. And not [\u2026] have your slain [\u2026] For you have obeyed from of old 16the mysteries of God. [Now as for you, take courage and stand in the gap, do not fear when God strengthens \u2026] 17\u201320[\u2026] Col. 17 1and He shall appoint their retribution with burning [\u2026] those tested by the crucible. He shall sharpen the implements of war, and they shall not become blunt until [all the nations of] wickedness [come to an end.] 2But, as for you, remember the judgment [of Nadab and Abi]hu, the sons of Aaron, by whose judgment God showed Himself holy before [all the people. But Eleazar] 3and Ithamar He preserved for Himself for an eternal covenant [of priesthood.]
\n 4But, as for you, take courage and do not fear them [\u2026 for] their end is emptiness and their desire is for the void. Their support is without st[rength] and they do not [know that from the God] 5of Israel is all that is and that will be. He [\u2026] in all which exists in eternity. Today is His appointed time to subdue and to humiliate the prince of the realm 6of wickedness. He will send eternal support to the company of His redeemed by the power of the majestic angel of the authority of Michael. By eternal light 7He shall joyfully light up the covenant of Israel; peace and blessing for the lot of God, to exalt the authority of Michael among the gods and the dominion 8of Israel among all flesh. Righteousness shall rejoice on high, and all the children of His truth shall rejoice in eternal knowledge. But as for you, O children of His covenant, 9take courage in God\u2019s crucible, until He shall wave His hand and complete His fiery trials; His mysteries concerning your existence.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Rise up, O Hero,] 3[Take Your captives, O Glorious One, and ta]ke Your plunder, O You Who do valiantly. Lay Your hand upon the neck of Your enemies, and Your fo[o]t [upon the backs of] 4[the slain. Crush the nations, Yo]ur [adversaries,] and let Your sword devour flesh. Fill Your land with glory, and Your inheritance with blessing, an ab[undance of cattle] 5[in Your fields, silver and gold] in Your palaces. O Zion, rejoice greatly, and rejoice, all you cities of Ju[dah. Open] 6[your gates forever, so that] the wealth of the nations [might be brought to you, and their kings shall serve you. All they that oppressed] you shall bow down to you, 7[and they shall lick the dust of your feet. O dau]ghters of my [peo]ple, burst out with a voice of joy. Adorn yourselves with ornaments of glory, and r[ule] over the ki[ngdom of the \u2026] 8[\u2026] Your [\u2026] and Israel for an [et]ernal dominion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThus reorganized, the manuscripts can now be characterized as follows. Manuscript A represents a text similar to the Cave 1 copy, but with a fuller representation of the seven engagements of the troops in the final battle. Manuscript B appears to be a shorter, Reader\u2019s Digest form of the Cave 1 composition. Manuscript C comprises a hymn that is not even related to the War Scroll. Rather, it is related to the Thanksgiving Hymns (text 12).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Frag. 13 1[\u2026 wi]th the gods [\u2026] 2[\u2026] the smallest of you shall pursue a tho[usand \u2026] 3[\u2026 And after] these [w]ords, [the priests] shall blow [to order the third battle with the Kittim and the columns] 4[shall deploy at the sound of the trum]pets. When each m[an] has taken [his position] by division, [the priest shall blow a second blast on the trumpets for] 5[advance. When] they [have approached] the battle line of the Kittim, within throwing range, [each man] shall raise his hand [with his battle weapon. The priests shall blow, to direct] 6[the battle, on the t]rumpets of the slain, a staccato note. Then the Levites and all [the people with rams\u2019 horns shall sound a battle blast, and the formations] 7[shall be figh]ting one behind the other with no space between them. For [\u2026] 8[\u2026 and] all the people shall answer, raising [on]e voice, and say [\u2026]
\n Frag. 15 1[\u2026] and there is no [\u2026] 2[\u2026] and a processio[n \u2026] 3And behold we are taking position to advance [\u2026] 4[\u2026]
\n 5[\u2026 And] he shall say to them in response, \u201cBe strong and courageous [\u2026] 6[\u2026 For the] outstretched [hand] of God is upon all the Gentiles, [He shall] not [\u2026] 7[\u2026] kingship is [for God] Almighty and salvation is for His people. And y[ou \u2026] 8[\u2026] his [im]purity, the gods shall advance upon you with [\u2026] 9[\u2026] and to cast all [their] corpse[s \u2026] 10[\u2026] and all the spirits of [his] lot [\u2026] 11[\u2026] eternal, together wi[th \u2026] 12[\u2026] war [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 6This is the rule when they camp and [\u2026 and in] their divisions [\u2026] around, outside [\u2026] and women, young boys, and any man who is aff[licted with impurity in his flesh shall not come near] 7[the battle] line. The craftsmen [and blacksm]iths and those enlisted as [\u2026] for their watches [\u2026] the battle line until they return.
\n And there shall be two thousand cubits between the [camps and the latrine, so] 8no nakedness might be seen in their surroundings. And when they set out to prepare for battle [so as to sub]due [the enemy,] some of them [shall be] dismissed by lot from each tribe according to those enlisted for [each] day\u2019s duty. 9That day, men from each tribe [shall] go out from the camps to the house of me[eting \u2026 and] the [priest]s, the Levites, and all the chiefs of the camps [shall] go out to them. Then they shall pass before [them] there [\u2026] 10by thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens. Each man who is not [clean in regard to his genitals] that [nig]ht [shall] no[t g]o out with them to battle. For the holy angels are with their battle lines [\u2026]
\n 11[When] the formation standing ready to pass to all [\u2026] of battle for that day [g]oes up [\u2026], three formations shall stand one behind the other, and they shall establish a space between [each] battle formation. 12[Then they shall go out] to the battle in turn. These are the [infan]trymen and alongside them are [cavalry]men, [and they shall take their position between the battle] formations. But if they establish an ambush for a battle formation, the three ambushing formations shall [stay at a dist]ance and not ris[e up \u2026] 13[\u2026] the battle. When they [h]ear the trumpets of alarm, the [infantry]men [shall begin to bring do]wn the guilty casualties. Then the ambush shall rise up from its place and also order its [battle form]ations [\u2026]
\n 14The reassembly: from the right and left, from be[hind and before, the f]our direction[s \u2026] in the battles of annihilation. All the battle formation[s] which engaged the en[emy] for battle [shall be gathered] 15together. The [fi]rst battle formation shall [set out to battle] and the second shall remain stand[ing] at their post. When their period is completed, the first shall return and s[tand \u2026] 16The sec[ond foray \u2026] when the battle is arrayed. When the second battle formation shall have completed their period, they shall return and t[ake their position.] 17And the t[hird foray \u2026 Then the Chief Priest shall take his stand with his brothers the priests,] the Levites, and men [of the arm]y. And all the while the priests shall be sounding on the trumpets [\u2026]
\n [\u2026] 18A lin[en] sash [of twined fine linen, violet, purple and crimson, and a varicolored design, the work of a skillful workman, and decorated c]aps [on their heads. And they shall not take them into the sanctuary, f[or] they are garments for bat[tle.]
\n 19According to all [this] rule [\u2026] chiefs of the camp [\u2026] 20for [\u2026] all [\u2026] they will completely annihilate [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n To 20[\u2026 rejoice, you] righteous among the angels of [\u2026] in the holy habitation. Praise Him in song [\u2026] 21[\u2026 P]roclaim with heartfelt joy [\u2026] joyously forever without c[easing \u2026] 22[\u2026] to raise up the horn on h[igh \u2026] 23[\u2026] to make known His power in might [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 13[\u2026] upon the trumpets of the Sabbaths [it is written \u2026] 14[\u2026 for] the regular [grain offering] and the burnt offerings it is written, [\u2026]
\n \u2014M.G.A.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThe unique personal presentation of the work and the self-conscious divine mission of the author have led many researchers to conclude that the psalms were written by the Teacher of Righteousness himself. Some students have attempted a more refined analysis in order to isolate \u201ctrue\u201d Teacher psalms at the center of the collection (Cols. 10\u201316 according to one, 13\u201316 in the eyes of another; see Hymns 10\u201313, 15\u201320, 23), noting that the themes of personal distress and affliction as well as the claim of being the recipient or mediator of revelation are especially strong here. Only one thing is sure: the debate will continue.
\nThe name for this collection of psalms reflects the repeated introductory phrase, \u201cI give thanks to You, O Lord.\u201d A secondary formula, \u201cBlessed are You, O Lord,\u201d appears as a variant. Given the fragmentary nature of the manuscript, only twenty of these introductions are evident, but at least ten additional songs can be identified on the basis of context. The original work may have contained as many as fifty psalms. The large percentage of overlap between the eight surviving manuscripts, indicating that somewhat more than half of the total text has survived, supports this possibility.
\nOld Testament vocabulary and phraseology so abound in the Thanksgiving Hymns that readers feel they have entered a virtual mosaic of biblical quotations. The Psalms, Isaiah (especially chaps. 40\u201355), Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Job, and Proverbs are the prominent sources. Yet, surprisingly, only one passage can be considered an actual quotation (1QHa 10:31\u201332 quotes Ps. 26:12). It thus follows that, in stark contrast to the New Testament and rabbinic literature, there are no quotation formulas: \u201cthus says the Lord\u201d; \u201cas it is written in the book of \u2026\u201d The only possible such formula appears in 1QHa 4:24, where reference is made to the fact that God spoke through Moses. Nevertheless, despite the absence of actual quotations, biblical imagery and language do prevail.
\nThe large number of copies of the Thanksgiving Hymns\u2014and the few significant differences between them\u2014underscore the importance of the composition. Thanksgiving Hymns may have enjoyed a \u201ccanonical\u201d status among some ancient readers.
\nThe order of the columns presented here differs from the early publications. We have followed the lead of Emile Puech* and clues to the structure in the recent official publication of the Cave 4 manuscripts by Eileen Schuller.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nHymn 1. A community hymn of thanksgiving for God\u2019s holiness and strength while acknowledging the sin and weakness of humankind.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [\u2026] 20[\u2026] Your [stre]ngth [\u2026] 23[\u2026] 24[\u2026] by measure through all the years of eternity [\u2026] 25[\u2026] every seal [\u2026] 26[\u2026] humankind, according to his insight and [\u2026] 27[\u2026] His kingdom. Who has done all of these things? [\u2026] 28[\u2026] and delight is Yours, and in righteousness You set [\u2026] 29[\u2026] before You [\u2026] and the vessel of c[lay \u2026] 30[\u2026] he shall answer, You are honored above all g[ods \u2026] 31[\u2026] holiness, and just as it is Your desire to [\u2026] 32[\u2026] for Your name You shall [\u2026] in the h[oly] assembly [\u2026] Col. 4 13[\u2026] from a low measure [\u2026] 14[\u2026] revealed without justic[e \u2026] in the spirit 15[\u2026] fire devours [\u2026] desire without 16[\u2026] on dry ground and a hind[rance \u2026 w]ithout justice 17[\u2026] encountering very suddenl[y \u2026] as wa[x melts \u2026] 18[\u2026] judgment by the spirit seeks [You \u2026] 19[\u2026] deceitfully with [\u2026] commandment. By the spirit as [\u2026] 20[\u2026] with the floggings of m[en \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n And it is these which [You] de[termined \u2026] to judge them. [You determined] 25all Your works before You created them, together with the host of Your spirits and the assembly of [Your holy ones,] Your holy expanse [and all] 26its hosts, together with the earth and all that springs from it, in the seas and the deeps [according to] all Your designs for the end of time 27and the eternal visitation. For You have determined them from of old, and also the work of [unrighteousness \u2026] in them so that 28they may tell of Your glory throughout all Your dominion, for You have shown them that which shall not [\u2026] of old and creating 29new things, breaking down those things established from of old and [setting up] that which shall be forever. For You [\u2026] and You continue 30forever and ever. By the mysteries of Your insight [You] assigned all these things to make Your glory known. [But what is] the spirit of flesh that it might understand 31all these things and obtain insight into the council of [Your] great [wonders?] And what is one born of woman among all [Your] awesome [works]? He is but 32an edifice of dust, kneaded with water, [\u2026] his foundation is obscene shame [\u2026] and a perverted spirit ruled 33him.
\n If he acts wickedly, he will become [a sign for] eternity and a sign to the generations, [\u2026 to all] flesh. Only by Your goodness 34shall a man be justified, and by the abundance of [Your] compass[ion \u2026] with Your splendor You glorify him, and You [satisfy him with an abu]ndance of delights; with eternal peace 35and long life. For [You have spoken and] Your word will not depart.
\n And I, Your servant, know, 36by the spirit which You placed in me [that Your words are true] and all Your works are just and Your word will not depart. And [\u2026] 37Your times are appointed [\u2026 c]hosen for their delight. And I shall know [\u2026] 38and wicked [\u2026] to consider [\u2026] 39[\u2026] Your [s]pirits and [\u2026] 40[\u2026] Col. 6 12[\u2026] in Your people and [\u2026] 13[\u2026] our ears [\u2026] men of truth and [\u2026] 14[\u2026] insight and seekers of understanding [\u2026 lov]ers of compassion and the humble of spirit, purified of 15[\u2026 by] affliction and purified by the crucible of [\u2026] who strengthen themselves until [\u2026] Your judgments 16[\u2026] and those watching out for Your salvation [\u2026] and You have established Your statutes [among them] to do 17[\u2026 to jud]ge the world and to distribute the inheritance among all [\u2026] of holiness for fu[ture] generations and all 18[\u2026] their works with [\u2026] the men of Your vision.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 28And I know by the abundance of Your goodness, and by the oath I took upon myself that I should not sin against You 29[and] that I should not do anything which is evil in Your eyes. And thus I was brought into association (or in the Yahad) with all the men of my council, In accordance with 30a man\u2019s insight I will advance him, and in accordance with the abundance of his inheritance I will love him. I will not consider an evil man, nor shall I acknowledge a b[rib]e from the w[icked.] 31I will [not] exchange Your truth for wealth, nor any of Your judgments for a bribe. For wh[en You draw a ma]n [near], 32[I lov]e him, and when You remove him, I will abhor him. Indeed, I will not bring into the council of [Your] t[ruth those who] have turned 33[from] Your covena[nt.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n I know by Your understanding that it is not by human strength [\u2026] a man\u2019s 26way is [not] in himself, nor is a person able to determine his step. But I know that in Your hand is the inclination of every spirit [\u2026 and all] his [works] 27You have determined before ever You created him. How should any be able to change Your words? You alone have [creat]ed 28the righteous one, and from the womb You established him to give heed to Your covenant at the appointed time of grace and to walk in all things, nourishing himself 29in the abundance of Your compassion, and relieving all the distress of his soul for an eternal salvation and everlasting peace without want. Thus You raise 30his glory above the mortal.
\n But the wicked You created for [the time of] Your [w]rath, and from the womb You set them apart for the day of slaughter. 31For they walk in a way which is not profitable, and they reject Your covenant [and] their soul abhors Your [truth.] They have no delight in all that 32You have commanded, but they have chosen that which You hate. All [\u2026] You have prepared them in order to execute great judgments among them 33before all Your creatures that they might be a sign [\u2026] eternal, so that all might know Your glory and great power. 34And what indeed is a mere human that it might have insight into [\u2026] how is dust able to determine its step?
\n 35You Yourself have formed the spirit, and its activity You have determined, [\u2026] and from You is the way of all life. I know that 36no wealth compares with Your truth, and [\u2026] Your holiness. I know that You have chosen them above all 37and forever they shall serve You. You will not receive [a bribe \u2026] nor a cover-up for the deeds wickedness, for 38You are a God of truth, and You [abhor] all injustice [\u2026] shall not be before You. [For] I know 39that [\u2026] is Yours [\u2026] do and I shall [\u2026] Your holiness [\u2026] 40[\u2026] for in [\u2026] Col. 8 10[\u2026] all [\u2026] 11[\u2026] He brought into the number of 12[\u2026] in heaven and on earth 13[\u2026] to sanctify without [\u2026] and in Your hand is the judgment of them all 14[\u2026] forever. [\u2026] source of wickedness [\u2026] and what are they regarded [\u2026] 15[\u2026] to sanctify in accordance with all [Your] works [\u2026] and nothing is done 16[\u2026] and stiff-necked spirit [\u2026] to silence [\u2026] and according to Your counsel he (?) visited [\u2026] 17[\u2026] to give ear to a glorious voice [\u2026] with [\u2026] 18[\u2026] a perverse [sp]irit of injustice [\u2026] to [\u2026] 19[\u2026] 20by [Your] ho[ly] spirit [\u2026] and he (?) shall not [\u2026] 21[Your] hol[y] spirit [\u2026] the fullness of [heav]en [and] earth [\u2026] Your [g]lory, the fullness of [\u2026] 22And I know that in [Your] will for man You have multiplied [\u2026] Your truth in all [\u2026] 23and the place of righteousness [\u2026] which You appointed him [\u2026] to stumble in all [\u2026] 24And as I come to know all these things [I] will find the proper reply, prostrating myself and [\u2026] for my rebellion, seeking a spirit of [\u2026] 25encouraging myself by [Your] h[oly] spirit, clinging to the truth of Your covenant, [serv]ing You in truth and a perfect heart, and loving [Your holy name.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n You have stretched out the heavens 12for Your glory, You [formed] all [their hosts] according to Your will, and the powerful spirits according to their laws, before 13they became [Your holy] angels [\u2026], as eternal spirits in their dominions, luminaries for their mysteries, 14stars according to [their] paths, [and all the storm winds] according to their task, meteors and lightning bolts according to their service, and the storehouses 15designed for their needs [\u2026] for their secrets.
\n You have created the earth with Your strength, 16seas and deeps [\u2026 and] their [\u2026] You have determined in Your wisdom, and all that is in them 17You have determined according to Your will. [You appointed them] for the spirit of man whom You have formed upon the earth, for all the days of eternity 18and the everlasting generations in accordance with [their] w[orks \u2026] in their ordained seasons. You apportioned their service in all their generations and judgm[en]t 19for its appointed times for the domini[on \u2026] their [\u2026] for successive generations and the punishment for their retribution as well as 20all their afflictions. [\u2026] You have apportioned it to all their offspring according to the number of everlasting generations 21and for all the years of eternity [\u2026] and in the wisdom of Your knowledge You determined their destiny before 22they came into existence and according [to Your will] everything come[s to pass], and nothing happens apart from You.
\n 23These things I know through Your understanding, for You have opened my ears to wonderful mysteries even though I am a vessel of clay and kneaded with water, 24a foundation of shame and a spring of filth, a melting pot of iniquity and a structure of sin, a spirit of error, perverted without 25understanding and terrified by righteous judgments. What can I say that is not known and declare that is not told? Everything 26is engraved before You with the ink of remembrance for all the times of eternity, for the numbered seasons of eternal years in all their appointed times. 27Nothing is hidden, nor does anything exist apart from Your presence. How shall a man explain his sin, and how shall he defend his iniquities, 28and how can he return injustice for righteous judgment? You are God of knowledge, all righteous works and true counsel belong to You; 29sinful service and the deceitful works belong to the sons of men.
\n You created 30breath for the tongue, and You know its words. You determined the fruit of the lips before they came about. You appoint words by a measuring line 31and the utterance of the breath of the lips by calculation. You bring forth the measuring lines in respect to their mysteries, and the utterances of breath in respect to their reckoning in order to make known 32Your glory and recount Your wonders in all Your works of truth and Your righteous jud[gments] and to praise Your name 33openly, so that all who know You might bless You according to their insight forever [and ever.]
\n And You, in Your compassion 34and Your great mercies, have steeled the spirit of man against the agony of [\u2026] You have cleansed it from the abundance of iniquity, 35that it might recount Your wonders before all Your creatures. [\u2026] the judgments of my afflictions, 36and to humankind all the wonders which You have confirmed in [me before hu]mankind.
\n Hearken, 37O wise men, you who meditate upon knowledge but are reckless. Be of steadfast mind [\u2026] increase prudence. 38O you righteous, put an end to injustice. All you whose way is perfect take hold of [\u2026] of the destitute. 39Be patient and do not reject any [of the commandments of God. But the fo]olish at heart do not understand 40these things, but by the counsel of [Your] tru[th \u2026] 41[\u2026 and the bru]tal will gna[sh their teeth \u2026] Col. 10 3\u20134[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n But You, O God, reject every plan 14of Belial, and Your counsel alone shall stand, and the plan of Your heart shall remain forever. They are pretenders; they hatch the plots of Belial; 15they seek You with a double heart, and are not founded in Your truth. A root producing poison and wormwood is in their scheming. 16With a willful heart they look about and seek You in idols. They have set the stumbling block of their iniquity before themselves, and they come 17to seek You through the words of lying prophets corrupted by error. With mocking lips and a strange tongue they speak to Your people 18so as make a mockery of all their works by deceit. For they did not choose the wa[y of] Your [heart] nor attend to Your word, but they said 19concerning the vision of knowledge, \u201cIt is not sure,\u201d and concerning the way of Your heart, \u201cIt is not the way.\u201d
\n But You, O God, shall answer them by judging them 20in Your strength [according to] their idols and the multitude of their transgressions, in order that they, who have turned away from Your covenant, might be caught in their own schemes. 21You shall cut off in ju[dgm]ent all deceitful men; seers of error shall no longer be found. For there is no deception in any of Your works, 22and no deceit in the deliberation of Your heart. Those who are in harmony with You shall stand before You forever, and those who walk in the way of Your heart 23shall be secure forevermore. I myself, when I hold fast to You, stand up straight and arise against those who disdain me; my hands are against all who despise me. For 24they esteem [me] not [thou]gh You display Your might through me, and reveal Yourself to me in Your strength as perfect light. You do not cover with shame the faces 25of all those who are sought by me, who are meeting together (or in the Yahad) in accordance with Your covenant. Those who walk in the way of Your heart have listened to me; they are drawing themselves up before You 26in the council of the holy ones. You cause their judgment to endure forever and truth to go forth without obstruction. You do not allow them to be led astray at the hand of the scoundrels 27when they plot against them. You put the fear of them in Your people and You make them a war club to all the peoples of the lands so as to cut off in judgment all 28those who transgress Your word.
