Judges
\nTITLE: Judges receives its title from those who were raised up to be the deliverers of the Israelites from their enemies, after the death of Joshua. The Hebrew word for these deliverers is shofet; its plural is shofetim, which has come to mean \u201cjudges.\u201d
\nCONTENTS: Judges opens with an account of the conquest of territories in the land of Caanan by the different Israelite tribes. Each of them was given a portion of the Promised Land, which was their inheritance and responsibility to cultivate. Next it tells the stories of Ehud, Deborah, Barak, Shamgar, Gideon and his son Abimelech, Jephthah, and Samson, with briefer accounts or notices of others, including minor judges. This time period is characterized by successive periods of national sin, punishment, penitence, deliverance, and peace.
\nThe Twelve Tribes of Israel
\nJacob\u2019s 12 sons come to Egypt to escape famine. When their descendants leave Egypt and wander the desert for 40 years, they separate into their own communities, or tribes. Upon reaching Canaan after the Exodus, these tribes divide the land into 12 territories, 1 each for the tribes descended from Reuben, Simeon, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dan, Gad, Naphtali, Asher, and Benjamin, with the remaining two territories taken by the tribes of Joseph\u2019s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh. The descendants of Jacob\u2019s remaining son, Levi, form a Priestly tribe with no territory of its own.
\nThe territories unite under Saul but split into two kingdoms, the Southern Kingdom, or Judah, from the territories of Judah, Simeon, and part of Benjamin; and the Northern Kingdom, or Israel, from the other 10 territories\u2014with Levites in both kingdoms. In 722 b.c.e., Assyrians conquer the Northern Kingdom, scattering the 10 tribes living there. Because of this, most modern Jews claim to be descendants of the Southern Kingdom tribes and Levi.
\nAfter the Assyrian conquest, the scattered northern tribes become