\n But by me You have illumined the face of many (or the general membership) and have strengthened them uncountable times. For You have given me understanding of the mysteries of 29Your wonder, and in Your wondrous council You have confirmed me; doing wonders before many (or the general membership) for the sake of Your glory, and making known 30Your mighty deeds to all living. What is mortal man in comparison with this? And where is the vessel of clay that is able to carry out wondrous deeds? For he is sinful 31from the womb and in the guilt of unfaithfulness until old age. I know that man has no righteousness, nor does the son of man walk in the perfect 32way. All the works of righteousness belong to God Most High. The way of man does not last except by the spirit which God created for him, 33to perfect a way for humankind so that they may know all His works by His mighty power and the abundance of His mercies upon all those 34who do His will.
\n But as for me, fear and trembling have taken hold of me and all my bones break apart. My heart melts as wax over the fire, and my knees become 35as water which is poured down over a slope. For I remember my guilt together with the unfaithfulness of my fathers, when the wicked rise against Your covenant 36and the scoundrels against Your word. I said in my transgression, I am abandoned by Your covenant. But when I remembered the power of Your hand together with 37the abundance of Your mercies, I stood upright and firm and my spirit grew strong to stand against affliction. For [I] rested 38in Your mercies and the abundance of Your compassion. For You atone for iniquity and purif[y] man from guilt by Your righteousness. 39But not for man, [but for] Your [glory] You have worked, for You created both the righteous and the wicked [\u2026] 40[\u2026] I will hold fast to Your covenant until [\u2026] 41[\u2026 befor]e You. For You are truth, and all [Your] w[orks] are righteousness [\u2026] Col. 13 3to the day with [\u2026] 4Your forgiveness and the abundance [of Your mercies \u2026] 5And when I realized this, [You] comforted [me \u2026] 6in accordance with Your will, and by Your hand is the judgment of them all [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 20But You, O my God, turn the tempest to a whisper, and the life of the distressed You have brought to safety as a bir[d from the snare and] as prey from the power of 21lions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n But You, O my God, 35have opened a wide space in my heart, but they continue to press in, and they shut me up in deep darkness, so that I eat the bread of groaning, 36and my drink is tears without end. For my eyes have become weak from anger and my soul by daily bitterness. Grief and misery 37surround me, and shame is upon my face. My bread has become strife, and my drink contention. They enter my bones, 38causing my spirit to stumble and putting an end to my strength. In accordance with the mysteries of transgression, they are perverting the works of God by their guilt. For I have been bound with ropes 39which cannot be pulled loose and with fetters which cannot be broken. A strong wall [surrounds me;] iron bars and [bronze] gates [which can no]t be opened. 40My prison is reckoned with the deep without [escape \u2026 the torrents of], 41[Be]l[i]al encompass my soul [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n For all 12their works are in Your truth, and in Your mercies You will judge them with abundant compassion and bountiful forgiveness, teaching them according to Your word. 13According to Your upright truth You determined them in Your counsel for Your glory. For Your sake You have worked to make the law and truth great for [\u2026] 14the men of Your council among humankind, to recount Your wonders to successive generations and [med]itate unceasingly on Your mighty works.
\n 15All the peoples shall know Your truth and all nations Your glory. For You have brought [Your] t[ruth and g]lory 16to all the men of Your council, in the lot together with the angels of presence. And there is no mediator for [Your] ho[ly ones \u2026] 17its fruit, for [\u2026] They will return at Your glorious word and they shall be Your princes in the [eternal] lo[t.\u2026] 18a blossom, as a flo[wer that blooms for] eternal [splend]or, to raise up a shoot to be the branches of an eternal planting. It will cast shade over all the wor[ld and its branches will reach] 19as far as the heaven[s] and its roots to the depths. All the rivers of Eden [shall water] its [b]r[anch]es.
\n There shall be [seas without] 20limits and they shall encircle the world without end, and as far as Sheol [\u2026] the spring of light shall become an everlasting fountain 21without turning aside. In its brilliant flames all the child[ren of injustice] shall burn, [and it shall] become a fire which burns up all the men of 22guilt completely. They who committed themselves to my testimony have let themselves be seduced by [false] inter[preters, so as to bring the stranger] into the service of righteousness.
\n 23But You, O God, have commanded them to gain profit from their ways by [walking] in the way of [Your] holin[ess.] The uncircumcised, the defiled, and the violent 24do not traverse it. They stagger away from the way of Your heart and in the destruction [of their sin] they [stumb]le. Like a counselor, Belial is 25with their heart. [They establish] a scheme of wickedness; they wallow in their guilt. [\u2026] I have [become] as a sailor on a ship in the raging 26seas; their waves and all their breakers come over me. A staggering wind roars [without] calm to revive the soul nor any 27paths to make a straight way over the waters. The depths roar to my groaning and [my] lif[e approaches] the gates of death. I am
\n 28as one who enters a fortified city and seeks shelter behind a high wall until his deliverance. I rejo[ice] in Your truth, my God, for You 29set a foundation upon the rock, beams upon a just measuring line and tru[e] plumb line, to [ma]ke the tested stones into a 30strong building which shall not be shaken. All who enter it shall not totter. For the stranger may not enter her [gat]es; armored doors do not allow 31entry, and strong bolts which do not shatter. A troop with its weapons of war may not enter in, though all the s[words] of 32wicked wars be destroyed.
\n Then the sword of God shall hasten to the time of judgment and all the children of His truth shall awaken to put an end to [the children of] 33wickedness, and all the children of guilt shall be no more. The hero shall draw his bow, and the fortification shall open [\u2026] 34as an open country without end. The eternal gates shall open to bring out the weapons of war, and they shall be migh[t]y from one end of the world to the other 35[\u2026] But there is no escape for the creatures of guilt, they shall be trampled down to destruction with no rem[nant. And there is no] hope in the abundance of [\u2026] 36and for all the heroes of war there is no refuge.
\n For [victory belongs] to God Most High [\u2026] 37Raise the ensign, O you who lie in the dust, and let the worms of the dead lift a banner for [\u2026] they cut [\u2026] 38in the battles of the arrogant. And He shall cause a raging flood to pass through, which shall not enter the fortified city [\u2026] 39[\u2026] for plaster and as a beam for [\u2026] 40truth [\u2026] Col. 15 4[\u2026] I am speechless [\u2026] these [\u2026] 5[\u2026] my [ar]m is shattered at the shoulder, and my foot has sunk in the mire. My eyes are sealed shut from seeing 6evil, my ears from hearing of bloodshed, and my heart is stupefied because of evil plotting. For Belial is manifest when the true nature of their being is revealed. 7All the foundations of my frame crumble. My bones are separated, and my bowels are like a ship in a raging 8storm. My heart roars as to destruction, and a spirit of staggering overwhelms me. All because of the ruin caused by their sin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 13[And] You, my God, have appointed me as a holy counsel to the weary. You [have taught me] Your covenant and my tongue is as one of Your disciples. 14But there is no word for the spirit of disasters, nor a proper reply for any of the children of guilt. For lying lips shall be speechless. 15For all who attack me You will condemn to judgment, so that in me You might divide between the righteous and the ungodly. 16For You know the intention of every work, and every reply You discern. You have established my heart 17[in accordance with] Your [te]aching and Your truth, setting my steps straight in the paths of righteousness, so that I may walk in Your presence in the domain of 18[the righteous o]nes in paths of glory {and life} and peace without t[urning and ne]ver ceasing.
\n 19But You know the inclination of Your servant, that [I have] not [relied on my own power] to exalt [myself,] 20finding security in my strength. Nor have I any fleshly refuges [\u2026] no works of righteousness to rescue myself from [\u2026] 21[with]out forgiveness. I lean on the mult[itude of Your compassion and in the abundance of] Your mercy I await, causing 22the plant to blossom and a shoot to grow up; taking refuge in Your strength and [\u2026 For in] Your righteousness You have stood me 23in Your covenant, and I have taken hold of Your truth.
\n And Yo[u \u2026] and You have appointed me as a father to the children of mercy 24and as a guardian to men of portent. They open the mouth wide like a nursing ch[ild \u2026] and as a child delights in the embrace of 25its guardian. And You have given me victory over all who condemn me, and the [rem]nant of those who warred against me are sh[attered.] Those who 26prosecuted me are as chaff before the wind, and my dominion is over [\u2026 And You,] my [Go]d, have helped my soul, and You have exalted my horn 27on high. I shine forth in sevenfold light, in l[ight which] You have [esta]blished for Your glory. 28For You are as an [eter]nal light for me, and You establish my foot upon the level gr[ound \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n For You are an eternal God, and all Your ways endure for eternity 35without end; there is none beside You. And what then is the man of vacuity and the master of vanity, that he should clearly understand Your wondrous 36mighty works?<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n But You, O [G]od, You protect its fruit with the mystery of powerful warriors, 13holy spirits, and the whirling flame of fire so that none may [come to the] fountain of life, nor with eternal trees 14drink the waters of holiness, nor make his fruit flourish with [the plan]t of the heavens. Namely, the one though he sees has not recognized, 15and considering has not believed in the spring of life and so gives [\u2026] eternal. I have become the mockery of flooding rivers, 16for they toss up their slime over me.
\n 17But You, O my God, have placed Your words in my mouth, as showers of early rain, for all [who thirst] and as a spring of living waters. The heavens shall not fail to open, 18nor shall they run dry, but shall become a stream pouring out up[on \u2026] water and then to seas without en[d.] 19Those hidden away flow suddenly[\u2026] and they shall become a de[luge for every] 20green and dry tree; a lake for every wild animal and bi[rd.\u2026 as] lead in mighty water[s,] 21[\u2026] fire and they dry up. But the planting of fruit [\u2026] eternally, to a glorious Eden and frui[t \u2026] 22And by my hand You have opened their spring with [its] channels [\u2026] turning in accordance with the proper measurement, and the stand 23of their trees according to the plumb line of the sun for [\u2026] glorious branches. When I extend my hand to weed 24its ditches, its roots stretch out into the flinty stone and [\u2026] their trunk in the earth. In the time of heat it retains 25its strength. But if I withdraw my hand, it shall become like a junip[er in the wilderness;] its trunk as nettles in a barren land, and its ditches 26shall produce thorns and thistles, briars and weeds [\u2026 on] its banks turn into worthless trees. In 27the heat its leaves wither and are not restored by the spri[ng of water \u2026 my] dwelling is with the sick, and [my] heart k[no]ws 28agonies.
\n I have become like a man who is forsaken by [\u2026] there is no refuge for me. For my agony breaks out 29to bitterness, and an incurable pain without stopping, [\u2026 ro]ars over me, like those who descend into Sheol. Among 30the dead my spirit searches, for [my] li[fe] goes down to the pit [\u2026] my soul is faint day and night 31without rest. And my agony breaks out as a burning fire shut up within [my] b[ones] whose flame consumes for days on end, 32putting an end to my strength without ceasing and destroying my flesh without end. The billows break over me 33and my soul is completely worn down. For my strength is departed from my body, my heart is poured out as water, 34and my flesh is melted as wax. The strength of my loins has become a calamity, my arm is broken from the shoulder, [and I am no]t [able] to swing my hand. 35My [foo]t is caught in fetters, my knees become as water, and I am not able to take a step; there is no sound to the tread of my feet. 36[\u2026] are pulled loose by stumbling chains, and my tongue You had exalted in my mouth, but no longer. No more can 37my [tong]ue give forth its voice for instru[ction] to revive the spirits of those who stumble, and to support the weary with a word. The voice of my lips is silent 38[\u2026] with chains of judgment [\u2026] or in the bitterness [\u2026] heart [\u2026] dominion 39[\u2026] the earth [\u2026] 40[\u2026] they have been silenced as not 41[\u2026] humankind, not [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n But in You, I [\u2026] 19with me, and not [\u2026] 20And when they plot [\u2026] against me, [\u2026] and if the face shows shame [\u2026] 21for me. And You [\u2026] You strengthened my enemies against me as a stumbling block to [\u2026] 22men of war [\u2026 sh]ame of face and reproach for those grumble against me.
\n 23But You, O my God, for [\u2026] You plead my case. For in the mystery of Your wisdom You have reproved me. 24You hide the truth in [its time \u2026 until] its appointed time. Your chastisement has become joy and gladness to me, 25and my agonies have become an et[ernal] healing and unending [\u2026] The contempt of my enemies has become a glorious crown for me, and my stumbling, eternal strength. 26For by [Your \u2026] and Your glory, my light has shined forth, for You have caused light from darkness 27to shine for me [\u2026 You bring healing for] my wounds; for my stumbling, wonderful strength; an infinite space 28for the distress of [my] soul. [You are] my place of refuge, my stronghold, the rock of my strength and my fortress. In You 29I take refuge from all [\u2026] for an eternal escape.
\n For You from my father 30have known me, from the womb [You have set me apart and from the belly of] my mother You have rendered good to me. From the breasts of she who conceived me, Your compassion 31has been mine. And in the embrace of my nurse [\u2026] and from my youth You have shined the insight of Your judgment on me. 32With a sure truth You have supported me, and by Your holy spirit You have delighted me; even until this day [\u2026] 33Your righteous chastisement is with my [\u2026] and the protection of Your peace delivers my soul. With my steps is 34abundant forgiveness and bountiful compassion when You enter into judgment with me. Until old age You shall provide for me, for 35my father did not know me, and my mother abandoned me to You. For You are a father to all the children of Your truth, and You rejoice 36over them as a loving mother over her nursing child. As a guardian with his embrace, You provide for all Your creatures.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 10Behold, You are Chief of the gods and King of the glorious, Lord of every spirit and Ruler over every creature. 11Apart from You nothing is done, nor is there any knowing without Your will. There is no one beside You 12and no one approaches You in strength. No one can compare to Your glory and as to Your strength, there is no price. 13Who among all the celebrated creatures of Your wonder can maintain the strength to take a stand before Your glory? 14So what then is he, who returns to his dust, that he should maintain str[en]gth? Only for Your glory have You done all of these things.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 22And I, according to my knowledge of [Your] truth [\u2026] and when I gaze upon Your glory, I tell of 23Your wonders. When I understand the [\u2026 and the ab]undance of Your compassion, and in Your forgiveness 24I hope. For You formed the spi[rit of Your servant and in] Your [wil]l You established me. You have not established 25my sustenance upon unjust gain or wealth [\u2026] and that which is made of flesh You have not established as my defense. 26The strength of the mighty [is established] on the abundance of luxur[ies \u2026 and in] the abundance of corn, wine, and oil. 27They exalt themselves with property and possession. [But the righteous are as] green [trees] by the watercourses, bearing leaves 28and producing many branches. For You chose [them from the sons of] men that all may fatten themselves from the land. 29To the children of Your truth You have given insight [\u2026] forever. And according to their knowledge one is honored 30above another. Thus for the son of [Your] maid[servant (or son of m[an) \u2026] You have enlarged his inheritance 31through the knowledge of Your truth. According to his knowledge and [his \u2026]
\n The soul of Your servant abhors wealth 32and unjust gain, and in the height of luxury [has he not desired \u2026] my heart rejoiced in Your covenant, and Your truth 33delighted my soul. I bloom as a lily, and my heart is opened to the eternal spring. 34My support is in the strength from on high, and [\u2026] labor, and as a flower withers in [the heat.] 35My heart behaves as if mad in anguish and my loins tremble. My groaning enters the depths 36and completely searches out the chambers of Sheol. I am terrified when I hear of Your judgments with powerful warriors, 37and Your dispute with the hosts of Your holy ones in [\u2026] 38and judgment against all Your creatures, and righteousness [\u2026] 39\u201341[\u2026] Col. 19 4in terror [\u2026] distress from my eyes and grief [\u2026] 5in the meditation of my heart.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 22But as for me, a fountain for bitter sorrow has been opened [and] distress is not hidden from my eyes 23when I came to know the inclinations of man, [considered] the response of humankind, [and recognized the sorr]ow of sin and the grief of 24guilt. They enter into my heart and penetrate my bones. [\u2026] and moaning a lament of grief 25aand a groan on the lyre of lamentation for all griev[ous] mourning, 25bitter wailing until injustice has ceased, and th[ere is no longer pain] nor agony to make one weak.
\n Then 26I will sing praises on the lyre of salvation and to the harp of jo[y and the timbrel of rejo]icing and the flute of praise without 27ceasing. Who among all Your creatures is able to recount [all] Your [wonders]? Your name shall be praised by every mouth 28forever and ever. They shall bless You according to [their] insight, [and at all times] they shall proclaim together 29with the voice of rejoicing. There is no grief nor groaning, and injustice [shall be found no longer]. You shall make Your truth to shine forth 30for eternal glory and everlasting peace.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n And I, the Instructor, have known You, O my God, by the spirit 15which You gave me, and I have listened faithfully to Your wondrous counsel by Your holy spirit. 16You have opened within me knowledge in the mystery of Your insight, and a spring of [Your] strength [\u2026 in the] midst. 17There shall be an abundance of mercy, but a ruinous zeal and [You] brought to an end [\u2026] 18[\u2026] the majesty of Your glory as an etern[al] light [\u2026] 19[\u2026 from] fear of wickedness, and there is no deceit [\u2026] 20[\u2026] appointed times of desolation. For there is no [\u2026] 21[\u2026] there is [n]o more insolence. For before Yo[ur] anger [\u2026] 22[\u2026] my trembling.
\n There is none righteous beside You [\u2026] 23[to] give insight in all Your mysteries, and to give an answer [\u2026] 24[\u2026] for Your condemnation, and for Your goodness they watch. For in [Your] mercy [\u2026] 25and they know You. In the time of Your glory they rejoice, and according to [\u2026] According to their insight 26You bring them near, and according to their authority they serve You in [their] divisions. [\u2026] from You 27not to transgress Your word.
\n But I was taken from dust [and from clay] I was [fo]rmed 28as a fountain of filth and obscene shame, a pile of dust and kneaded [with water \u2026] and the abode 29of darkness. And a return to dust for a vessel of clay at the end of [\u2026] in the dust 30to the place from where it was taken. And what shall the dust answer and [\u2026 and what] shall it understand 31[of] its [works]? And how shall it stand its ground before the one who rebukes it [\u2026 ho]liness 32[\u2026] eternal, stores of glory, and a fountain of knowledge and marvelous strength; and they are not 33[able] to recount all Your glory, nor to take a stand before Your anger, nor is it possible to give an answer to 34Your chastisement. For You are righteous and there is none to compare with You. So what then is the one who returns to its dust?
\n 35As for me, I am speechless. What shall I say concerning this? According to my knowledge I speak. But I am mere spit (?), a vessel of clay. What 36shall I speak unless You open my mouth? How shall I understand unless You give me insight? What shall I s[ay] 37unless You reveal it to my heart? How shall I make the way straight except [You] determine [my steps? How shall my foot] 38stand fast be[fore You except I be] strengthened with power? How shall I rise up [\u2026] 39And all [\u2026] 40the [\u2026] 41as [\u2026] 42and [\u2026] Col. 21 2[\u2026 tra]nsgression of one born of a wo[man] 3[\u2026] Your righteousness 4[\u2026] I have seen this 5[\u2026 How] shall I see unless You have uncovered my eyes or hear 6[unless You have unstopped my ears?\u2026] my [h]eart was made desolate. For to the uncircumcised of ear, a word is revealed and the heart 7[\u2026]
\n I know that for Yourself You have done these things, O my God. What is mere humankind 8[\u2026 to] do wonderfully. In Your plan to confirm and determine everything for Your glory 9[\u2026] the host of knowledge, to recount powerful deeds to a mere human, and sure laws for one who is born of 10[a woman \u2026 You have broug]ht [\u2026] into a covenant with Yourself and You have uncovered the heart of dust to guard itself 11[\u2026] from the traps of judgment corresponding to Your compassion. I am a creature 12[of clay \u2026 of du]st and a heart of stone. With whom am I to be reckoned until this occurs? For 13[\u2026] You have [gi]ven [\u2026] to ears of dust, and You have engraved eternity on the heart 14[of stone \u2026] You have ceased [\u2026] so as to bring him into a covenant with Yourself and to stand 15[in the judgments of the witnesses] in the eternal abode, as a light of the perfect light forever; and darkness will flee 16[\u2026 without] end, and times of peace without bo[unds \u2026] 17[\u2026] I am a vessel of dust [\u2026] 18[\u2026] Your name.
\n I will open [my] mo[uth \u2026] 19[\u2026] inclination [\u2026] 20[\u2026 and a hidden trap \u2026] 21[\u2026] a net of [the pit] is [spr]ead [\u2026 and on its paths are the snares of Abaddon \u2026] 22[\u2026] a way was opened to [walk \u2026] 23[\u2026 in the] paths of peace, and with mere human flesh to do wonders [like these \u2026] 24[\u2026] and my steps [will tread] upon the hiding places for traps and spreading place[s for the net and \u2026] 25[\u2026
\n How can] I, a vessel of dust, keep from being shattered and melting as wax as [it melts before the fire \u2026] 26[\u2026] ash heaps. How can I stand before the rag[ing] wind [\u2026 As for me, He establishes me in \u2026] 27[\u2026] and He keeps him for the mysteries of His delight. For He knows [\u2026] 28[\u2026 unt]il annihilation, and they hide trap after trap, the snares of wickedness [\u2026] 29[\u2026] with injustice, and every deceitful vessel is destroyed. For not [\u2026] 30[\u2026] there is not, and the unjust intention is no more and the works of deceit [\u2026] 31[\u2026]
\n I am a vessel of [clay \u2026] 32[\u2026] How shall he strengthen himself before You? You are the God of [\u2026] 33[\u2026] You have made them, and apart from You nothing is made [\u2026] 34[\u2026 I am a vess]el of dust. I know, by the spirit which You have given me [\u2026] 35[\u2026] injustice and deceit are poured out, and arrogance ceased [\u2026] 36[\u2026] the works of filth lead to sicknesses, agonizing judgments, and destruction [\u2026] 37[\u2026] anger and [\u2026] zeal are Yours [\u2026] 38[\u2026 and I am a] vessel of cl[ay \u2026]
\n Col. 22 5[\u2026 in the ho]ly [habitation] which is in heaven 6[\u2026 gr]eat and it is a wonder. But they are not able 7[\u2026]Your [wonder]s and they are not able to know all 8[\u2026 retu]rns to its dust. I am a rebellious man and defiled 9[\u2026] the guilt of wickedness. And I, in the times of wrath 10[\u2026] raised up in the face of my agonies, and guarding myself 11[\u2026 You] made me [kno]w these things. For there is hope for man 12[\u2026 You] abhor. I, a vessel of clay, depend 13[\u2026] my God. I know that 14Your command is true [\u2026 You do not go] back [on Your word.] I, in my appointed time, take hold of 15[Your] covenan[t \u2026] in my office You have appointed me. For 16[\u2026] man, and You restore him; and for what [\u2026] 17[\u2026] vessel [\u2026] You are mighty and [\u2026] 18[\u2026] in [\u2026] without hop[e \u2026] 19[\u2026] I am a vessel of [clay \u2026] 20\u201321[\u2026] which [\u2026] 22[\u2026 ev]ening and morning with [\u2026] 23[\u2026] man and from [\u2026]
\n 24[\u2026] we shall rejoice [\u2026] they watch, and upon their courses [\u2026] 25noblemen [\u2026] not [\u2026] You rebuke every adversary who ruins and [\u2026] 26mine, from that time I established [\u2026] and You have uncovered my ear. For [\u2026] 27he shall not enter, for [\u2026] the men of the covenant were deceived by them. And [they] shall go [\u2026] 28like my frame and [\u2026] before You. I have feared Your judgment [\u2026] 29[\u2026] Your [\u2026] Who shall stand blameless in Your judgment? And what [then is man \u2026] 30[\u2026] I in the judgment. The one who returns to his dust, what [\u2026] 31[\u2026] You have opened my heart to Your understanding, and You open [my] e[ars \u2026] 32leaning upon Your goodness. But my heart groans [\u2026] 33[\u2026] and my heart melts as wax because of transgression and sin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n You have opened [a foun]tain in the mouth of Your servant, and on his tongue 12You engraved with a measuring line [\u2026 to] declare to the human vessel his lack of understanding, and as a interpreter in these things 13to dust like myself. And You open a foun[tain] to reprove the vessel of clay of his way, and the guilt of one born 14of a woman according to his works; that he might open a fo[untain] of Your truth for the vessel whom You have sustained with Your strength, 15to [raise up] according to Your truth the herald of good news, [to recount] Your goodness, bringing good news to the humble in accordance with the abundance of Your compassion, 16[to satis]fy from the fountain of kn[owledge all the trou]bled of spirit and those who mourn for eternal rejoicing. 17[And You opened the mouth of Your servant \u2026] 18\u201320[\u2026] 21[\u2026] Your spoil [\u2026] 22[\u2026] Your land and among the sons of gods and the sons of [\u2026] 23[\u2026] Your [\u2026] and to declare all Your glory.
\n As for me, what am I? For from dust I was taken and [to dust I return \u2026] 24[\u2026 for] Your [gl]ory You have done all these things. According to the abundance of Your mercy appoint a guard over Your righteousness 25[\u2026] continually until the deliverance, and mediators of knowledge for my every step, and reprovers of truth 26[\u2026] For what is dust in [\u2026] are they not [\u2026] ashes in their hand? But You 27[\u2026 vessel of] clay, and [\u2026] Your will; and by the sons (?) You test me 28[\u2026] and for You [\u2026] for my words. Over the dust You have spread out [Your holy] spirit 29[\u2026] in the slime [\u2026 the so]ns of gods, to unite with the sons of heaven 30[\u2026 fo]rever and the darkness has no response. For 31[\u2026] and light You have revealed, but not to return 32[\u2026] Your [ho]ly [spirit] You have spread out, atoning for guilt 33[\u2026] with Your hosts, and those who walk 34[\u2026] before You, for they are determined in Your truth. 35[\u2026] You have wonderfully done these things for Your glory, and from righteousness 36[\u2026] injustice of an abhorred vessel 37[\u2026] abhorred vessel [\u2026] Col. 24 5[\u2026] 6[\u2026] a vessel of flesh 7[\u2026] Who shall challenge 8My judgment [\u2026] to the angels of 9[\u2026] and the mysteries of transgression, changing 10flesh to [\u2026 the ear]th, and there shall soar about in it all 11the angels of the hea[vens \u2026] with cords of the spirit. You have humbled 12the heavenly beings from the place of [Your holiness; they will not serve] You in the dwelling of Your glory.
\n And You, 13O man, upon the [\u2026 like a bir]d bound until the time of Your favor, 14not sending [\u2026] heights of power and the abundance of flesh to condemn 15at the time of [Your wrath \u2026 wondro]usly, to determine in the council of Your people 16[\u2026] bastards, all [\u2026] 17[\u2026] justice and [\u2026] 18[the one abh]orred to the pit at the time of his punishment [\u2026] 19[\u2026] every adversary and destroyer [\u2026] 20[\u2026] in their wickedness, sending them away, a nation [\u2026] 21[\u2026] the arrogant man with those who increase unfaithfulness and o[ppression \u2026] 22[\u2026] many in the flesh (?) for all the spirits of [\u2026] 23[\u2026] they will be condemned during their lives [\u2026] ungodly 24[\u2026] and with judgments 25[\u2026] bastards to condemn the flesh 26[\u2026] their spirit to save 27[\u2026] the wonder of Your mysteries You have revealed 28[\u2026] to the flesh. I know 29for [\u2026] iniquity at the time of 30all [\u2026] and for every one that gazes 31[\u2026] and it is not hidden 32[\u2026] You have served more than the children of 33God [\u2026 the] unjust acts of the peoples, 34to strengthen them [\u2026 to make] guilt great 35in their inheritance [\u2026] You have [\u2026] forsaken them into the hand of 36all who se[ek their life \u2026] 37[\u2026] 38over [\u2026]
\n Col. 25 3[\u2026] just [judgme]nt [\u2026] 4[\u2026] he dispersed them from the position of [\u2026] 5[\u2026] with the assembly of Your holy ones when [You] wondrously [\u2026] 6[f]orever. And the spirits of wickedness shall dwell [\u2026] 7[\u2026] shall no longer be, and You will destroy the place of wi[ckedness, to cast lots for] all 8spirits of injustice who are devastated for mourning [\u2026] 9and shut up for eternal generations. When wickedness has arisen to [\u2026] 10great, I will increase them for destruction, and against all Your works [\u2026] 11Your mercy, and to know all things by Your glory and to [\u2026] 12the judgment of Your truth. You have opened the ear of the flesh and [\u2026 for hu]mankind in [the] deliberation of 13Your heart, and You have made the time of testimony known to fl[esh \u2026] You will judge in the heights 14and the inhabitants of the land upon the land, and also [in Sheol below You will judge, and] among the inhabitants of 15darkness You will contend so as to just[ify] the just and con[demn the wicked,] for there is none ap[art from You,] 16and not to separate [\u2026] blessing [\u2026] 17to [\u2026]
\n 25not [\u2026 their wickedness in the wisdom of Your glory,] and [they will] no[t recognize \u2026 all] 26the deeds of [Your righteousness for iniquity \u2026 he]aven and in the council of the hol[y ones] 27they will be exal[ted \u2026] 28council and [\u2026] 29those who serve [\u2026] 30and they recognize them [\u2026 they will sing out] 31and praise [\u2026 without ceasing. I am a vessel of clay,] according to my knowledge 32I recounted in the ass[embly of Your holy ones, ascribing greatness and wonder to the God of \u2026 For You are the] God of 33knowledge, with a [loud] voice [from dawn to \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Sing praise, O beloved ones, sing to the King of glory,] 10[re]joic[e in the congregation of God. Sing for joy in the tents of salvation, praise in the holy habitation.] 11Exalt [together with the eternal hosts, ascribe greatness to our God and glory to our King. Sanctify] 12[His] n[ame with mighty speech, and with eminent oration lift up your voices together. At all times] 13proc[laim with a heartfelt cry, exult with eternal joy. There shall be no ceasing to bow down] 14together [in assembly. Bless the One who performs majestic wonders, and makes known the strength of His hand by sealing up] 15mysteries and revealing hidden things, by r[aising up those who stumble and fall, by restoring the way of those who wait for knowledge,] 16[by brin]ging down the exalted appointments of the prou[d, forever, by confirming the mysteries of majesty, and by establishing the wonders of] 17[glory.]
\n [He who judges with the deadly wrath \u2026] (4Q427 Frag. 7 Cols. 1\u20132 provides ll. 18\u201325) 18[\u2026] with mercy, justice and the abundance of compassion, supplication 19[\u2026] compassion to those who frustrate His great goodness, and a source of 20[\u2026 wickedness ceases \u2026] 21[\u2026 in]solence [has ceased, the combatant ceases with his indignation \u2026] 22deceit [has ended] and there is no ignorant perverseness. Light shines out and j[oy pours forth.] 23Mourning [has ended] and grief flees. Peace is manifest, fear ceases, a fountain for [eternal] b[lessing] opens, 24and healing for all the eternal ages. Iniquity is ended, agony ceases as there is no sickne[ss, injustice is taken away] 25[and guilt shall be no] 26more.
\n [Proclaim] and s[ay, \u201cGod, who does wonders, is great.\u201d For He brings low the haughty of] 27spirit so that none remains. He rai[ses the oppressed from the dust to the eternal height and to the clouds of the heavens] 28and high in stature. With [the divine beings in the congregation of the Yahad \u2026 indeed for an] 29eternal [destruction.] Those who fall to the ground He shall rai[se up without price, and everlasting strength accompanies their step;] 30eternal joy is in t[heir] dwellings, [perpetual glory without ceasing forever and ever.
\n They shall say, \u201cBlessed is God, who does mighty wonders] 31{to make strength known} and who gre[atly manifests His wondrous strength, who does righteously in knowledge for all His creatures and goodness before them,] 32that they might know the covenant of [His] mercy [and the abundance of His compassion for all the children of His truth. We have known You,] 33O God of righteousness, and You have given [us] insight [into Your truth, O King of glory. For we have seen Your zeal] 34in Your strong power, and [we] have recognized [Your judgments in abundant compassion and wonderful forgiveness.] 35What is mere humankind in respect to these things? H[ow shall dust and ashes be reckoned to recount these things from age to age,] 36to take a stand in place [before You, and to enter into the Yahad with the sons of heaven. There is no mediator] 37to give an answer to [Your word \u2026 to You. For You have established us] 38according to [Yo]ur wi[ll] and in [\u2026\u201d] (ll. 39\u201342 supplied from 4Q427 Frag. 7 Col. 2) 39strength {to answer You} [\u2026] 40we speak to You and not to a cham[pion (or intermedi[ary) \u2026 You have inclined] 41an ear to the utterance of our lips.
\n Procl[aim, saying, \u201cBlessed is the God of knowledge, who stretched out] 42the heavens with His strength, and all their designs He [determines by] His might, the earth by [His] strength [\u2026\u201d]
\n \u2014M.G.A.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nA notable feature of one of the Cave 4 copies, 4Q509, is that it is an opisthograph. This term denotes scrolls that are inscribed on both sides, an exceptional practice in ancient times, but one that is nevertheless the case for nearly a hundred of the Qumran writings. Opisthographs did not circulate in the normal market for books, to judge from practice in contemporary Egypt; rather, they were private copies prepared not by scribes, but by scholars for their own private study. The reverse of 4Q509 contains a copy of the War Scroll (text 11) and has been given its own reference number, 4Q496.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 6Prayer for the Day of Atonement: Remem[ber, L]ord, [the] f[estival of Your mercies and the time of return \u2026] 7[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 8[\u2026] Moses. And You spoke to [him \u2026] 9[\u2026] which are upon [\u2026] 10[\u2026 ju]st as You commanded him [\u2026] 11[\u2026] with You (or Your people?) [\u2026] 12[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 29[Pra]yer for the festival of [\u2026] 30Your [\u2026] whi[ch \u2026] 31[\u2026] 32[\u2026] all [\u2026] 33[\u2026] to [\u2026] 34[\u2026] 35[\u2026] for all [their] pain[\u2026] 36[\u2026] comfort them because of their affliction [\u2026] 37[\u2026] the torment of our elders and [our] honorable [men \u2026] 38[\u2026] youths mock them 39[\u2026] they have [n]ot considered that Y[ou] 40[\u2026] our wisdom [\u2026] 41[\u2026] and we [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 5[Prayer for the day of the] firstfruits: Remember, O L[or]d, the festival of 6[\u2026] and the freewill offerings of Your will which You commanded 7[\u2026 we shall] present before You the firstfruits of [our] labors [\u2026] 8[\u2026] upon the earth to be [\u2026] 9[\u2026] Your [\u2026] for in the day of the [\u2026] 10[\u2026] You consecrated [\u2026] 11the offspring of [\u2026] 12\u201314[\u2026] 15with [\u2026] 16hol[y \u2026] 17in all [\u2026]
\n \u2014M.G.A.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nWe do not understand this phenomenon completely. Perhaps most puzzling to modern sensibilities is the fact that the more savvy ancients knew it occurred and yet clearly distinguished pseudepigraphy from fraud. As distinct from a fraud, the author of a pseudepigraphic writing thought of himself as a disciple of the figure in whose name he wrote; thus he was utterly sincere in attaching his ideas to the master, unlike a fraud, who was motivated by greed, the desire for power, or other less lofty sentiments. The most obvious reason to write a work under the name of Moses, of course, would be the opportunity thereby to claim his authority for one\u2019s own ideas\u2014which one would nevertheless be persuaded were truly those of Moses.
\nThe present work takes as its setting the time of the Exodus and the wilderness wanderings. Because it is so fragmentary, we cannot really tell what points the author hoped to make. Whether this writing was a polemic grounding its views in Mosaic authority or simply a collection of interesting campfire stories about the most famous figure in Israel\u2019s history, we cannot say. Both types are well represented among the scrolls. This work seems particularly comparable to the Words of Moses or A Moses Apocryphon (texts 5 and 91).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 4[Then Moses went out]side the camp and began to pray to the LORD. Falling [on his face before the LORD, \u2026] 5[he said, \u201cO LORD, my Go]d, how can I look upon You? How shall I li[ft] my face [to You?\u2026] 6so as to fa[shi]on one people through Your [mighty d]eeds [\u2026]
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThe discovery of these testamentary materials in the Qumran caves has thus opened new vistas of research into these early Christian texts. For a fuller discussion of the genre testament, see the introduction to the Words of Levi (text 39). Additional examples of testaments found in the caves include the Last Words of Naphtali, the Last Words of Kohath, and the Vision of Amram (texts 40, 137, and 138, respectively).
\nThe Apocryphon of Judah (text 135) may also be an early source for the Christian Testament of Judah. If so, then both the Hebrew text before us and that Aramaic work are ancestral to the later Greek writing. Here, then, is a clear example of the complexity of the historical process of textual transmission.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThe scroll\u2019s official editor, J. T Milik, at first believed the Copper Scroll was an Essene product, but not in any sense an official work of the sect. Rather, it was a private effort, \u201chighly individual in character and execution, perhaps the work of a crank.\u201d As such, it was not, of course, a historical record of actual treasures buried in antiquity. The \u201cfabulous quantity\u201d of precious metal, in particular, placed the scroll \u201cfirmly in the genre of folklore.\u201d Later, Milik\u2019s views took a decided shift. Since he had not \u201cfound a single valid indication\u201d for attributing the work\u2019s composition to an Essene, Milik removed the Copper Scroll from the ot other Cave 3 discoveries and all the other Dead Sea Scrolls. He treated it as a completely extraneous document only coincidentally found among these materials. He also revised his dating of the text and now suggested that it was written about the year 100 C.E.\u2014a generation after the destruction of Jerusalem. To justify these new claims, Milik underscored the fact that the two copper rolls found in Cave 3 were somewhat removed from the other manuscript finds made there. \u201cThis fact,\u201d Milik wrote, \u201cpoints to two independent deposits, separated by a lapse in time.\u201d
\nBut in the last few years a number of scholars\u2014principally P. Kyle Mc-Carter, Al Wolters, David Wilmot, and Judah Lefkovits\u2014have turned their attention to this mysterious text. The result has been a startlingly different understanding of the Copper Scroll.
\nThese scholars agree that Milik\u2019s attempt to remove the Copper Scroll from the context of the other Cave 3 finds was arbitrary and special pleading. Subsequent reexamination of the archaeological evidence has counted quite decisively against Milik\u2019s dating of the scroll; it rightly belongs to the period before 70 C.E. Further, these scholars agree that Milik\u2019s identification of the Copper Scroll as a literary work of folklore cannot be right. The Copper Scroll is clearly something else\u2014but what? Wilmot has argued that the format of the Copper Scroll points to its classification as a \u201clist.\u201d This is a well-recognized category of texts in antiquity.
\nRemarkably, the pattern of clauses in the Copper Scroll formulary finds precise parallels in Greek temple inventories from the Isle of Delos. These texts, most of which date between 180 and 90 B.C.E., were records kept by the priests of the island\u2019s temple of Apollo. They detail large numbers of votive objects brought to the temple, including crowns, jugs, earrings, and coins. The parallels of form and content between these archives and the Copper Scroll point not only to the scroll\u2019s identification as a business document, but more particularly to the recognition that the text is a genuine temple inventory, listing what are presumably, therefore, genuine treasures. Supporting this conclusion is the choice of medium upon which to record these treasures. Copper was used for the safekeeping of nonliterary records, Roman public laws, and even the private discharge papers of Roman military veterans. More to the point, copper and bronze were common media of choice for the archival records of temples in the Roman period. Thus the formal characteristics and choice of writing material for the Copper Scroll constitute converging lines of evidence: this scroll is a genuine administrative document of Herod\u2019s Temple in Jerusalem.
\nUnlike Milik and the other members of the official editorial team, John Allegro, the maverick among the editors, early on came to the conviction that the treasure inventoried in the Copper Scroll was real. He therefore mounted two treasure-hunting expeditions: one in December 1959\u2013January 1960 and another in March\u2013April 1960. He employed the very latest technology then available, including mine-detecting equipment on loan from the Signals Research and Development Establishment, Christchurch. But despite this technology, he came up empty-handed and was finally halted by government authorities as his team was about to begin digging on the esplanade of the sacred Dome of the Rock\u2014an action that might have had very serious consequences, indeed.
\nWhat Allegro perhaps neglected to consider before launching these essentially fruitless treasure hunts was the motivating power of human greed. If you know that wealth is hidden somewhere and it is within your physical and political capacity to retrieve it, you do. At the time the Copper Scroll was written, the Romans certainly possessed that power, if they could somehow obtain the knowledge. On this point the tale of the recovery of the hidden treasure of Dacia\u2019s last king is instructive.
\nAfter the defeat and suicide of the Dacian king Decebalus (106 C.E.), the Romans seized his territories and began to search for his legendary treasure. A certain Bicilis, a friend of the king, knew its secret. Taken captive and subjected to torture by the Romans, he disclosed it, directing the Romans\u2019 attention to the river Saretia, which ran in front of the king\u2019s palace. Using captives who were subsequently slaughtered to preserve secrecy, Decebalus had diverted the river from its channel and buried his gold, silver and other valuables in its bed, then returned the river to its course. Knowing where to go, the Romans went and dug up the treasures.
\nThus, by pressuring an informant, the Romans were able to retrieve the stores of hidden treasure. Indeed, the emperor Trajan\u2019s column even depicts the treasure being hauled away on donkeys. The question, then, is this: did the Romans also come to know the locations of the hidden treasure of Herod\u2019s Temple, portions of which are listed so laconically in the Copper Scroll?
\nAccording to Josephus, who was himself an eyewitness and participant in the war in Rome, the answer is yes. The Romans pursued a definite policy to retrieve treasure hoards that the citizens of Jerusalem had secreted during the siege. As always, the key to their recovery lay with the interrogation of prisoners. One such, Phineas, was an official treasurer of the Temple. The historian tells us that this man delivered up to the Romans \u201cthe tunics and girdles worn by the priests \u2026 along with a mass of cinnamon and cassia and a multitude of other spices.\u2026 Many other treasures also were delivered up by him, with numerous sacred ornaments\u201d (Jewish War 6.390\u2013391). Phineas led the Romans to hidden treasures from the Temple\u2014perhaps including some that were listed in the Copper Scroll. A second passage of Josephus\u2019s War notes that as a result of the recovery and subsequent release of loot by the Romans, the standard of gold throughout Syria fell to half its previous value. The spoils of war were that enormous, the rape of Judea that complete.
\nThe probability that significant portions of treasure could escape the Romans\u2019 search techniques is minimal. Just as they retrieved the treasure of Dacia, in all likelihood the Romans also retrieved the treasure of Jerusalem and its Temple\u2014including the treasure of the Copper Scroll\u2014in 70 C.E.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nAt various junctures the point seems to be biblical interpretation. For example, by juxtaposing Exodus 20 with Deuteronomy 5 in frags. 7\u20138, the author may have sought to clarify the confusing chronology surrounding the revelation at Sinai. Most casual readers of the Bible never notice the problems that emerge when attempting to piece together a pr\u00e9cis of those events. Ancient scholars did notice, however; they observed that according to the biblical narratives, Moses went up the mountain to meet God at least seven times. He is only explicitly said to descend twice. How can these facts be rationalized, and why this marathon mountain climbing? Resolving details of this sort taxed the energies and ingenuity of ancient biblical interpreters. The problems of the Sinai episode finally drove early rabbis to assert, \u201cThere is neither early nor late in the Torah!\u201d They meant that the narratives were just not in any particular order, and when chronology was the issue, one had to rearrange the material as logic dictated. Certain aspects of 4Q158 seem to represent this sort of problem solving.
\nOn the other hand, the reasoning behind other textual combinations represented here is obscure. Accordingly, perhaps in some measure we are dealing with a \u201cwild\u201d text of the Bible. We know that such wild texts\u2014that is, forms vastly divergent from the \u201cstandard\u201d versions\u2014existed for many authors in Greco-Roman antiquity; we have not previously known of such for the Bible. Few wild texts of classical authors survived, mainly because of the concerted textual criticism prosecuted by ancient scholars. A case in point: at the fabled library in Alexandria, Egypt, literary critics famed in their own day worked to uncover the true text of Homer, the closest thing the Greeks had to a Bible. They pored over all the variants and allowed inferior and wild copies to perish by neglect. They simply did not copy them. Yet even wild texts might preserve a true reading here and there. In that vein, it is instructive to observe that 4Q158 adds to the familiar text of Genesis 32:25 the phrase \u201cHe held him tight.\u201d This addition also appears in an early translation of the Bible into Aramaic known as Targum Neofiti. Targum Neofiti has survived only in an early medieval copy, but many of its traditions date centuries earlier. The fact that Neofiti agrees with our text in adding to Genesis suggests that this reading is not merely an explication unique to our author. It may originally have been part of the biblical text.
\nThe reader should note that Emanuel Tov and other scholars have suggested that 4Q365 (text 84) is another copy of the present writing. If so, then the two would, of course, not be separate examples of the rewritten Bible phenomenon. They would simply be two copies of the same book. This theory is difficult to verify because the two copies do not overlap.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Subsequently [Jacob] ca[lled the place Penuel, saying, \u201cI have seen God face to face, and yet my life is preserved.\u201d] 11The sun rose upon him as he passed Penue[l, limping because of his hip. And the LORD appeared to Jacob] 12on that day, and said, \u201cYou shall not eat [the thigh muscle that is on the hip socket.\u201d Therefore the Israelites do not eat the thigh muscle] 13that is on the hip socket to t[his day, because he struck Jacob on the hip socket at the thigh muscle.]
\n [The LORD said] 14to Aaron, \u201cGo [into the wilderness] to meet [Moses.\u201d So he went, meeting him at the mountain of God, and kissed him. Moses told Aaron all] 15the LORD\u2019s words with which He had sent him, and all [the signs with which He had charged him \u2026 Moses told Aaron,] 16\u201cThe LORD [has spoken] to me, saying, \u2018When you have brought the [people] out [of Egypt \u2026\u2019] 17to go as slaves, and consider, they number thir[ty \u2026] 18the LORD, God [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n And the LORD [spoke] to Moses, s[aying, \u201cI have heard this people\u2019s words, which they have spoken to you; they are right in all that they have spoken. If only] 5they had such a mind as this, to fear [Me and to keep all My commandments always, so that it might go well with them and with their children forever! Now, as you have heard] 6My words, sa[y] to them, [\u2018I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their own people; I will put my words in the mouth of the prophet, who shall speak to them everything that I command. Anyone] 7who does not heed the words [that the prophet shall speak in My name, I Myself will hold accountable.
\n But any prophet who presumes to speak in My name a word that I have not commanded] 8him [to] speak, or who shall sp[eak in the name of other gods\u2014that prophet shall die. Perhaps you will say to yourself, \u201cHow can we recognize a word that the LORD has not spoken?\u201d] 9If a [prophet] speaks [in the name of the LORD, but the thing does not take place or prove true, it is a not a word that the LORD has spoken. The prophet has spoken presumptuously; do not be frightened by it.\u2019 \u201d]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 5So the people returned to their individual tents, but Moses remained before [the LORD, who said to him, \u201cThus shall you say to the Israelites,] 6\u2018You have seen for yourselves that I spoke with you from heaven. You are not to mak[e gods of silver alongside Me, nor make for yourselves gods of gold. You need make for Me only an altar of earth, and sacrifice] 7on it your burnt offerings and offerings of well-being, your sheep [and oxen; in every place where I cause My name to be remembered I will come to you and bless you. But if] 8you make for Me [an altar of stone,] do not build it of hewn stones; for by [using] a chisel [upon it you profane it. You are not to go up by steps to My altar, lest your nakedness be exposed] 9on it.\u2019 \u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n When someone steals an ox or a sheep, and slaughters it or s[ells it, the thief shall pay five oxen for an ox, and four sheep for a sheep.] 5[If the thief is found breaking in,] and is beaten to death, no bloodguilt is incurred; but if it happens after sunrise, bloodguilt is incurred. [The thief must make restoration; if he cannot, he shall be sold for the theft. Should] 6[the animal, whether ox] or donkey or sheep, be found alive in the thief\u2019s possession, the thief shall pay double. When someone allows [a field or vineyard] to be grazed over, [or lets livestock loose in someone else\u2019s field,] 7[he must make restitution from his own field, depending] on its produce. If he allowed the whole field to be grazed over, he must [repay] from the choicest of his own field or vineyard.
\n [If a fire breaks out and catches in thorns,] 8[so that the stacked grain or the standing grain or the field is burned up,] the one who started the fire shall make full restitution. When someone delivers to [a neighbor money or goods for safekeeping, and they are stolen from the neighbor\u2019s house, then the thief must pay double when caught.] 9[If the thief is never caught, then] they shall bring [the ow]ner of the house before God, to determine whether or not the owner had laid hands on [the neighbor\u2019s] good[s. In any case of disputed ownership involving ox, donkey, sheep,] 10[clothing, or any other loss,] wherein one party says, \u201cThis is mine,\u201d the case shall come before the LORD. [Whoever God condemns shall pay double to the other.] 11[When someone delivers to another a donkey,] ox, sheep, or any other animal for safekeeping, [and it dies or is injured or is carried off, but no one sees it, an oath before the LORD shall decide] 12[between the two of them whether one has stolen] the property of the [oth]er. The owner must accept the oath, and no rest[itution] shall [be made. But if] it was stolen, [restitution is to be made to its owner. If it was torn by animals,] 13[let it be brought as evidence; restitution shall not be made for the remains.] If some[one] borrows an animal [from] another [and it is injured or dies,] the owner [not being present, full restitution shall be made \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nIn addition to the ordinance on the half-shekel payment, remains of at least eight additional rulings are preserved. One concerns the man who has a discharge from his penis (perhaps gonorrhea) and the biblical commands about such a man found in Leviticus 15:13. The Bible says the man \u201cshall count seven days for his cleansing; he shall wash his clothes and bathe his body in running water, and then be clean.\u201d Once again, important practical details are absent from the biblical statement. When is the man to wash? On the seventh day alone? On each day of the waiting period? What is the man\u2019s purity status while waiting, and is it the same throughout the seven days? This last point would affect whether the man could touch the pure food of the community. The present work tries to answer these questions by stipulating that the affected party must bathe on the first day and then he can eat. If a man does not wash on the first day, he is not allowed to eat. The fact that this ordinance is repeated more than once suggests a polemic against a competing interpretation in which the only washing required was on the seventh day.
\nWe do not know which parties among the Jews held to which interpretation. Frankly, many readers may not consider it important to determine who held which views\u2014such issues may appear nothing more than legal minutiae. But we should not be so quick to dismiss them. That these arguments strike many of us this way only brings home the vast chasm separating us from those who adhered to such principles. For them, these arguments were not about minutiae, but about how to obey God. Presumably God cared about what they did, and presumably there was a right way and a wrong way to do things. For the ancient adherents, discovering that right way was imperative, for otherwise they could not obey God. Thus, to care about the Bible was to care about the details, and this sort of text was not dry and dull, but the essence of passion and life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n A half of 3[a shekel is tw]elve [meahs] and [two] zuzi[m \u2026] and also from them is uncleanness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Afterwards they may eat their bread according to the law of [p]urity. 7No one may eat who is yet in his primary uncleanness, who has not begun to be clean from his seminal flow. 8Indeed, no one who is yet in his primary uncleanness may eat. All of those who are [un]clean of days, on the day of 9their pu[rification] they shall bathe and wash in water and they shall be clean. Afterwards they may eat their bread 10according to the or[dinance. No] man [shall e]at or [dr]ink with any ma[n] who prepares 11[\u2026] in [\u2026]
\n \u2014M.G.A.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nLike Eli, Samuel was designated a judge, and the book of 1 Samuel describes him moving in a circuit to preside at the early sanctuaries of Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpeh. Samuel anointed Saul the first king of Israel, and later, when Saul proved disappointing (but while he still lived) Samuel anointed David as his successor\u2014or, perhaps better, replacement. The last episode involving Samuel occurs some time after he has died. Saul, desperate before a battle with the Philistines and conscious of his abandonment by God, sought to know the outcome of the dawning conflict. He approached the witch at Endor, and she is said to have summoned Samuel\u2019s spirit from Sheol, only to have him pronounce Saul\u2019s doom.
\nThe present scroll is an apocryphal narrative about Samuel. The first fragment is little more than a paraphrase of a section of 1 Samuel, but the other surviving portions have a different character. They portray Samuel speaking in the first person, narrating his own life story, and praying. As with many of the other scrolls from the caves, this work manifests no sectarian connections and may well have circulated widely among Second Temple Jews.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014M.O.W<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. 2 (Frags. 2\u20136) 1\u201cEven if your people, Israel, were as many as the grains of the sand by the sea, only a remnant would return; for destruction is assured, 2righteous judgment is about to overflow, it is completely predetermined. The Lord GOD of Hosts is about to act within the whole land\u201d<\/a>.
\n 3[This refers to \u2026] for [\u2026] the sons of [\u2026] 4[\u2026] his people. [As for the verse th]at says, \u201cEven if [your people, Israel, were as many as the grains of the sand by the sea, 5only a remnant would return; for] des[truction is as]sured, righ[teous judgment] is about to overflow,\u201d [this refers to] 6[\u2026 to de]struction in the da[y of slaugh]ter, and many shall per[ish \u2026] 7[\u2026] shall escape to [\u2026] land in truth [\u2026].<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [This refers to \u2026] 14[\u2026] when they return from the \u201cwilderness of the Ge[nti]les\u201d (cf. Ezek 20:35) [\u2026] 15[\u2026 the Staff is the] Leader of the Nation, and afterward he will re[mo]ve [the yoke] from [them] 16[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 22This saying [refers to] the Last Days, coming [\u2026] 23[the Leader of the Na]tion, when he marches inland from the Plain of Akko to fight against Phil[istia \u2026 the Leader of] 24[the Na]tion, for there is none like him in all the cities of [\u2026] 25up to the border of Jerusalem [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [This refers to the] Kittim, wh[o] will [fall] at the hand of Israel and the humble 4[of Judah, who will \u2026] all the Gentiles, and the mighty will be shattered, and [their] co[urage] will dissolve. 5[\u2026 The \u201ctallest] of all will be cut down\u201d refers to the warriors of the Kit[tim,] 6[who \u2026 as for the verse that say]s, \u201c[The] forest thickets will be cut down with iron tools,\u201d t[hey are] 7[\u2026] for war against the Kittim. \u201cThe trees of Lebanon, for [all their majesty,] 8[will fall\u201d: they are the] Kittim, who will be p[ut] into the power of the nobles of [Israel \u2026] 9[\u2026] when he flees befo[re Is]rael [\u2026] 10[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 17[This saying refers to the Branch of] David, who will appear in the Las[t Days, \u2026] 18[\u2026] his [ene]mies; and God will support him with [a spirit of] strength [\u2026] 19[\u2026 and God will give him] a glorious [th]rone, [a sacred] crown, and elegan[t] garments. 20[\u2026 He will put a scepter] in his hand, and he will rule over all the G[enti]les, even Magog 21[and his army \u2026 al]l the peoples his sword will control. As for the verse that says, \u201cHe will not 22[judge only by what his eyes see,] he will not decide only by what his ears hear,\u201d this means that 23[he will be advised by the Zadokite priests,] and as they instruct him, so shall he rule, and at their command 24[he shall render decisions; and always] one of the prominent priests shall go out with him, in whose hand shall be the garments of [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u201cWoe to those who get up early to hunt for liquor, who stay up late 3to get drunk on wine, who have lyre, lute, drum, and pipe at their wine parties but 4take no note of the LORD\u2019s work, who can\u2019t see the things He has made. Therefore my people are exiled without true knowledge, the masses go hungry, 5the throngs are parched with thirst. Therefore the underworld has opened its throat wide, its mouth is gaping beyond measure; 6all her finery and her hubbub will go down there, and the clamor will merrily enter it!\u201d (5:11\u201314).
\n These are the Men of Mockery 7who are in Jerusalem. They are the ones \u201cwho have rejected the Law of the LORD, and the word of 8Israel\u2019s Holy One they have cast off. For this reason He became very angry with His people, He stretched out His hand against them and struck them so that 9the mountains shook and the corpses lay like garbage in the middle of the streets. Even so, His anger 10[has not receded, His hand is still stretched out\u201d (5:24\u201325).] This is the company of the Men of Mockery who are in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Frags. 4\u20137 1[\u201cAnd it shall be] when [the LORD] finishes [all his work on Mount Zion and Jerusalem, he will punish] 2[the heav]y [fruit] of the heart of the king of A[ssyria and the glory of his proud eyes, for he said, By the strength of my hand I have done this] 3[and by] my [wisdom; for I am wise, and have removed the boundaries of the peoples and plundered their treasures\u201d (10:12\u201313).] 4The passage refers to the destruction of Babylon [\u2026] 5laws of the Gentiles [\u2026] 6that many should become traitors [\u2026] 7Israel; and the verse that says, [\u201cThe number of trees left in the forest will be so few that a child could write them down\u201d (10:19),] 8this refers to the few remaining people [\u2026]
\n 9[\u2026] 10\u201cAt that time, [the remnant of Israel and the refugees of] 11Jacob\u2019s house [will no longer] rel[y on the one who hurts them, but shall rely on the LORD, the Holy One of] 12[Isra]el. Indeed, only a rem[nant will return, a remnant of Jacob, to God Almighty.] 13For even if your people, O I[srael, were as many as the sand of the sea, only a remnant of it would return\u201d (10:20\u201322).] 14This passage is for the Last [Days \u2026] 15they will go into the [\u2026 and as for the verse that] 16says, [\u201cEven if your people, O Israel, were as many as the sand of the sea, only a remnant of it would return,\u201d] 17this refers to the fewness of [\u2026]
\n Frags. 8\u201310 1[\u2026] against the k[in]g of Babylon [\u2026 \u201cEven the pine trees] 2[are happy to see you fall,] and the cedars of Lebanon. Since [you died, no one has come up] 3[to cut them] down\u201d (14:8). \u201cThe pines\u201d and \u201cthe cedars [of Lebanon\u201d are \u2026] 4[\u2026] and as for the verse that says, \u201cThi[s is what is planned] 5[against all] the earth, and this is the hand [outstretched against all the Gentiles;] 6[for the LOR]D of Hosts has made [His plan; who will contest it? His hand is stretched out;] 7[who can] make Him [with]draw it?\u201d (14:26\u201327). This is [\u2026] 8[as it stands writ]ten in the book of Zechariah [\u2026]
\n Frag. 21 1\u20132[\u201cIn a very little while, Lebanon will revert to a grove, and the grove will be] considered underbrush\u201d<\/a>. \u201cLebanon\u201d is [\u2026] 3[\u2026] to \u201cthe grove,\u201d and they will return [\u2026] 4[\u2026] by the sword, just as [\u2026] 5\u20136[\u2026] the Teacher of [Righteousness \u2026]
\n Frag. 23 Col. 2 3\u201c[Fo]r so says the [LO]RD, the Holy One of [I]srael, By repentance and r[epose you will be saved;] 4[in qui]et trust is your power. But you did not agree, and y[ou said,] 5No, let us flee on horseback. So you shall flee indeed! You said, Let us ride something swift. But 6your pursuers will also be swift. If a thousand flee [a]t the threat of one, at the threat of 7five you all will flee, until you are left like a pole on a mountaintop, 8a flag on a hill. But the LORD is waiting to show you m[erc]y, truly He will rise up 9to have mercy on you, for the LORD is a God of justice. How happy are all who wait for Him\u201d (30:15\u201318).
\n 10The meaning of this passage is for the Last Days and refers to the company of Flattery-S[eekers] 11who are in Jerusalem [\u2026] 12in the Law and not [\u2026] 13heart, for to seek [\u2026]
\n Frag. 22 [\u201cYour teachers shall no longer be hidden, but your eyes will see your teachers, and your ears will hear someone behind you if you deviate to right or left, saying, This is the right way to walk in\u201d (30:20\u201321).]
\n 1This passage refers to [\u2026] 2[\u2026] who sought [\u2026] 3[\u2026] the Zadokite [priests \u2026] 4[\u2026 as for the verse] that says, \u201cThe bread from [your soil will be rich\u201d (30:23) \u2026]
\n Frag. 25 \u201cThe LORD will make His glorious voice heard, He will show the strength of His arm, with a wind of anger and consuming fiery flames, torrents and thunder and hail, for by the voice of the LORD Assyria will be defeated, with His staff He will break them. And it shall be, with every pass of His chastening rod that the LORD will lay on him will be heard the sound of drums and lyres; by brandishing that rod He will fight battles\u201d<\/a>.
\n 1[This refers to \u2026] the king of Babylon [\u2026] 2[\u2026] with drums and with ly[res \u2026] 3[\u2026 \u201cTorrents and] thunder\u201d are weapons of war [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 1[\u2026] all Israel like kohl on the eye. \u201cI will make sap[phires your foundation.\u201d This passage means] 2[th]at they founded the party of the Yahad on the priests, and the pe[ople \u2026] 3the company of his chosen, like the sapphire among the stones [\u2026]
\n [\u201cI will make of rubies] 4all your posterns\u201d (54:12a).
\n This refers to the twelve [priests \u2026] 5who make the Urim and the Thummim shine in judgment [\u2026 and there is nothing] 6missing from them, like the sun with all its light.
\n \u201cAnd all your gates are shining gems\u201d<\/a>.
\n 7This refers to the chiefs of the tribes of Israel [\u2026] 8his appointed lot, the offices of [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 7[\u201cSo now I am going to block her passage] with thorns, her paths 8she cannot find\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers to \u2026 in madness] and blindness and confusion 9[\u2026] and the time they turned traitor did not 10[\u2026] they are the generation [God] punished 11[\u2026] from [\u2026] 12[\u2026 to be] gathered in the times of wrath, for 13\u201314[\u2026]
\n 15[\u201cSo she said, I\u2019m going back to my fi]rst [husband], because 16I was better off then than now.\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers to \u2026] when the captives [of Israel] returned 17[\u2026]
\n Col. 2 1[\u201cShe was not aware that] it was I who had given her the grain, [the wine,] 2[the oil, and the silver that] I multiplied, and the gold they made into Baal\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This meaning is] 3that [they ate] and were satisfied and forgot God who [gives them the blessings, because] they left behind his 4commandments that He had sent them [through] 5his servants, the prophets. Instead they listened to those who deceived them. They honored them 6and revered them in their blindness as if they were gods. 7
\n 8\u201cSo I will again take away my grain in its time, my wine [in its season]. 9I will withdraw my wool and my flax from covering [her nakedness.] 10Now I am uncovering her infamy in front of her lo[vers. No one can] 11rescue her from my power\u201d (2:9\u201310).
\n 12The passage means that He assailed them with famine and nakedness, so that they became a disgr[ace] 13and a scandal in front of the Gentiles on whom they had relied, but who 14could not save them from their punishment.
\n \u201cI will put an end to all of her joy: 15[her] pil[grimages, new] moons, Sabbaths, and all her sacred days\u201d (2:11).
\n This means that 16[\u2026] of the testimony they will bring in on the Gentile sacred days, so that [all] 17[her joy] will be turned into mourning.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n This refers [to \u2026] 2[\u2026] the Lion of Wrath.
\n \u201cFor I am like a panther [to E]ph[rai]m, [a lion to the house of] 3Judah\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers t]o the last priest, who will stretch forth his hand to smite Ephraim 4[\u2026]
\n 5[\u201cI will go back to my place until] they admit guilt and seek my presence. When it goes badly 6for them, they seek Me\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This means that \u2026] God [will tur]n his face fr[om them \u2026] 7[\u2026] and they did not listen [\u2026]
\n Frags. 7\u20139 1[\u201cThey, like Adam, b]roke the covenant\u201d (6:7).
\n This means that [\u2026] 2[\u2026] they abandoned God and followed the laws of [\u2026] them in all [\u2026]
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nAlexander Jannaeus ruled over Israel as king and high priest from 103 to 76 B.C.E. Although he expanded the nation\u2019s territory to its greatest extent since the reign of Solomon nearly a millennium earlier, some groups deeply detested him for what they claimed was laxity in religious observance. The feeling was very mutual, and Jannaeus had no qualms about suppressing dissent in the most effective manner available: by executing or banishing the dissenters. It is apparent from the writings of Josephus that the Pharisees were leaders of the anti-Jannaeus faction, while Jannaeus was affiliated with the Sadducees and priestly groups. His affiliation with priestly groups, by the way, clearly shows that Jannaeus was not necessarily lax in religious matters.
\nEventually the strife between Jannaeus and his enemies became so severe that the latter formed an alliance with Demetrius III of Syria, inviting him to invade Israel and depose the king. Demetrius duly\u2014and, we may presume, eagerly\u2014complied and put Jannaeus to flight in a battle near Shechem. At this point, however, many of the allies of the Pharisees, apparently unwilling to participate in reestablishing Gentile dominance over the Holy Land, deserted the cause and gave aid to Jannaeus and his allies. Demetrius accordingly withdrew his armies.
\nAfter reasserting his rule, Jannaeus turned wrathfully against those he considered traitors and banished many of the rebels; others he executed. The most notable of his acts of revenge, according to Josephus, was the crucifixion of eight hundred rebel leaders. He also killed their wives and children while they watched from their crosses.
\nJannaeus\u2019s enemies had the last laugh. After his death, the Pharisaic faction came into its own, exercising almost unopposed authority through their influence on the king\u2019s widow, Queen Salome Alexandra. Now the tide turned, and the Pharisees instituted their own reign of terror against the opposition. It seems likely that the Teacher of Righteousness and his followers formed part of this opposition.
\nThe original setting of the prophecy of Nahum was the imminent downfall of the Assyrian Empire and its capital Nineveh in 612 B.C.E., and it breathes a spirit of unbridled joy at the destruction of Israel\u2019s enemies. The writer of the commentary exploits this vengefulness in predicting the overthrow of a group called the \u201cFlattery-Seekers\u201d\u2014clearly the Pharisees, who, at the time of the scroll\u2019s writing, must have been in power. The writer, then, belonged to a group that had opposed the Pharisees and, by implication, supported Jannaeus, here called the \u201cLion of Wrath.\u201d Scholars have been reluctant to admit that the Yahad may have admired a violent man like Jannaeus; but that this was indeed the case has been confirmed by the recent publication of another scroll manuscript, In Praise of King Jonathan (text 114).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n This means that \u2026] 2the [\u2026] the skies of His heaven, and His earth that [\u2026]
\n 3\u201cHe rebukes the sea, and dries [it up\u201d (1:4a).
\n The m]eaning of this passage: \u201cthe sea\u201d is all the [\u2026, and \u201cdrying them up\u201d is] 4to pass judgment on them and to wipe them off the face of [the earth.
\n \u201cHe dries up all the rivers\u201d (1:4b).
\n This means \u2026] 5awith [all their ru]lers when their rule comes to an end.
\n 5[\u201cBashan and] Carmel [have withered;] even the flowers of Lebanon have withered\u201d (1:4c).
\n [This means that \u2026] 6many will [\u2026] in it the height of wickedness, because \u201cBa[shan\u201d refers to \u2026 and \u2026 is called] 7[\u201cCar]mel,\u201d and its rulers \u201cLebanon.\u201d \u201cThe flowers of Lebanon\u201d are [\u2026] 8[the men of their par]ty, and they will perish before [\u2026] the chosen of [\u2026] 9[all] the inhabitants of the world.
\n \u201cMoun[tains shake before him, hills crumble;] 10the land [heaves] because of him, and [the world] before him, with all who live in it. Who can resist his anger? And who can 11[survive] his fierce wrath?\u201d (1:5\u20136).
\n [This means that \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n This refers to \u2026] a dwelling for the wicked Gentiles.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n The \u201cold lion\u201d is Deme]trius, king of Greece, who sought to come to Jerusalem through the counsel of the Flattery-Seekers; 3[but the city never fell into the] power of the kings of Greece from Antiochus until the appearance of the rulers of the Kittim; but afterwards it will be trampled 4[\u2026]
\n \u201cThe lion catches enough for his cubs, and strangles prey for his mates\u201d (2:12a).
\n 5[This refers to \u2026] to the Lion of Wrath who would kill some of his nobles and the men of his party 6[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n This refers to the Lion of Wrath 7[\u2026 ven]geance against the Flattery-Seekers, because he used to hang men alive, 8[as it was done] in Israel in former times, for to anyone hanging alive on the tree (Deut. 21:22), [the verse app]lies: \u201cBehold, I am against [you,] 9says the LORD of Hosts\u201d<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n The meaning of the] passage: \u201cyour horde\u201d are the troops of his army [\u2026]; \u201cits lions\u201d are his 11nobles [\u2026]; \u201cits prey\u201d is the wealth that [the prie]sts of Jerusalem gathe[red], which 12they will give t[o \u2026 E]phraim, Israel will be given to [\u2026]. Col. 2 1\u201cHis messengers\u201d are his ambassadors, whose voice will no longer be heard among the Gentiles.
\n \u201cWoe, you murdering city, all [lies] and full of [plun]der!\u201d (3:1a).
\n 2The meaning of the passage: this is the city of Ephraim, the Flattery-Seekers in the Last Days, who conduct themselves in deceit and lie[s.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n This refers to the rule of the Flattery-Seekers; 5never absent from their company will be the sword of the Gentiles, captivity, looting, internal strife, exile for fear of enemies. A mass 6of criminal carcasses will fall in their days, with no limit to the total of their slain\u2014indeed, because of their criminal purpose they will stumble on the flesh of their corpses!
\n 7\u201cAll because of the harlot\u2019s many fornications. Beautiful is she, a witch indeed, who betrays peoples through fornication, whole clans through sorcery\u201d (3:4).
\n 8This refers to the deceivers of Ephraim, who through their deceptive teaching, lying talk, and dishonest speech deceive many: 9kings, princes, priests, native and resident foreigner. Cities and clans will pass away through following their principles, nobles and rule[rs] 10will perish through their [arrog]ant talk.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n This refers to [\u2026] 12[\u2026] the cities of the East, for \u201cthe skirts\u201d are [\u2026] Col. 3 1the Gentiles in their filth [and in] their abhorrent [i]dols.
\n \u201cI will throw your abominations at you, I will treat you with scorn, I will make you 2repulsive, so that everyone who sees you will avoid you\u201d (3:6\u20137a).
\n 3This refers to the Flattery-Seekers. In the Last Time, their bad deeds will be made manifest to all Israel and 4many will perceive their wrongdoing and reject them and be disgusted with them because of their criminal arrogance; and when the glory of Judah is made manifest, 5the simple-hearted folk of Ephraim will withdraw from their company, abandon the ones who deceive them, and ally themselves to the [God of] Israel.
\n \u201cThey will say, 6Nineveh is in ruins. Who will mourn for her? Where can I find people to comfort you?\u201d (3:7b).
\n This refers to the Flattery-Seekers, 7whose faction will pass away, and whose assembly will be disbanded. They will no longer deceive [the] congregation and the sim[ple-hearted] 8will no longer support their party.
\n \u201cAre you better than Am[on, who lived by] the streams?\u201d (3:8a).
\n 9The meaning of \u201cAmon\u201d: they are Manasseh, and \u201cthe streams\u201d are the nobles of Manasseh, the respectable of [\u2026]
\n 10\u201cWater surrounds her, her army is the sea, the waters her walls\u201d (3:8b).
\n 11The meaning of the passage: they are the men of her army, the warriors for her battle.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 12[The meaning is \u2026
\n \u201cPut and Libya are her allies\u201d (3:9b).]
\n Col. 4 1The meaning of the passage: they are the wicked of [\u2026], a divisive group who ally themselves to Manasseh.
\n \u201cShe too w[ent] into exile [a captive,] 2her infants were smashed at the head of every street. They throw lots for her respectable citizens, all [her] n[ob]les [have been bound] 3with chains\u201d (3:10).
\n This refers to Manasseh in the Last Time, for his kingdom shall be brought low in Is[rael \u2026] 4his women, his infants, and his children shall go into captivity; his warriors and his nobles [shall fall] by the sword.
\n [\u201cYou too shall drink] 5and become dazed\u201d (3:11a).
\n This refers to the wicked of [\u2026] 6whose cup shall come after Manasseh.
\n [\u2026 \u201cYou too will seek] 7shelter in the city from the enemy\u201d (3:11b).
\n This [refers to \u2026] 8their enemies in the city [\u2026
\n \u201cAll your fortresses] 9are fig trees with [their firstfruits \u2026\u201d (3:12).
\n This refers to \u2026]
\n Frag. 5 1[\u201cBehold, your people are like wo]men [in your midst; the gates of your land are open to your enemies; fire consumes your gate bars\u201d (3:13).]
\n 2[\u2026] all the border of Isra[el] to the sea [\u2026]
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThe Yahad members and their leader, the Teacher of Righteousness, represent the righteous of the psalms, while their enemies, the Wicked Priest and the Man of the Lie, who have persecuted them, represent the wicked. The psalm and its attendant commentary are shot through with a passionate desire to see the injustices of the world put right, tempered with a recognition that patience is required for the suffering that is inevitable while waiting for God to act. These commentaries, then, have an eschatological fervor that the more historical commentaries, such as A Commentary on Habakkuk (text 2) and A Commentary on Nahum (text 23) only occasionally display.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 13[\u2026] the will of 14[\u2026] lunatics have chosen 15[\u2026] those who love dissolution and lead astray 16[\u2026] wickedness through the power of G[o]d.
\n 17[\u201cBe si]lent before [the LORD and] wait for him, and do not be jealous of the successful man 18[who doe]s wicked deeds\u201d (37:7).
\n [This refers] to the Man of the Lie who led many people astray with deceitful 19statements, because they had chosen trivial matters but did not listen to the spokesman for true knowledge, so that Col. 2 1they will perish by sword, famine, and pestilence.
\n \u201cRenounce your anger and abandon your resentment, don\u2018t 2yearn to do evil, because evildoers will be wiped out\u201d (37:8\u20139a).
\n This refers to all who return 3to the Law and do not hesitate to repent of their sin, because all who refuse 4to repent of their faults will be wiped out.
\n \u201cBut those who trust in the LORD are the ones who will inherit the earth\u201d (37:9b).
\n This refers 5to the company of his chosen, those who do his will.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n This refers to all of the wicked at the end of 7the forty years. When those years are completed, there will no longer be on the earth 8[any w]icked person.
\n \u201cThen the meek will inherit the earth and enjoy all the abundance that peace brings\u201d (37:11).
\n This refers to 9the company of the poor who endure the time of error but are delivered from all the snares of 10Belial. Afterwards they will enjoy all the [\u2026] of the earth and grow fat on every luxury of 11the flesh.
\n 12\u201cThe wicked plots against the righteous and gnashes [his teeth against him. But the LO]RD laughs at him, for he knows 13his day is coming\u201d (37:12\u201313).
\n This refers to the cruel Israelites in the house of Judah who 14plot to destroy those who obey the Law who are in the party of the Yahad. But God will not leave them 15in their power.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 17This refers to the wicked of \u201cEphraim and Manasseh,\u201d who will try to attack 18the Priest and the members of his party during the time of trial that is coming upon them. But God will save them 19from their power and afterwards hand them over to the cruel Gentiles for judgment.
\n 20\u201321\u201cBetter is the little the righteous man has than the great abundance of the wicked\u201d (37:16).
\n [\u2026 This refers to] 22the one who obeys the Law who does not [\u2026] 23for wicked things, for \u201cthe arm[s of the wicked will be broken, but supporting the righteous] 24is the LO[RD]\u201d (37:17).
\n [\u201cThe LORD cares about the life of the pure; what belongs to them will last forever\u201d (37:18).]
\n [This refers to those with whom] 25He is pleased [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [This refers to] Col. 3 1the ones who return from the wilderness, who will live a thousand generations in virtue. To them and their descendants belongs all the heritage of 2Adam forever.
\n \u201cIn a time of famine, they will hav[e pl]enty, but the wicked 3will perish\u201d (37:19b\u201320a).
\n This means that He will sustain them in famine during the time of e[rro]r, but many 4will perish from famine and pestilence, all who did not go forth [\u2026] to jo[in] 5the company of His chosen.
\n \u201cThose who love the LORD are as magnificent as rams\u201d (37:20b).
\n This refers to [\u2026] 5who shall be leaders and princes, [like leaders of] 6sheep among their flocks.
\n 7\u201cAll shall vanish like smoke\u201d (37:20c).
\n [This] refers to the w[icke]d princes who oppressed his holy people, 8and who shall perish like the smoke of a bra[nd in the w]ind.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 10This refers to the company of the poor, w[ho will ge]t the possessions of all [\u2026, who] 11will inherit the lofty mount of Is[rael and] enjoy His holy place. [\u201cThose whom He curses] 12will be exterminated\u201d: these are the tyrants of the co[venant, the w]icked of Israel who will be exterminated and destroyed 13forever.
\n 14[\u201cA man\u2019s path is ordain]ed by the LOR[D]; he delights in all His ways. If he stu[mbles, he shall not] 15fall, because the LORD holds his hand\u201d<\/a>.
\n This refers to the priest, the Teacher of R[ighteousness, whom] 16God [ch]ose to arise [and] ordained him to form for Him a company [\u2026] 17[his w]ay He smoothed for the truth.
\n \u201cI ha[ve been young], and now I am old, but I have not [seen a righteous man] 18abandoned and his children begging food. [All the time] he is lending generously, and [his] children are blessed\u201d<\/a>.
\n 19[This] refers to the Teacher of [Righteousness \u2026]
\n Col. 4 1\u201c[\u2026] judg[ment, and will not forsake his devotees. For]ever they are protected. But the descendants of the wicked will be exterminated\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers to] the cruel 2[Israelites \u2026] the Law.
\n \u201cThe righteo[us will inherit the earth and dwell for]ever on it\u201d (37:29).
\n [This refers to \u2026] for a thousand [generations].
\n 3[\u201cThe righteous man utters] wisdom, his tongue speaks 4[justice, in his heart is God\u2019s Law: that\u2019s why his steps are sure\u201d (37:30\u201331).
\n This refers to] the truth that the [Teacher] spoke 5[\u2026] he declared it to them. 6[\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 8This refers to the Wicked [Pri]est who ob[serv]es the Righ[teous Man and seeks] to kill him [\u2026] and the Law 9that he sent to him, but God will not le[ave him] and will not [condemn him when] he comes to trial. But to the [wicked God will give] his just [de]serts, by putting him 10into the power of the tyrant[s of] the Gentiles to do with him [what they want].
\n [\u201cLook to the L]ORD and obey his rules; then He will honor you so that you will inherit 11the earth. You will [look on] while the wicked are exterminated\u201d (37:34).
\n [This refers to \u2026] who will see judgment passed on the wicked and with [the company of] 12His chosen they will rejoice in a sure heritage [forever].
\n 13[\u201cI once saw] a wicked man, cruel, and stretched [out like a stately tree. But] when I passed by [\u2026], he was gone. I [looked for him] but he was 14nowhere to be found\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers to] the Man of the Lie, [who \u2026] against God\u2019s ch[osen pe]ople [and sou]ght to put an end to [\u2026] 15[\u2026] judgment [\u2026] he defiantly presumed 16[\u2026]
\n [\u201cTake note of the pure, observe] the honest, [for there is a future for the ma]n of peace\u201d (37:37).
\n This refers to [\u2026] 17[\u2026] of pea[ce].
\n \u201cSinners 18perish as one, and the future of the wicked will be cut short\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers to \u2026] they will perish and be exterminated 19from the midst of the company of the Yahad.
\n \u201cThe [deliverance of the righteous is the LORD\u2019s work; He is their stronghold in time of trouble. The LORD helps them and] 20rescues them and saves them from the wicked and delivers them because they trusted in Him\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers to \u2026] 21\u201322God will deliver them and save them from the power of the wi[cked \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [This refers to \u2026 t]hey are the seven divisions of 24the repentant of Is[rael \u2026]
\n \u201cMy h[ear]t is [astir] with a good message: 25I address my poem to the king\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers to \u2026 words spoken through the] holy [spi]rit, for 26[\u2026] books of [\u2026]
\n \u201cMy tongue is the pen of 27an adept scribe\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers to] the Teacher of [Righteousness \u2026] God [gave] by an eloquent tongue [\u2026]
\n Frag. 13 3\u201cGod spoke [in his holiness, I will joyfully divide Shechem] 4[and the valley of Succ]oth I will measure. [Gilead] is mine, Manasseh is mine, Ephraim is my chief fortress.\u201d<\/a>.
\n 5[This refers to Gile]ad and the half-tribe [of Manasseh \u2026] 6they shall be gathered [\u2026]
\n 4Q173 Frag. 1 2[\u201c\u2026 vain] for you [to get up early, stay up late, eat your meals in worry, for truly] 3He gives His friends sleep\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers to those] who seek [\u2026] 4[\u2026 secr]et things of the Teacher of Righteousness[\u2026] 5\u20136[the pr]iest for the ti[me] to come [\u2026]
\n 7\u201cNow children are a possession from the LORD\u201d<\/a>.
\n [This refers to] those who inherit the possessions [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [This] refers to] 4[\u2026 the b]eauty of [\u2026] 5[\u2026] who will share [the spoil \u2026]
\n Frag. 8 2[\u2026 \u201cIn the midst maidens beating tambour]ines; in assemblies bless God\u201d (68:25\u201326).
\n 3[This refers to \u2026] the convocation to bless the Name [\u2026]
\n Frags. 9\u201310 1[\u201cFrom Your temple overlooking Jerusalem, king]s [bring You] tribute\u201d (68:29).
\n This refers to all the rul[ers of] 2[the Kittim \u2026] before him in Jerusalem.
\n \u201cYou have rebuked [the swamp beast,] 3[that herd of bulls, the Gentile heifers; he tramples on bars of] silver\u201d (68:30).
\n The \u201cs[wamp] beast\u201d refers to 4[\u2026 the K]ittim [\u2026]
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nYet some of his selections might seem surprising. Why consult the Psalms, and why certain parts of the book of Genesis? The answer is that our author thought the men he believed wrote those parts of the Bible were prophets. David, to whom he doubtless attributed Psalms, was acknowledged to have been among the prophets (cf. text 151). Moses, also, author of Genesis, had been a prophet\u2014indeed, the preeminent prophet in the history of Israel. Therefore, when David or Moses wrote in the future tense, it was not some indefinite expression of hope or vague musing; it was prophecy, and fair game for the interpretive methods that could crack open a verse and reveal its hidden meaning.
\nOne verse led our author to another, mostly on the basis of analogy. Finding a given word used in one biblical portion, he would then turn to another verse where the same word was used. (How well he knew the Bible!) Comparing the verses, he could then extract more information than just one verse would give him, for he assumed that because of their similar usage the verses were describing the same future person, institution, or situation. This approach is essentially the classical technique of Protestant Christianity: \u201cscripture interprets scripture.\u201d The type of rabbinic biblical interpretation known as midrash operated by similar methods. The rabbis employed one principle they called gezerah shawah, literally \u201csimilar injunction.\u201d This type of inference by analogy meant that when words of similar or identical meaning occurred in any two given parts of the Law, then both\u2014no matter how different they might seem\u2014would be of identical application.
\nApplying this sort of analysis, our author grouped verses that he believed spoke of the Last Days. He extracted predictions about his community\u2019s enemies. He also discovered that two future heroes should arise from his group\u2019s ranks: an inspired interpreter of the Bible, whom he called the \u201cInterpreter of the Law,\u201d and a messianic deliverer, scion of Israel\u2019s greatest king, the \u201cShoot of David.\u201d He further teased out information about a future temple, the \u201cTemple of Adam.\u201d The name derived from a pattern commonly seen in Israel\u2019s Prophets: the end shall be like the beginning. (Cf. Isaiah, for example: \u201cThe lion will lie down with the lamb.\u201d) Some scholars have seen in this temple a reference to the notion of community as temple. This is the idea that the author\u2019s group would somehow come to form, as it were, a temple; the apostle Paul speaks of Christians in just such terms in the book of Ephesians. But that notion does not seem to be intended here, though it is found in the scrolls (text. 7).
\nThe present text is clearly sectarian in language and concept and aligns with a number of the other biblical commentaries found among the scrolls. Note especially the commentaries on Isaiah, Habakkuk, and Psalms (texts 2, 21, and 24). Its method is different, of course. Rather than commenting on a single biblical book from beginning to end, this text comments on the Bible thematically. For another sectarian work taking the same tack, compare the Coming of Melchizedek (text 154).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 13[\u2026 The] Urim and the Thummim belong to the man who 14[\u2026] For he sai[d] 15[\u2026 the] land, because[\u2026]
\n 16[\u2026 \u201cAnd of Benjamin he sa]id: The beloved of the LO[RD] 17[rests in safety\u2014the High God surrounds him all day long\u2014the beloved rests between his shoulders \u2026\u201d] (Deut. 33:12).
\n Col. 2 1And the glory [\u2026 i]t refers to the righte[ous] sacrifice [\u2026] 2the goodness of the la[nd \u2026]
\n 3\u201cAnd of Gad he sa[id: Blessed be the enlargement of Gad! Gad lives like a lion; he tears at arm and scalp. He chose the best for himself, for there the allotment] 4of a commander [was reserved; he came at the head of the people, he executed the justice of the LORD, and His ordinances for Israel \u2026\u201d] (Deut. 33:20\u201321).
\n 5concerning the captives, [\u2026] the hidden [\u2026] 6to rescue [\u2026] everything that He commanded us. They carried out the entire [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 18[\u2026 the House of Ju]dah, but the God of I[sra]el sh[all] 19[be with them, as He said through the prophet: \u201cAnd I will appoint a place for My people Israel and will plant them, so that they may live in their own place, and be disturbed no more; and] Col. 3 1[no] enemy [shall overtake them ag]ain, [nor] evildoer [afflict] them any [mo]re, as formerly, from the time that 2[I appointed judges] over My people Israel\u201d (2 Sam. 7:10\u201311a). This \u201cplace\u201d is the house that [they shall build for Him] in the Last Days, as it is written in the book of 3[Moses: \u201cA temple of] the LORD are you to prepare with your hands; the LORD will reign forever and ever\u201d (Exod. 15:17\u201318). This passage describes the temple that no [man with a] permanent [fleshly defect] shall enter, 4nor Ammonite, Moabite, bastard, foreigner or alien, forevermore. Surely His holiness 5shall be rev[eal]ed there; eternal glory shall ever be apparent there. Strangers shall not again defile it, as they formerly defiled 6the Temp[le of I]srael through their sins. To that end He has commanded that they build Him a Temple of Adam (or Temple of Humankind), and that in it they sacrifice to Him 7proper sacrifices.
\n As for what He said to David, \u201cI [will give] you [rest] from all your enemies\u201d (2 Sam. 7:11b), this passage means that He will give them rest from [al]l 8the children of Belial, who cause them to stumble, seeking to destroy the[m by means of] their [wickedness]. They became party to the plan of Belial in order to cause the S[ons] of 9Li[ght] to stumble. They plotted wicked schemes against them, [so that they might fall pr]ey to Belial through guilty error.
\n 10\u201cMoreover the LORD decl[ares] to you that He will make you a house,\u201d and that \u201cI will raise up your offspring after you, and establish the throne of his kingdom 11[fore]ver. I will be a father to him, and he will be My son\u201d (2 Sam. 7:11c, 12b, 13b\u201314a). This passage refers to the Shoot of David, who is to arise with 12the Interpreter of the Law, and who will [arise] in Zi[on in the La]st Days, as it is written, \u201cAnd I shall raise up the booth of David that is fallen\u201d (Amos 9:11). This passage describes the fallen Branch of 13David, [w]hom He shall raise up to deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 18[\u201cWhy] do the nations [con]spire, and the peoples plo[t in vain? The kings of the earth s]et themselves, [and the ru]lers take counsel together against the LORD and His 19[anointed\u201d (Ps. 2:1). The m]eaning [is that the na]tions [shall set themselves] and con[spire vainly against] the chosen of Israel in the Last Days. Col. 4 1That will be the time of persecution that is to co[me upon the House of J]udah, to the end of sealing up [the wicked in consuming fire and destroying all the children of] 2Belial. Then shall be left behind a remnant of [chosen on]es, the pre[des]tined. They shall perform the whole of the Law, [as God commanded through] 3Moses. This is the [time of whic]h it is written in the book of Daniel the prophet, [\u201cThe wicked] will act ever more wicked[ly and shall not understand.] 4aBut the righteous will [be purified, clea]nsed, and refined\u201d (Dan. 12:10). So, the people who know God shall be steadfast. These are [the men of] 4truth, [who shall instruct many] following the persecution that is to desc[end] upon them [in that time \u2026] 5[\u2026] in its descent[\u2026] 6[ev]il, just as[\u2026] to the wicked [\u2026] 7[I]srael and Aaron [\u2026] Col. 5 2\u201cListen to the soun[d of my cry, my King and my God, for to You I lift my prayer. O LORD, in the morning You hear my voice\u201d (Ps. 5:2\u20133a). The] 3meaning concerns the Last D[ays \u2026] Col. 6 1written in the book of Isa]iah the prop[het, \u201cThey shall not build and another inhabit; they shall not plant and another eat;] 2[for like the days of a tree] shall the days of My people be, [and] My ch[osen shall long enjoy the work of their hands. They shall] no[t labor in vain,] 3[or bear children for calam]ity; for [they shall be] offspring [blessed by the LORD\u201d (Isa. 65:22\u201323). For] they are [\u2026]
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nBut why were these specific passages collected? What does their collocation mean? Many students of the text agree on the significance of the first three passages. They represent respectively the Yahad\u2019s expectations for the coming of a prophet like Moses, a royal scion of David to lead in war, and a proper high priest. All three could be considered \u201cmessiahs\u201d in the sense that each was to be \u201canointed\u201d by God (the basic meaning of the Hebrew word messiah).
\nMost problematic is the case of the fourth quotation, from the nonbiblical work Apocryphal Joshua (see text 92). Scholars are divided on whether the portion refers to two or to three figures, and whom those figures represent. According to the Standard Model set out in the Introduction, the \u201ccursed man, one belonging to Belial\u201d refers to the Wicked Priest and therefore (according to which subdivision of the Standard Model one follows) either to Jonathan or Simon of the Maccabee family. The son or sons vary accordingly. But if we are correct in adjusting the time of the Teacher later by over fifty years, as we have suggested in the Introduction, then, of course, none of the solutions proposed by adherents of the Standard Model work. What then?
\nNote that there is no compelling reason to equate the \u201ccursed man\u201d with the Wicked Priest who persecuted the Teacher. He is certainly described in less negative tones than are his sons, whereas the Wicked Priest was public enemy number one for the group. Would they really have described someone else as even worse? The wording \u201ca fowler\u2019s net to his people and a source of ruin for all his neighbors\u201d accurately and (more or less) objectively describes Alexander Jannaeus (103\u201376 B.C.E.). He was a fowler\u2019s net to the Jews in that the nation was so divided during his reign that civil war continued for nearly a decade. Certainly Jannaeus was a source of ruin for his neighbors, as he incessantly attacked first one, then another in a series of wars. The text\u2019s description of the sons fits Jannaeus\u2019s sons Aristobulus and Hyrcanus II from a certain perspective: \u201cthey shall work blasphemy in the land, a great uncleanness among the children of Jacob. They shall pour out blood like water upon the bulwark of the daughter of Zion and within the city limits of Jerusalem.\u201d The last statement, in particular, is a reasonably straightforward description of what actually happened at the climax of the civil war that turned into war with Rome in the period 67\u201363 B.C.E. At the end, the Romans broke into the temple where Aristobulus s supporters were holed up and slaughtered many of them. Over twelve thousand Jews died in Jerusalem that day. If this explanation of the fourth passage is correct, then the present work fits into the historical period for the origin of the scrolls that we suggest in the Introduction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 5\u201cI will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their own people; I will put My words 6in his mouth, and he shall speak to them everything that I command. Anyone 7who does not heed the words that the prophet shall speak in my name, I Myself 8will hold accountable\u201d (Deut. 18:18\u201319).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n And from the book of Isaiah, words of comfort: [\u2026 \u201cComfort, comfort my people], 5says your God. Speak gently to Jerusalem, and pro[claim to her that] her [punishment is over,] for 6her sin is forgiven, that she has received from the LORD a double punishment for all her offenses. A voice cries: 7In the wilderness prepare the way of the LORD, make straight in [the desert] a highway for o[ur] God. Let every valley be filled, 8[every mountain and hi]ll be level, let every rugged place be a [pl]ain, [and the rocky areas a m]eadow. 9The [g]lory of the LORD [will be revealed]\u201d (Isa. 40:1\u20135). \u201cBut you, Israel, are [my] serva[nt, J]ac[o]b [whom I] have chosen. 10[Seed of Abra]ham, my friend, whom I have sustained [from the ends of] the [ea]rth, and from its far reaches 11[I have summoned you, and said] to you, you are my servant; [I have chosen you and not rejected] you\u201d (Isa. 41:8\u20139). Col. 2 [\u201cThus says the LORD, Israel\u2019s redeemer, its Holy One, to the despised in spirit, abhorred by Gentiles, slave of rulers: Kings shall see you and rise up; so will princes, and bow down, for the sake of 1the LORD who is] faithful, the Holy One of Is[rael who chose you\u201d (Isa. 49:7). \u201cBe glad, heavens, exult, earth,] 2give voice, mountains, for Go[d] has comforted [His people and showed mercy to His afflicted. Although Zion had said,] 3The LORD has abandoned me, [my Lord has forgotten me, can a woman forget her baby, a parent the child of her womb?] 4Even if these should forget, [I will never forget you. See, on my palms I have engraved you,] 5and your walls [are always on my] mi[nd. Your children have hastened, while those who have destroyed and ruined you] 6shall de[part] from you\u201d (Isa. 49:13\u201317).
\n Frag. 3 1[\u201cAnd now th]us says the LO[RD, Your creator, O Jacob, and Your maker, O Israel, 2Do not be afrai]d, for I have redeemed you. [I have called you by your name, you are mine. When you pass] 3[through the water] I am with you, and in the f[loo]d[s, they will not drown you\u201d] (Isa. 43:1\u20132).
\n Frags. 4\u20135 1[\u2026 \u201cI ga]ve men in exchan[ge for you, and nations in exchange for your soul.] 2[Do not be] afraid, [for I am with you.] From the East I will brin[g your descendants, and from the West I will gather you.] 3[I will sa]y to the North, [Give them up; and to the South,] Do not retain them, but br[ing back my children from afar, and my daughters from the end of] 4[the ea]rth\u201d (Isa. 43:4\u20136).
\n Frags. 6\u20137 1[\u201cThus says] Your [Lord, the LORD] Your G[o]d, [who contends for His people: Behold, I have taken from your hand the] 2[cup that makes you st]agger, [the roun]d cup of [My] wr[ath. You will never again drink of it. I will put it] in the hands of those who trouble you\u201d [\u2026] (Isa. 51:22\u201323).
\n Frags. 8\u201311 2\u201cWake up, [wake up, put on your strength,] Zion! Pu[t on your beautiful clothes, J]erusalem, holy city! For 3[the uncircumcised, impure Gentile will never again enter you. So shake off the dust, get u]p, return, Jerusalem. Loosen 4the bonds of your neck, [dear ca]ptive [Zion! For thus] says [the LORD: You were sold for nothing, so without] money you will be reclaimed\u201d (Isa. 52:1\u20133). 5\u201cDo not be afra[id, for] you will not be ashamed. [Do not be mortified f]or you will not be disgraced. Truly the shame of 6your [youth] you will forget, the [con]tempt of your widowhood [you will] not [remember again,] for your Maker has become your husband, the LORD 7[of Hosts] is His name. Your redeemer is the Holy One of Is[rael; the] G[od of al]l [the ea]rth He is called. For like an abandoned woman 8[downcast] in spirit the LORD has called you. Like a young wife when [she] is rejected\u2014so says the LORD your God. 9[For a] short [moment] I left you alone, but in great mercy I am bringing you back. In raging wrath [I turned away] 10[briefly from] you, but by My eternal grace I had pity on you. So says your Redeemer, the LORD. This is as it was in the time of Noah, when 11[I swore that the waters of] Noah [would not] cov[er] the earth, so I have forsworn My anger forever, and My punishment of you. 12[For the mounta]ins may shift or the hills totter, but My grace will not shift from you [\u2026]\u201d (Isa. 54:4\u201310).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Frag. 15 3[\u201cI will p]ut [one-third in the fire, and refine them as one refines silver; I will test them] as one tests 4[gold. They will call Me by name, and I will answer them. I say,] My people, and he 5[says, The LORD is our God\u201d] (Zech. 13:9).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThis commentary mentions none of the central dramatis personae of the story the members of the Yahad told about themselves. The Teacher of Righteousness, the Wicked Priest, the Man of the Lie\u2014all are absent. The Flattery-Seekers, however, the sect\u2019s archenemies, are mentioned in one passage, as is the Yahad itself. Also appearing is the figure known as the Interpreter of the Law, who may be the anointed prophet or priest who was expected to come before the end.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 7[This refers to] the Last Days, of which David said, \u201cO LORD, do not [rebuke me] in Your anger. [Have mercy on me, for] I am fading. 8[Heal me, O LORD, for my innermost being is tormented.] Yes, my soul is in great torment. But now, O LORD, how long? Have mercy, deliver [my] soul [\u2026\u201d] (Ps. 6:1\u20134).
\n [This refers to] the Last Days, about 9[the righteous, when] Belial [planned] to destroy them in his fury, so that none would remain of [\u2026 God will not allow] Belial 10[\u2026 Abra]ham up to ten righteous in a city, for the Spirit of Truth [\u2026 for] there is no 11[\u2026] and their brothers by the wiles of Belial, and he will strengthen [\u2026] 12[\u2026 but] the angel of God\u2019s truth will help all the Children of Light from the power of Belial [\u2026] 13[\u2026] and to scatter them in a dry and desolate land. This is a time of tribulation that [\u2026] 14[\u2026 but] the righteous are always beloved, and the great power of God is with them, helping them against all the spirits [of darkness \u2026] 15[\u2026 and those who worship] God will hallow His name and come to Zion with joy, and Jerusalem [\u2026] 16[\u2026 but as for] Belial and all those who belong to him, [they shall perish] forever, but all the Children of [Light] will be gathered in [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [This means that] the men of [the Yahad] shall flee [\u2026] 9[\u2026 like] a bird from its place and be exiled [from their land \u2026 they are written about] in the book of the [prophet Micah: 10\u201cRise and go, this is not the right place to stay, impurity has marred it, it is completely ruined.] It belongs to one who walks [in lies and tells untruths \u2026\u201d] (Mic. 2:10\u201311). [\u2026] 11[\u2026] which is written about them in the book of [\u2026] 12[\u2026] \u201cTo the master singer, on the [eighth, a psalm of David \u2026\u201d (Ps. 12:1).] 13[\u2026] for them the eighth season [\u2026] 14[\u2026] there is no peace, for they [\u2026] 15[\u2026 \u201cThere is merriment,] slaying cattle, slaughtering sheep, [dining on meat, drinking wine \u2026\u201d (Isa. 22:13).\u2026] 16[\u2026] of the Law, those who make up the Yahad [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n This refers to the inner endurance of the men of 10[\u2026] in the Last Days, for [\u2026] to test them and to purify them. 11[\u2026] them in the spirit and pure and refined [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [This refers to the Last] Days, when [the \u2026] will gather together against [them \u2026] 15[\u2026] with the righteous and the wicked, the fool and the simple[ton \u2026] of the men who have served God [\u2026] 16[\u2026] who have circumcised themselves spiritually in the last generation [\u2026] and all that is theirs is unclean [\u2026]
\n Frags. 1 + 4 + 14 + 24 + 31(?) 1[\u2026] their words [\u2026 pra]ises of glory that [Israel] shall utter 2[\u2026 The LORD shall remove] from you every illness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThe scroll 4Q179 is clearly modeled after the biblical Lamentations and quotes from it occasionally. It is unclear whether this lament describes a historical incident. Between 586 B.C.E. and 70 C.E., Jerusalem was not completely destroyed, but it suffered many conquests, most notably at the hands of the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who, according to Josephus, robbed the Temple, took thousands captive, pillaged the city, and burned down many of the finest buildings (Ant. 12.250\u2013252). This ordeal, which helped to incite the Maccabean war for independence, may well have inspired this lament.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Woe to us 4[\u2026] has become burned by fire and overthrown 5[\u2026] our distinction, and there is nothing pleasing in it, in the hou[se of \u2026] 6[\u2026] his holy courts have become 7[\u2026] Jerusalem, city of 8[the sanctuary, has become a plac]e for wild animals, and there is none to d[isturb them,] and her avenues 9[\u2026] all her fine buildings are desolate 10[\u2026] there are no pilgrims in them, all the cities of 11[Judah \u2026] our inheritance has become like the desert, a land not 12[cultivated;] we no longer hear re[joi]cing, and [there is none] who seeks 13[God \u2026 no] one [to heal] our wounds. All our sins 14[\u2026] our offenses [\u2026] our sins.
\n Col. 2 1Woe to us, for the wrath of God has come upon [\u2026] 2that we should congregate with the dead 3[\u2026] like an unloved wife Is[rael \u2026 neglects] 4her babies, and my dear people [have become] cruel [\u2026] 5her young men are desolate, the children of [\u2026 fleeing] 6from winter, when their hands are weak [\u2026] 7Ash heaps are now the home of the house of I[srael \u2026] 8they ask for water, but there is no attend[ant \u2026] 9those who were worth their weight [in] gold [\u2026] 10there is nothing to delight them in it, those who drew their strength from scarlet [clothing \u2026] 11nor fine gold, their garments bearing jewelry [\u2026 no longer] 12do they touch purple stuff and embroidery [\u2026] has risen [\u2026] 13the pampered women of Zion with them [\u2026]
\n Frag. 2 4[\u201cHow] lonely [she sits], the city [once full of people!\u201d (Lam. 1:1).\u2026 Jerusa]lem [\u2026] 5[\u2026] the princess of all the natio[ns] is as desolate as an abandoned woman, and all her [dau]ghters are likewise abandoned. 6[\u2026 like a wo]man abandoned and miserable, [whose husband] has left her. All her fine buildings and [walls] 7[are like] a barren woman, all [her] streets are like a woman confined [\u2026] like a woman whose life is bitter 8and all her daughters are like those in mourning for [their] husba[nds \u2026] like those bereft 9of their only children, Jerusalem keeps on weeping [\u2026 tears] on her cheek for her children [\u2026]
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Corresponding to the compassion of God, according to His goodness, and the wonder of His glory, He brings some of the sons of the world near, to be reckoned with Him in [the council] 4[of the g]ods as a holy congregation, destined for eternal life and in the lot with His holy ones [\u2026] 5[\u2026] each one [acco]mplishes according to the lot which falls t[o him \u2026] 6[\u2026] for e[te]rn[al] life [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014M.G.A.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Frag. 2 1[\u2026] in the Last D[ay]s [\u2026] 2[\u2026] so as to smite them w[ith \u2026]
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nThe ancient Israelites personified wisdom itself as a wise woman, Lady Wisdom, who invited all and sundry to come to her house and learn from her (Prov. 8:1\u20139:6). According to the apocryphal Wisdom of Solomon, king Solomon desired to \u201cmarry\u201d Lady Wisdom.
\nThe natural next step would have been a personification of Folly, which appears to be the intent of the present work. \u201cLady Folly\u201d here is a seductress; she is a more sensational version of the archetypical loose woman depicted in the Bible (Prov. 7:1\u201327). She seeks to draw men away from the path of truth and lead them to her own house of falsehood.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Happy is the man who puts it into practice and does not slander [\u2026 by means of] 14cunning one cannot seek it, nor can one hold on to it by flattery. As it is given to his ancestors, so he will obtain it [and hold on to it] 15with all his mighty strength and with all his [\u2026] without limit. Then he can bestow it on his offspring, and his knowledge to [his] people [\u2026]
\n Col. 3 [\u2026 he knows all the] 12innermost parts of the belly, and searches out the inner man [\u2026 He made] 13the tongue and knows its speech; God made the hands [\u2026]
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nOur text uses physiognomy as an adjunct to astrology, the \u201croyal science\u201d and true predictor of destiny. On the basis of a person\u2019s appearance, the reader of the text learns how to discover the person\u2019s birth sign. Knowing the birth sign enables the text\u2019s user to predict what sort of character the person in question possesses and, in a very general way, what sort of future he or she will have. The text describes character as proportions of light and darkness, expressing the proportions as fractions of the number nine. Presumably the number derives from the period of human gestation. The theory would seem to be that for each month in the womb, the embryo takes on one \u201cpart.\u201d The fetus\u2019s crucial first month\u2014the birth sign\u2014would determine whether this allocation got off on the right foot, so to speak.
\nBut how would the proportion of parts express itself in the way someone looked? That is, why was appearance related to astrology? To answer this question we have to read between the lines a bit and recall certain doctrines of Greco-Roman medicine. Our author seems to have believed that the \u201cspirit\u201d (which, as indicated, every human received in certain proportions) moved through the blood and thus to every extremity of the body. Once it reached a given locality in the body its nature would become manifest. For a bad birth sign, one such manifestation could be hairiness, for example. For such a theory the author could find biblical foundations such as Genesis 9:4, \u201cThe life is in the blood.\u201d A portion of the Damascus Document (text 1) explicitly states that spirits move through the blood and have physical outworkings; the Damascus Document is explaining skin diseases, but the principle is the same. This whole way of thinking is immediately reminiscent of Greco-Roman medical ideas that came to full expression in the writings of the famous Greek medical writer Galen (ca. 129\u2013199 C.E.). Galen wrote of \u201chumors\u201d circulating in the body and used this idea to explain the observed truths of pseudo-Aristotelian physiognomy.
\nTwo other particular aspects of our author\u2019s thinking deserve comment. First is his comparison of the individuals he describes to animals. Such comparisons were a commonplace of Greco-Roman physiognomy. The underlying idea was that if a person resembled a certain animal physically, he or she would also be similar \u201cin soul.\u201d Thus if one knew a person\u2019s animal, it became possible to make valuable deductions about that person\u2019s character. To choose an example that parallels our own text (the second individual below), Pseudo-Aristotle wrote, \u201cThose with a wide and thick neck are bad-tempered; compare bad-tempered bulls\u201d (Physiognomonica 811a).
\nAlso notable is our author\u2019s statement about the second individual: \u201cThis is the birth sign under which such a person shall be born: the haunch of Taurus.\u201d The reference to the \u201chaunch\u201d of the sign of Taurus implies the concept of dodecatmoria. This Greek word is a name for further subdivision of the zodiac. According to astrological doctrine, each sign occupied 30 degrees of space in the heavens (twelve signs, 360 degrees). But each sign could be further subdivided into twelve parts, a sort of micro-zodiac or \u201czodiac of the zodiac.\u201d To say that someone was born under the haunch of Taurus meant that the person was born when the sun, as observed, had nearly completed its movement through that sign. The \u201chaunch\u201d was the last 2.5 degrees of the sign of Taurus. Taken together with all the other elements of our text, this greater specificity indicates that our author may once have described a large number of individuals, for many unique combinations of these elements are possible. The larger part of this writing is quite likely lost; 4Q186 may have been an entire handbook on physiognomic astrology.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nMany of the legends about Enoch were collected already in ancient times in several long anthologies. The most important such anthology is known simply as the Book of Enoch, or 1 Enoch, over one hundred chapters long in its final form. It still survives in its entirety (although only in the Ethiopic language) and forms an important source for the thought of Judaism in the last few centuries B.C.E. Significantly, the remnants of several copies of 1 Enoch in Aramaic were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, and it is clear that whoever collected the scrolls considered it a vitally important text.
\n1 Enoch, as it survives in the Ethiopic version, is composed of several discrete works:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\u2022 Book of Watchers (chaps. 1\u201336)\n\u2022 Parables (or Similitudes) of Enoch (chaps. 37\u201371)\n\u2022 Book of the Heavenly Luminaries (chaps. 72\u201382)\n\u2022 Dream Visions of Enoch (chaps. 83\u201390)\n\u2022 Apocalypse of Enoch (chaps. 91\u2013105)\n\u2022 Birth of Noah (chaps. 106\u2013107)\n\u2022 Appendix: \u201cAnother Book of Enoch\u201d (chap. 108)<\/code><\/pre>\n\n\n\n
\nAmong the Qumran scrolls were found:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\u2022 seven fragmentary manuscripts of parts of the Book of Enoch that together yield about 20 percent of the original Aramaic text,\n\u2022 another four manuscripts that form an earlier, longer version of the Book of the Heavenly Luminaries, and\n\u2022 another nine scrolls, extremely fragmentary, that constitute a hitherto little-known story of Enoch that scholars call the Book of Giants.<\/code><\/pre>\n\n\n\n
\nThe Book of the Heavenly Luminaries, at least at Qumran, was separate from the rest of the book and was probably not added to the book of Enoch until after the first century C.E. The longer version found at Qumran scholars call Astronomical Enoch (text 38).
\nNo trace of the Parables of Enoch has been discovered at Qumran, and it is widely considered today to be a composition of the later first century C.E. If a pre-Christian copy of the Parables were ever discovered, it would create a sensation, since it is the only text besides the Christian Gospels that uses the title \u201cSon of Man\u201d for the heavenly Savior of Israel.
\nClearly the Qumran sect placed a high value on the Enoch literature, which profoundly influenced their conceptions of God, creation, salvation, sin, and the coming judgment. Astronomical Enoch contains a detailed description of the heavenly mechanisms of the solar calendar, adherence to which formed a central part of the religious system of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Book of Enoch portrays a world divided between the wicked and the elect of God, who alone would escape the coming judgment in fire. This division between good and evil extended into the world of the angels, who significantly influence human destiny, both for good and for ill. Sin itself is understood to be not the product of the Fall in the Garden of Eden, but the result of malign teaching that entered the world through depraved angels. The only remedy for sinful knowledge was the true teaching from heaven, written down on the heavenly tablets and read by Enoch, the chosen one, who had visited heaven, and whose task it was to bring the teaching to the elect on earth. All these ideas were taken over virtually in their entirety by the sect of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Book of Jubilees (text 42), itself highly prized at Qumran, was also influenced by Enoch.
\nThe influence of the Book of Enoch was not limited to Qumran. Other groups used it, including early Christians. A quotation from 1 Enoch 1:9 is found in the Letter of Jude (Jude 9), and several verses from 1 Enoch 89 are quoted in the second-century Letter of Barnabas as \u201cScripture\u201d; other early theologians such as Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria show a knowledge of the legends of Enoch. The early church writer Tertullian regarded the Book of Enoch as inspired, although he admitted that \u201cit is not received by some.\u201d Over time, the church became less inclined to accept Enoch as scriptural; in his fourth-century City of God, Augustine says that the writings circulating under the name of Enoch \u201care properly judged by prudent men to be not inspired\u201d (15.23). Today it is accepted as canonical only in the church of Ethiopia.
\nIn this book, the Enoch literature is presented in three sections. The first is the Book of Enoch proper (text 36) as it was known at Qumran; the second is the Book of Giants (text 37); and the third is Astronomical Enoch (text 38), the longer, original version of the Book of the Heavenly Luminaries (chap. 72\u201382 of the later I Enoch).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 2[\u2026 he took up] his discourse [and s]aid [\u2026] 3[\u2026] and from the words of [the Watchers] and all the holy ones [\u2026] 4[\u2026 Not for thi]s generation but for a [di]stant gene[ration] do I spe[ak \u2026]
\n 5[The] Holy [G]reat One will come out of [his dwelling \u2026] 6[\u2026] the [Gr]eat One, and he will shine [in the strength of his] might [\u2026] 7[\u2026 end]s of the earth, and [a]ll the end[s of the earth] shall qu[ake \u2026] 8[\u2026] hills [\u2026]
\n 4Q204 Frag. 1 Col. 1 15[\u2026 he will come with myri[ads of his] holy ones [\u2026] 16[\u2026 to judge all f]lesh for [their] works [of \u2026] 17[\u2026] great and harsh [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. 3 1[\u2026 and they wer]e acting le[wdly \u2026]
\n 4Q201 Frag. 1 Col. 4 1Shemihaza taught spell[s \u2026] 2[m]agic and sorcery and tri[cks \u2026] 3[s]pells of the stars; Zikie[l taught \u2026]
\n 4Q202 Frag. 1 Col. 3 4[\u2026 Ara]takoph taught spell[s of the] earth [\u2026]
\n 4Q201 Frag. 1 Col. 4 4[Sham]shiel taught spells of [the] su[n \u2026] mo[on \u2026] 5[to revea]l secrets to their wives.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. 4 5[\u2026 said] the [L]ord: G[o \u2026] 6[son]s of the Watchers [\u2026] a battle of destruction [\u2026 and] len[gth of days \u2026] 7[\u2026 liv]e life [eternal \u2026] 8[\u2026 bin[d] 9Shem[ihaz]a and a[ll] his [companions] who united themselves to [women \u2026] 10their sons perish and [they] se[e the destructi]on [\u2026] seventy ge[nerations \u2026 abysses of] 11the earth until the Great Day [of Judgment \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 7[\u2026] in truth and all of it shall be plant[ed and filled with] blessing, and all the trees 8[\u2026 the vine that] is planted on it 9[\u2026 one measure of seed will bear a th]ousand [measures].<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n And [I wen]t away [\u2026] which is to the we[st \u2026] 3[\u2026] th[eir] petitions [\u2026 visions upon me fel]l until [\u2026 I lifted] 4my eyes to the gates of [heaven \u2026] 5and I saw a vision of the wrath of [rebuke \u2026 I came] 6unto them, and all of them were gathered together sitting down and [\u2026]
\n 7And I spoke before them all [the visions \u2026 I spoke] 8the words of truth and the vision, rebuking the Watchers of hea[ven \u2026]
\n 9The book of the words of truth [\u2026 the command of] 10[the Holy Grea]t One in the dream that I [dreamed \u2026] 11[wh]ich the Great One ga[ve] to the sons of [men] to sp[eak \u2026] 12[word]s of knowledge, he formed me and made and created (me) to r[ebuke \u2026] 13and in the vision it [ap]peared to me likewise that [your] petiti[on \u2026] 14and by the decrees [concerning] you that from n[ow on], never [\u2026] 15[\u2026 to bind] you through all the days of et[ernity \u2026] 16their sons and by [\u2026] of y[our] loved ones [\u2026] 17destruction, likewise [yo]ur p[etition] for [them \u2026 even if] 18you pray and make suppli[cations \u2026] 19from the writing that I have written. [\u2026 the clouds] 20were calling to me, and meteors and li[ghtning hastened me \u2026 the winds brought me] 21upward and carried me and bro[ugh]t me into [heaven \u2026] 22[and tongue]s of fire circling all arou[nd \u2026] 23[unti]l I drew near to a gr[eat] house [\u2026] 24[\u2026 its] foundations were made [of] snow [\u2026] 25[\u2026] all the[ir] walls [\u2026] 26[\u2026 as] snow, and all [\u2026] 27[\u2026] and [fear] fell [upon me \u2026] 28[\u2026 a house] larger than the first one and all of it [\u2026] 29[\u2026 I am not a]ble to describe to y[ou \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n There I saw the spirit 4of a dead man making complaint, [and] its sound(?) rose up to heaven, an outcry and compla[int] 5[\u2026 to Raphae]l, the Watcher and holy one w[ho \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n And beyond the valleys 26[\u2026 and I saw] other [mountain]s, and also in them I saw trees, from which there came out 27[sap \u2026 galbanu]m. [And be]yond these mountains, I was shown 28[another] mountain [\u2026] all the trees [in it \u2026] and it was like the bark of al[mond] 29[\u2026] from [them] a [swe]et smell when the bark was crushed.
\n 4Q206 Frag. 1 Col. 26 17[\u2026] these, toward the northeast of them I [was sh]own other mountains 18[\u2026] fine [n]ard and mastic and cardamom [and pe]pper.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. 27 9[This is the tree of knowledge that they ate from, your Ancient Father] 10[and] your Great Mother, and [they] kn[ew \u2026] 11that [they were] naked [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. 3 18[\u2026 E]noch [took up] his discourse, 19saying [\u2026] from the plant of 20uprightness [\u2026] I am 21Enoch, I will decl[are \u2026 from] the utterance of the Watchers and holy ones 22I have come to know all [\u2026 I] re[ad and pondere]d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 22[\u2026 and] the earth [will be pur]ified [by] the [g]reat destruction.
\n [\u2026] truly [\u2026] 23the [chi]ld [who is b]or[n \u2026] his name [Noah \u2026] 24[\u2026] he shall be saved [\u2026] 25[\u2026 that] shall be in [his] days.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n So now go to Lamech your [son \u2026 tell him] 30that this child is his son in all truth and not in lies [\u2026]
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nEnoch lived before the Flood, during a time when the world, in ancient imagination, was very different. Human beings lived much longer for one thing; Enoch\u2019s son, Methuselah, for instance, attained the age of 969 years. Another difference was that angels and humans interacted freely\u2014so freely, in fact, that some of the angels begot children with human females. This fact is neutrally reported in Genesis (6:1\u20134), but other stories view this episode as the source of the corruption that made the punishing flood necessary. According to the Book of Enoch, the mingling of angel and human was actually the idea of Shemihaza, the leader of the evil angels, who lured two hundred others to cohabit with women. The offspring of these unnatural unions were giants, 450 feet high. The wicked angels and the giants began to oppress the humans and teach them to do evil. For this reason God determined to imprison the angels until the final judgment and to destroy the earth with a flood. Enoch\u2019s efforts to intercede with heaven for the fallen angels were unsuccessful (1 Enoch 6\u201316).
\nThe Book of Giants retells part of this story and elaborates on the exploits of the giants, especially the two children of Shemihaza, Ohya and Hahya. Since no complete manuscript exists of Giants, its exact contents and their order remains a matter of guesswork. Most of the content of the present fragments concerns the giants\u2019 ominous dreams and Enoch\u2019s efforts to interpret them and to intercede with God on the giants\u2019 behalf. Unfortunately, little remains of the independent adventures of the giants, but it is likely that these tales were at least partially derived from ancient Near Eastern mythology. Thus the name of one of the giants is Gilgamesh, the Babylonian hero and subject of a great epic written in the third millennium B.C.E.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 4Q532 Frag. 2 2[\u2026] flesh [\u2026] 3[\u2026] monster[s \u2026] 4[\u2026] they were stand[ing \u2026] 5[\u2026] the earth [grew corrupt \u2026] 6[\u2026] they were considering [\u2026] 7[\u2026] from the Watchers upon [\u2026] 8[\u2026] perished and died [\u2026] 9[\u2026] they caused great corruption in the ea[rth \u2026] 10[\u2026 this did not] suffice to ea[t \u2026] 11[\u2026] the earth and until [\u2026] 12[\u2026] in the earth in all [\u2026] 13[\u2026] great and now not [\u2026] 14[\u2026] they [pl]aced a stro[ng] bon[d \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 6Q8 Frag. 1 2[\u2026] Ohya [answered] and he said to Mahway [\u2026] 3[\u2026] without trembling. Who showed you all this vision, [my] br[other?\u2026 And Mahway answered] 4[and said to Ohy]a, Barakel, my father, was with me. [\u2026] 5[\u2026 And] Mahway had not [fi]nished [te]lling what [\u2026 showed him,] 6[and Ohya answered and said to h]im, Now I have heard wonders! If a barr[en woman] gives birth [\u2026]
\n 4Q203 Frag. 4 3[There]upon Ohya said to Ha[hya \u2026] 4[\u2026 to be destroyed] from upon the earth and [\u2026] 5[\u2026 the ea]rth. Wh[en \u2026] 6[\u2026] they began to weep befo[re the giants \u2026]
\n Frag. 7a 3[\u2026] your strength [\u2026] 4[\u2026] 5Thereup[on] Ohya[said] to Hahy[a \u2026 Then he answered, It is not] 6for us, [but] for Azazel, for he did [\u2026 the children of angels] 7are the giants, and the W[atchers] will forget all [their] com[panions \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 9[\u2026] Then Ohya said to him, My dream disturbed [me] 10[\u2026 the sle]ep of my eyes [vanished], to let me see a [vis]ion. Now I know that because of 11[the vision I will not] sleep, and I will not hasten to [\u2026] 12[And then Gi]lgamesh said: Your [d]ream [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 13[\u2026] the giants [were not] able to tell him 14[the d]rea[m \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 4Q203 Frag. 9 2[\u2026 qu]aking before the splendor of [your] gl[ory \u2026] 3[\u2026] because [you] kno[w] all mysteries [\u2026] 4[\u2026] and nothing is too hard for you [\u2026] 5[\u2026 be]fore you and now [\u2026] 6[\u2026] the kingdom of your greatness [\u2026]
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nIt is even possible that Astronomical Enoch is itself a composite work, since of the four Dead Sea Scroll manuscripts assigned to it, one of them (4Q208) contains nothing but the \u201csynchronistic calendar\u201d (see text 72), while 4Q210\u2013211 contain only material from the second part of Astronomical Enoch (the part that roughly corresponds to 1 Enoch 76\u201378; 82). 4Q209 alone bridges the gap and includes material from both subdivisions.
\nIn a nutshell, the synchronistic calendar tabulates aspects of the movements of the sun and the moon. Using repetitive and stereotyped phrases the author describes the waxing and waning of the moon. He conceives of the moon\u2019s light as divided into fourteen parts, though he describes those parts in terms of the holy number seven: each seventh is divided in half, and the waxing and waning proceeds one-half seventh per day. He synchronizes the conjunctions and oppositions of the sun and moon as well, conceiving of their movements in terms of entry and exit into any of six \u201cgates\u201d of heaven. The gates stand at the two horizons, east and west. All of this discussion is highly technical and, frankly, for most people exceedingly boring. Furthermore, the material is poorly suited to verbal description; what is needed is a table or illustration. For these reasons and possibly others the motivation to abbreviate the synchronistic calendar must have been considerable, and the form known in Astronomical Enoch survived in neither Greek nor Ethiopic. It did have considerable influence on Jewish thought in the time of the scrolls, and in particular on the circles whose calendrical materials are represented in this book. Note especially the Phases of the Moon (text 69) for further development of the synchronistic calendar.
\n1 Enoch 76\u201378 and 82 contain materials of a different character from the synchronistic calendar. These materials too concern heavenly movements and gates and the relations between the things of heaven and their observable earthly effects. The Qumran materials that correspond to these chapters are somewhat longer and frequently slightly different in their conceptions. They make clear that the Greek-Ethiopic tradition was interpretive and did not always clearly understand the Aramaic; or else, as is also possible, the Aramaic tradition itself was somewhat variegated and what we find in the scrolls is only one form of what circulated among the Jews.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Frag. 2 2this from its measure [\u2026] 3one-tenth of o[ne-]ninth [\u2026] 4[\u2026 one-tenth of] one-ninth. And the stars move through the fir[st gates] of heaven, [then] exit. 5On the first day, [one-]tenth [by] one-[six]th; on the second day, one-fifteenth 6by [o]ne-sixth; [and] on the third day, on[e-]thirtieth [b]y one-sixth.
\n Frag. 3 4On the [fif]te[enth day [\u2026] 5only [in] this night from [\u2026] a [t]hird part of one-ninth. And fiv[e \u2026] 6and one-tenth of one-ninth.
\n \u2014M.O.W.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nJacob\u2019s twelve sons were the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel. Since Levi, the third of the twelve sons of Jacob, was the forefather of the priestly tribe, the Words of Levi stresses the duties and prerogatives of the priests. The ideal priest, to judge from this text, would have been a combination of a zealous warrior for God, a punctilious observer of ritual purity, an inspiring teacher, and a recipient of divine revelation through dreams and prophecy.
\nTestaments often begin with reflections by the \u201cauthor\u201d on his life, then move into ethical exhortations, and conclude with prophecy, as the hero looks beyond his death to foretell the \u201cfuture\u201d\u2014generally the time when the text was actually composed and for whose readers it was really intended.*<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n \u201cLord, You 11[know all hearts, all the thoughts of the mind] You alone understand. 12[Now my brothers are with me, so entrust to me] the right ways. Remove 13[from me, O Lord, the immoral spirit,] rid me of wicked [thoughts] and unchastity. 14[Reveal to me, Lord, the holy spirit; counsel and] wisdom and knowledge and strength 15[grant me so I can do what pleases You and] find favor with You, 16[praising Your words with me, O Lord, doing] what is proper and right in Your eyes. 17Let no demonic adversary have power over me, 18[making me wander from Your path. Have mercy] on me, O Lord, and draw me near to be Your [servant \u2026] Mt. Athos MS.\u2026 and to worship You properly. May Your wall of peace be around me, may the shelter of Your might protect me from all harm. Purify my heart, O Lord, from all impurity, that I myself may be lifted up to You. Do not hide Your face from the son of Your servant Jacob. Col. 2 5[\u2026 You], 6O Lord, have b[lessed my great-grandfather Abraham and my great-grandmother Sarah, and commanded that they be granted] 7r[ighteous] descendants [forever blessed. So hear also] 8the prayer of [Your] ser[vant Levi, that he may draw near to You. Let me share Your words, so as to render] 9proper judgment for[ever, yes, my sons and I, for all generations. So do not reject] 10Your servant\u2019s son from [Your presence for all eternity.\u201d And I began to pray silently.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Col. B 15[\u2026] my brothers always 16[\u2026] who were in Shechem 17[\u2026] my brothers and his brothers. This is 18[\u2026] in Shechem, and whatever 19[\u2026 weapons for committing] crimes. So 20Judah told them that I and Simeon 21my brother had gone to [\u2026] to Reuben 22our brother, who [\u2026] 23and Judah jumped forward [to l]eave the flock.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Then these seven left me, 10and I woke up from my sleep. 11I said, This is a vision, and because I was 12astonished that (MS.: he) should have had a vision, I kept 13this one too to myself, revealing it to no one.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n He said to me, Levi, carefully avoid, 9my son, all ritual impurity and every kind of 10sin. Your way of life is to be more strict than all 11other humans. So now, my son, I will show you 12the proper way for you to live, not withholding 13from you any thing you need to know about the 14priestly way of life.
\n First, carefully avoid, 15my son, all impure lewdness and every kind of 16improper sexual act. You must marry 17a woman from my clan, so as not to defile your seed with harlots, 18because you are a holy seed, and holy is 19your seed as the holy temple, and because 20you are considered a holy priest to all the seed of 21Abraham. You are close to God and close to 22all his holy angels. So purify 23your flesh from every impurity of any man.
\n Col. C (+ 4Q214b) 1When you rise to enter the house of God, 2bathe first in water, then put on 3the priestly vestments. When you are dressed, 4once more wash your hands 5and your feet before you come near the altar. 6When you begin to sacrifice 7whatever is fitting to place on the altar, 8once again wash your hands and feet.
\n 9When you sacrifice split logs, examine 10them first for any worms 11and then place them on the altar, for 12I saw my father Abraham taking care to do this. 13He told me that any of twelve kinds of wood 14are fitting to place on the altar, 15because the odor of their smoke is sweet-smelling 16as it ascends. These are their names: cedar, juniper, 17mastic, pine, small pine, aduna, 18cypress, thekaka, [bay,] 19[tama]risk, myrtle, and camel\u2019s-thorn. These are 20the ones he told me were suitable to place 21under the whole burnt offering on the altar.
\n 22When [you have placed] any of these kinds of wood on 23the altar and the fire begins to kindle Col. D (+ 4Q214, 4Q214b) 1in them, at that moment you should begin to sprinkle the blood 2on the sides of the altar. Then once more wash off your hands 3and feet from the blood and begin to put on the salted pieces. 4Put the head on first, 5and cover it with the fatty portions, so that none of the blood 6from the slaughtering of the bull is showing. After that, the neck, 7and after the neck, the forefeet; after the forefeet, 8the breast with the side; after them, 9the thighs with the lower spine; 10after the thighs, the hind feet rinsed 11with the entrails. All these are to be salted with 12the right amount of salt proper to each. After this, fine flour 13mixed with oil, and after all of this, the libation wine. 14Then burn incense on them.
\n Let [all] 15your actions be done in order and all your sacrifices [will be acceptable] 16as a sweet-smelling savor to God Most High; [and] 17as you do [everything] in order, observe [the proper measures] 18and weights. Don\u2019t add anything that does not [belong], 19but don\u2019t lessen the proper amount, either!
\n The proper amount of wood 20suitable to bring for whatever is sacrificed on the altar is as follows: 21for a large bull: a talent* of wood is a proper weight for it; 22but if the fat alone is sacrificed, six 23minas (about ten pounds).
\n If a second bull is offered [\u2026]Mt. Athos MS.: fifty minas, but for its fat alone, five minas. For an unblemished calf, forty minas. If the sacrifice is a ram from the flock or a male goat, thirty minas, and for the fat alone, three minas. If it is a lamb of the flock or a kid, twenty minas; for the fat alone, two minas. If it is an unblemished one-year-old lamb or kid, fifteen minas; for the fat alone, one and a half minas.
\n Bring salt for the large bull to salt its flesh and place it on the altar. One seah [about eleven quart jars] of salt is the proper amount for the bull. Salt the skin with the salt that remains. For the second bull, five-sixths seah; for the calf, half seah; for the ram or the male goat, half seah; for the lamb and the kid, one-third seah.
\n The amount of fine flour proper to them: for the large bull and the second bull and the calf, one seah; for the ram and the goat, two-thirds seah; for the lamb and the kid, one-third seah.
\n As for the oil, one-fourth seah for the bull, mingled with the fine flour; for the ram, one-sixth seah; for the lamb and kid, one-eighth seah.
\n As for the wine, pour out a libation on the bull, ram, and kid in the same amount as the oil.
\n Use six shekels of incense for the bull, half that for the ram, a third of it for the kid.
\n As for the mixed fine flour, if you offer it alone, not on the fat, pour out two shekels of incense on it.
\n The third of a seah is the third of an ephah, and two parts of a bath measure and the weight of the mina is fifty shekels; as for the shekels, the fourth of a shekel weighs four thermoi; therefore the whole shekel weighs about sixteen thermoi.
\n So now, my son, hear my words and pay heed to my commandments. Never forget my words, for you are a priest holy to the Lord, and all your descendants will be priests. Bid your descendants to live according to the priestly way of life as I have shown it to you, for so my father Abraham commanded me to do and to bid my children to do.
\n So now, my son, I rejoice that you have been chosen for the holy priesthood, to offer sacrifice to God Most High in the way that has been decreed to be fitting. When you offer a sacrifice from anyone to the Lord, receive from them the amount of wood, salt, flour, wine, and incense that I have instructed you along with whatever animal is to be sacrificed. You must wash your hands and feet every time you approach the altar, and whenever you leave the holy things, no blood must be touching your garments. Do not light a fire on it on that day.
\n You must constantly wash any flesh off your hands and feet. No blood or flesh must appear on you, for the blood is the soul in the flesh. Whenever you have meat to eat in the house, cover the blood in the ground first, before you eat the meat, so that you will not be eating with blood around. Thus my father Abraham commanded me, because he found it written so in the book of Noah concerning blood.
\n So now also I say to you, my beloved son, you are dear to your father and holy to God Most High; and dearer you shall be than any of your brothers. Your descendants shall be blessed in the land and placed in the book of the memorial of life forever, so that your name and your descendants\u2019 names will never be forgotten.
\n So now, Levi my son, may your descendants be blessed on the earth for all the ages of the world!<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Once again she conceived by me at the proper time fitting for women, and I called his name Kohath. Cambridge Geniza Text Col. C 5I called his name [Kohath. I saw] that 6all [the people would] gather to him, and that 7the high-priesthood [over all Is]rael would be his. 8In the [thir]ty-fou[rth] year of my life 9he was born, in the fir[st] month, on the [fi]rst day of [the] mon[th], 10towards sunrise.
\n Once 11again I was with [her] and she bore me a 12third son, and I called his name Merari, because 13his birth was very distressing (mar) to me, for when he was born, 14he was dying, and it was very bitter (marir) to me 15indeed that he should die, so I appealed and prayed 16for him, and it was a bitter (merar) experience. 17In the fortieth year of my life he was born, in the third month.
\n 18Once again I was with her and she conceived 19and bore me a daughter, I gave her the name 20Jochebed. I [sa]id when she was born to me, For glory 21she is born to me, for the honor of Israel. 22In the sixty-fourth year of my life was she born, 23on the first day of the seventh month, after Col. D 1[we had] en[tered] Egypt.
\n In the sixteenth 2year, He brought us into the land of Egypt. 3At that time the daughters of my brothers [were given] to my sons, when considered 4worthy, [to bear] them children.
\n The names of the sons of 5Gershon: [Libni and] Shimei.
\n The names of the sons of 6Ko[hath: Amra]m, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel.
\n 7[The names of] the sons of Merari: Mahli and Mushai.
\n 8Now Amram took a wife, my daughter Jochebed, 9while I was alive, in the ninety-four[th] year 10of my life; I had called him Amram when 11he was born, because when he was born I said, 12This one [shall bring] the people out of the lan[d of Eg]ypt, 13and so s[hall be call]ed \u201cExalted [People\u201d] (amma rama). 14On one day were born [both he and] Jochebed 15my daughter.
\n When I was eighteen, I was brought 16[into the l]and of Canaan, and I was [ei]ghteen 17when I killed She[chem] and eliminated 18those who commit crimes.
\n I was nineteen 19years old when I became a priest, and I was twenty-20eight when I took a wife for myself, and 21I was forty-eight when 22God brought us into the land of Egypt. 23I lived eighty-nine years in Egypt. Col. E 1In all I lived 137 2years and I saw my descendants to the t[hird] generation before 3I died.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [Listen] 8to your father Levi\u2019s speech, pay heed to the precepts of 9God\u2019s friend. I will instruct you, my sons, I 10will tell you what is right, my dears. The whole 11of your actions must be right, 12so may goodness remain forever with you, 13and the right [\u2026] 14a blessed yield. Whoever sows 15goodness will reap goodness; but whoever sows 16evil, his seed will return to him.
\n 17So now, my sons, teach writing and discipline 18and wisdom to your children, so that 19wisdom may be their perpetual glory, 20for the one who learns wisdom shall have glory 21through it. But whoever disdains wisdom becomes an object of scorn (4Q213 adds: and contempt). 22Consider, my sons, my brother Joseph, 23who teaches writing and wise discipline (4Q213 adds: for glory and majesty); and [he advises] kings [\u2026]).
\n Col. F (+ 4Q213) 1\u20135[\u2026] Do not ignore the learning of wisdom, [for] every man who learns wisdom, his days [will be long], 6and [his reputation] will grow in every lan[d] 7and nation [that he goes] to. He will be like a brother there, 8and will be recognized, and will [not] seem like 9a foreigner or 10a half-breed, for all of them will give 11him honor, because all will want 12to learn from his wisdom. 13His friends will be many, his well-wishers numerous, 14and they will make him sit in the chair of honor 15to hear his words of wisdom. 16So wisdom is a great treasure of honor (4Q213 adds: for those who know it), and a fine 17trove for all who possess it.
\n If 18mighty kings come with many people, 19and an army, horsemen, and many chariots 20with them, and if they seize the wealth of lands and 21nations, plundering everything in them, 22they still could not plunder the storehouses of wisdom, 23nor could they find its hidden riches. 4Q213 Frag. 1, Col. 2 1they could not enter its gates, nor could they [\u2026] 2could not overrun its walls [\u2026] nor [\u2026] 3would they see her treasure, the treasure [\u2026] 4for there is no price equal to it [\u2026 he who] 5seeks wisdom, [will find] wisdom \u2026 and nothing will be] 6hidden from him [\u2026] 7[he will] lack nothing [\u2026] 8in truth [\u2026] from all who seek 9wisdom [\u2026] 4Q213 Frag. 2 5reading and discipline 6[\u2026] you will inherit them 7[\u2026] great [honor] you shall give 8[\u2026] honor. 9Tr[uth \u2026] also in the books 10[\u2026] rulers and judges 11[\u2026] and servants 12[\u2026] priests and kings 13[\u2026] your kingdom 14[\u2026] there shall be no end 15[\u2026 the priesthood shall never] pass from you until all 16[\u2026] in great honor.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Now sometimes you will be abject [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Frag. 2 Col. 1 5[\u2026 w]ords he [shall] speak and according to the will of 6[God \u2026 he showed] me another writing 7[\u2026] it spoke about him in riddles 8[\u2026] was [not] near to me but far away from me 9[\u2026] shall be [\u2026] a vision. And I said, The fruits[\u2026] Col. 2 1was suspended, because [\u2026] 2from God [\u2026] 3you shall receive a blow [\u2026] 4I will bless you. The burnt offering [\u2026] 5your spirit, and you shall rejoice [\u2026] 6because [he is] wise [\u2026] 7comely [words \u2026] 8he persecuted him and sought [to kill him \u2026]
\n Frags. 3\u20134 Col. 1 2[\u2026 upon] them the suffering of your peace [\u2026] 3I shall t[ake] up a parable against you [\u2026] 4[\u2026] and he will ponder deep things and he will speak riddles [\u2026] 5[\u2026] shall come to you, for you are possessed by zeal, and the fowl 6[for sacrifice \u2026] to consume. For you will greatly re[joice, and greatly [\u2026]
\n Frag. 6 1[\u2026] wounds upon w[ounds \u2026] 2[\u2026 you will be found innocent in your] case, and you will not be guil[ty \u2026] 3[\u2026] the tracks of your wounds th[at \u2026] 4[\u2026] what has been entrusted to you and all [\u2026] 5[\u2026] your heart from [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n They will speak many words against him, and many 6[falsehood]s; they will concoct lies and speak all kinds of slander against him. His generation is evil and perverse; 7[\u2026] will be; his term of office will be marked by lies and violence [and] the people will go astray in his days and be confounded. Col. 2 5[\u2026] seven rams are fitt[ing \u2026] 6some of his children shall go [\u2026] 7and they shall be added to [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Thus you will keep up a good reputation for your father and you will become a sound foundation for your brothers. 6You will grow and understand and be glad in the light of the world; you will not be a disowned vessel [\u2026]
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\nWhat remains of Naphtali\u2019s autobiography mainly has to do with his mother, Bilhah. The twelve sons of Jacob were borne by four different mothers: two of them were Jacob\u2019s wives, Rachel and Leah, and two were the wives\u2019 handmaidens, Bilhah and Zilpah (Gen. 29\u201330). Naphtali was the fifth son of Jacob, and plays little role in the Bible beyond the narrative of his birth in Genesis 30:7\u20138, which is retold below.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[\u2026] first, 3Zilpah. He called her Zilpah after the name of the city where he had been captured.
[He again lay with her] 4and she conceived and gave birth to my mother Bilhah. Hannah named her Bilhah, because when she was born [\u2026 she] 5was eager to suckle, and she said, \u201cHow eager my daughter is!\u201d So from then on she was called Bilhah [\u2026]
6When my father Jacob came to Laban fleeing from his brother Esau and when [\u2026] 7father of my mother Bilhah, then Laban led forth my grandmother Hannah and her two daughters [and gave one to Leah] 8[as a servant] and one to Rachel.
When Rachel continued not to bear children, [she asked her servant to bear children] 9[in her place for] my father [Jaco]b. She gave to him my mother Bilhah and she gave birth to Dan [my] brother.
[She conceived again and gave birth a second time] 10[\u2026 that] I have borne after him the name Naphtali [\u2026]
\u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Frag. 2 1His holiness. He founded them for [\u2026] 2He created them for [\u2026] 3His waters and darkness [\u2026] 4to its appointed time [\u2026] darkness [\u2026] 5for appointed times before [\u2026] 6[\u2026] ho[st \u2026]
\n Frag. 3 1[\u2026] to proscribe earth [by] His wrath and to renew [\u2026] 2[\u2026 sp]ring of their knowledge [\u2026]
\n \u2014E.M.C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\u2022 An introduction (chap. 1), in which God describes the apostasy of his people and their future restoration\n\u2022 A primeval history (chaps. 2\u20134), dealing with the creation and Adam\n\u2022 Stories about Noah (chaps. 5\u201310)\n\u2022 Stories about Abraham (11:1\u201323:8)\n\u2022 Thoughts on Abraham\u2019s death (23:9\u201332)\n\u2022 Stories about Jacob and his family (chaps. 24\u201345)\n\u2022 Stories about Moses (chaps. 46\u201350)<\/code><\/pre>\n\n\n\n
\nBefore the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Jubilees was known to scholars from Greek, Syriac, Latin, and Ethiopic translations and was part of the most ancient canon of the Ethiopic church. The discovery of a large number of Jubilees manuscripts at Qumran surprised many and has aroused considerable interest. Some fifteen Jubilees scrolls were found in five caves: two each in Caves 1 and 2, one in Cave 3, nine in Cave 4, and one in Cave 11. (The actual total of these frequently fragmentary manuscripts is not certain and may be as low as thirteen or as high as sixteen.) All of them are written in Hebrew, and one on papyrus.
\nFrom the perspective of the scrolls, Jubilees is especially significant in view of its relationship to several sectarian texts. Prominent shared elements include the 364-day calendar, division of the course of history into 49-year jubilee periods, and the practice of dating covenants to the third month (especially the fifteenth day of that month). This last element of Jubilees may have inspired the sectarian practice of renewing the covenant annually on the Festival of Weeks.
\nThree factors point to the conclusion that the writers of many of the Qumran texts considered Jubilees to be Scripture. First, a variety of writings quote the work as though it were authoritative. Thus Work with a Citation of Jubilees (text 46) seems to refer to Jubilees by its Hebrew title, \u201cThe Divisions of the Times,\u201d and later introduces the first word of the title by a citation formula commonly used for biblical books: \u201cFor thus it is written in the Divisions (of the Times).\u201d Similarly, CD (Damascus Document, text 1) 16:2\u20134 cites Jubilees as the source of information concerning the times when Israel would be blind to the Law of Moses, while CD 10:7\u201310 may well be based on Jubilees 23:11, referring to people\u2019s loss of knowledge in their old age.
\nSecond, Jubilees claims to be divine revelation; its contents are given by an angel of God, inscribed on heavenly tablets. It seems likely that at least some readers believed these intrinsic claims just as they believed other things the book says. Third, the comparatively large number of copies shows that Jubilees was as popular as almost any biblical book, and so most likely considered authoritative. Only five of the traditional twenty-four biblical (Old Testament) writings\u2014Psalms, Deuteronomy, Isaiah, Exodus, and Genesis\u2014can lay claim to a greater number of manuscripts at Qumran.
\nThe chapter and verse notations in the following translation, which precede the lines they reference in parentheses, are according to the traditional form of the book.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n (1:3) And He called to Moses from the cloud on the seventh day,] 9[and he saw the glory of the LORD as a fire blazing on the mountaintop. (1:4) Moses remained] 10[on the mountain for forty days and forty nights while the LORD told him of the first and] 11[the last things and what was to come. He told him of the di]visions of [the ti]mes, for the la[w] 12[and for the testimony.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n (1:7) Now write for yourself al]l these [wor]ds Col. 2 1[which I am telling you today, because I know their rebelliousness and their stubbornness before I bring them] 2into the l[an]d [that I swore to their fathers, Abraham, Isaac, and Ja]c[ob,] 3saying, \u201cTo [your] offspring [I will give a land flowing with milk and hone]y.\u201d They will eat and be satisfied [(1:8) and will turn] 4after oth[er] gods [who will not save them from any dis]tresses. And the [testimony] will answer [to] 5this testimony. (1:9) F[or they will forget all my commandments, everything that I shall] command you, and they will wa[lk after] 6[the nat]ions, [their dis]g[race, and] their [shame.] And they will serve [their] g[ods and they will become for them an offense,] 7a distress, [an affliction,] and a [snare. (1:10) Man]y [will be destroyed] and will be captured and will fall [into the hand of the enemy because] 8[they have abandoned] My statutes, [My commandments, the festival]s of My covenant, [My Sabbaths, My holy things] 9which they have consecrated for Me am[ong themselves, My tabernacle, and My] temple [that I consecrated for Myself in the midst of] 10the land to set [My name] on it [so that it would dwell there.
\n (1:11) They will make for themselves high places, Asherahs, and idols,] 11and they will worship a[ll the wor]ks of [their] delusion. [And they will sacrifice their children to demons and to all the works of the delusion of their heart.] 12(1:12) I will send witnesses to [them] to [warn them, but they will not listen and will kill the witnesses.] 13The[y] will persecute those who seek [the] law [and will change everything so as to do what is evil] 14in My eyes. (1:13) I will hid[e] my [face] from them, and [I] will ha[nd them over to the nation]s for cap[tivity,] 15[de]vastations, [and devouring. I will remove them from the midst of the land, and] I will scatter them among all the nation[s.] 16[(1:14) Then they will forget all My statutes, all My commandments,] and all My instruction, and [they] will forg[et month, Sabbath,] 17[festival, jubilee, and covenant.
\n (1:15) Afterwards they will return] to Me from among the nation[s with all their heart, \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n (1:27) And He told the angel of the] presence to write 7[for Moses about the period from the beginning of the creation unti]l My sanctuary is built 8[in their midst for all eternity. (1:28) The LORD will appear in the sight of] all, and [all] will know 9[that I am the God of Israel, father of all J]acob\u2019s [children,] and king 10[on Mount Zion for all eternity. Then Zion and Jerusa]l[em will be holy \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 4[(2:2) For on the first day He created the] highest [heaven]s, the ear[th,] 5[the waters, and all the spirits who minister before Him: the angels of] the presence; the angels of ho[liness]; 6the a[ngels of the spirits of fire; the angels of the winds that blo]w; the angels of the spirits of the [clouds], 7of dar[kness, hailstones, frost, dew, snow, hail, and i]ce; the angels of the thunde[r]; 8the angels of the winds; [the angels of the spirits of cold and] heat, of winter and summer; [and of all] 9the spirits of His creatures [which He made in heaven, which He made on ear]th, and in every place, the dept[hs], 10darkness, dawn, [light, and evening, which He determined by] His [know]ledge. (2:3) Then we saw His works and [blessed Him] 11for all His [wo]rks, and [we praised Him because He] had d[one seven] great works [on the first day].
\n 12On the [second] da[y He made the expanse betwee]n th[e water]s, [and the waters were divided on that day. Half of them] 13went up abo[ve the expanse, and half of them went down below the expanse that is in the midst above] 14the [whole] earth. [\u2026]
\n Col. 6 2[(2:7) \u2026 and the poo]ls, all the d[ew of the earth,] 3[seed-bearing plants, all that sprouts, fruit trees, the] forests, and the Garden of E[de]n [in Eden] 4[for enjoyment and for food. These four great types] He made {He made} on the thi[rd] day.
\n 5[(2:8) On the fourth day the LORD made the s]un, the moon, and the stars. [And He placed] 6[them in the expanse of the heavens to give light over the whole earth,] to rule the day and the night, and to di[vide] 7[light from darkness. (2:9) He appointed the sun as a gre]at [sign over the earth] for day[s], for [Sab]baths, for [months,] 8[for festivals, for years, for the weeks of years, \u2026 for jubi]lees, and for all the sea[sons of the years.] 9[(2:10) It divides the light from the darkness and brings healing so that everything that] sprouts and grows on the ea[rth may prosper.] 10[These three kinds He made on the fourth day.]
\n 11[(2:11) On the fifth day He created the gre]at [sea monsters] in the m[idst of the depth]s of the wa[ters, for these] 12[were the first works of flesh from His hands, everything that swarms in the] waters, fish, [and] all {and al[l} the birds] 13[that fly, and all their kinds. (2:12) The sun shone on them that they might] prosper and o[n everything] that was on the ea[rth, everything] 14[that sprouts from the earth, all fruit trees, and all flesh. These] thr[ee] gr[eat kind]s 15[He made on the fifth day.]
\n Col. 7 1[(2:13) On the] sixth [da]y all [the land] ani[mals, all the cattle, and everything that creeps about on the earth. (2:14) After all these things] 2He made humankind, male and fem[ale He made them. He made him rule over everything on the earth, in the seas, and over everything that flies,] 3over the animals, over all the creeping things that cre[ep about on the earth, over the cattle, and over the entire earth. Over all these He made him rule.] These [four] 4kinds He made on the [sixth day.
\n (2:15) In all there were twenty-two kinds. (2:16) He finished all His works on the sixth day, everything] 5that was in the heavens, on the earth, [in the seas, in the depths, in the light, and in the darkness, in every place.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [(2:23) There were twenty-two heads of humankind] 15from Adam until him (Jacob); and twenty-two k[inds of work were made until the seventh day. This is blessed and holy and that is blessed] 16and holy. Both were made together for holiness [and blessing. (2:24) It was given to this one (Jacob and his seed) to be for all time the blessed and holy ones.] 17This is the testimony and the fir[st] law [\u2026]<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 9[And in the first year of the first week of the fif]th [jubilee,] houses were built on the ear[th.] 10[And Cain built a city and named it after] his [so]n Enoch.
\n (4:10) And Ada[m] 11[knew Eve his wife, and she bore nine more children. (4:11) And in] the f[ifth wee]k [\u2026]
\n Frag. 2 1[(4:13) \u2026 Enosh took his sister Noam as his wife, and she bore him a s]on in the [third] y[ear] 2[of the fifth week and he named him Qenan. (4:14) And] at the end of the [eighth] ju[bilee] 3[Qenan took a wife for himself, his sister Muhallelet] as a wife. [And she bore] 4[him a son in the ninth jubilee, in the first week, in the thi]rd year of [the week \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n (4:17) He was the firs[t \u2026] Frag. 4 1[And he wrote down in a book the signs of the sky, according to the order of their months, tha]t [men] might know 2the seasons of the years, according to the orders of all their months.<\/a> H[e was the fir]st 3[to write a testimony, and he testified to the sons of men among the generations of the earth. The weeks of] the [jubilees \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n [(12:16) And in the sixth week] 3in [its] fifth year [Abram sat up through the night on the first day of the seventh month to observe] 4the star[s from the evening to the morning in order to see what kind of year it would be in respect to the rains. And while] 5he [was sitting alone and observing, (12:17) a word came to his heart that said: \u201cAll the signs] 6of the sta[rs \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 3[(21:7) If you sa]crifice a well-be[ing] as a burnt offering, o[f]fer it in such a way that it is acceptable: you are to sprinkle the blood on the alt[ar,] 4[and all] the meat of the burnt offering you are to bu[r]n on the al[tar] with the flour of its offering mixed with [o]i[l,] 5[with its libation. You shall] burn all of it on the altar as an offering by fire, a sweet savor before God. (21:8) The fat of 6[the sacrifice of wel]l[-bei]ng you are to burn up on the fire which is on the altar, and the fat [that is upon] 7[the entrails,] the [f]at that is above the entrails, the kidneys [and] the [fat that is on them,] 8[and that which is on the loins] and the appendage of the liver you are to remove, together with the kidneys. [(21:9) You shall burn] 9[all of it as a sweet savor before G]od with its offering and its libation as a sw[eet savor, a food offering by fire] 10[to God. (21:10) Eat its meat on] that [day] and on the next; but do no[t] let [the sun] s[et on it] 11[on the next day until it is eaten. It is not to be left to the th]i[rd day \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n (21:13) From these kinds of wood] 8[you shall place under the offering on the] altar [those which are tested as to their appearance. Do not place any split wood \u2026] 9\u201310[\u2026] 11[\u2026 (21:14) \u2026 their fragrance goes up to] heaven.
\n (21:15) Ke[ep] 12[this commandment and do it, my son, that you might be up]right in all your deeds. 13[(21:16) And at all times be pure in your flesh and wash in water before you] go to burn 14\u201316[\u2026]
\n 17[(21:18) And you shall no longer eat blood] for the blood is [life; and you shall not eat any blood. (21:19) You shall not take] 18[a bribe for any] human [blood] that will be shed [in vain without judgment, for the blood which is shed] 19[pollutes the earth, and the] earth cannot [be purified from human blood except through the blood] 20[of the one who shed it. (21:20) You shall not take a br]ibe or a ransom f[or human blood, it must be blood for blood, and then it will be acceptable] 21[before the LOR]D God Most High. His protection will be ov[er the good and that you may keep yourself from every] 22[evil and to del]iver you [from] every pestilence. [\u2026]
\n 23[(21:21) I see, my son, that all] the de[eds of human]kind [are sin and wickedness, and all] 24[their deeds are impurity, disgrac]e, and perversion, and there is no truth among them. (21:22) Take [care lest you walk] 25[in their ways, and] tread in their paths, and commit a sin leading to death [before God Most High] 26[and He hide His face] from you, give you into the power of your transgressions, and cut you off [from the earth] 27[and your seed from] under heaven. And your name and your memory will perish from [the] wh[ole earth.] 28[(21:23) Turn aside from all] their [de]eds and from all their abominations, and [ke]ep the oblig[ations of] 29[God Most High, and do] His will so that you might be successful in everything. (21:24) He will bless you in all your deeds, [and will raise up] 30[from you the plant] of truth on the earth for all the generations of the earth. Then He will not bring an end to [my name and your name] 31[unde]r heaven throughout all the days.
\n (21:25) Make your way straight, my son, in pea[ce,] 32[that the God Mo]st High [might strengthen you,] my God and your God, to do His will and to [bless your seed] 33and the [remnant of] your [see]d for all the generations forever, with all the blessing[s of the truth, so that you may be] 34a blessing [in all the ea]rth. (21:26) And he departed from Him rejoicing. [\u2026]
\n 35[(22:1) And it came abou]t in the first week of the fo[rty-]third [jubilee, in the second year] 36[of it, that is] the year in which Abraham died, [Isaac and Ishmael] cam[e] 37[from Beersheba to celebrate th]e feast of [we]e[k]s, the festi[val of the firstfruits of the harvest \u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 4[And the days of mourning for Abra]ham were completed.<\/a> And he lived three jubilees and fo[ur weeks of years, one hundred and seventy-five] 5[years, and completed the days of his life,] being old and full of days [\u2026]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n (23:11) All the generations which will arise from n]ow until the d[a]y 3[of Great Judgment will grow old quickly \u2026 before they complete tw]o jubilees. 4[And their knowledge will abandon them because of their advanced age, and all their knowledge will be lost. (23:12) In] those [day]s, 5[if a man lives for a full jubilee and one-half they will say about him: \u201cHe has lived long, but] the better part of his days 6[are pain, trouble, and distress without peace. (23:13) For there is blow upon blow and turmoil upo]n [turmoil] 3Q5 Frag. 1 3[distress upon distress, and evil report upon [evil] report [\u2026\u201d]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n 4Q176b Frag. 21 1(23:30) And [those who] h[ate them] shall see [all their judgment] 2in all [their] curse. [(23:31) And their bones shall rest on the earth,] 3and their spirits sh[all rejoice greatly, and they shall know that] 4there is a God who executes [judgment and shows mercy] 5to [thousand]s and to te[ns of thousands, to all that love Him.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n (25:11) Then she lifted [her face to heaven, spread the fingers] 4[of] her [hand]s, opened her mouth, and blessed God Most High, c[reator of heaven and earth, and she gave Him] 5[tha]nks and praise. (25:12) And she said, \u201cBlessed is LORD Go[d, and blessed is His name forever] 6[and ev]er who has given me J[a]c[ob, a pure son and holy seed. For he is Yours] 7and Yours [shall be his seed \u2026\u201d]<\/p>\n\n\n\n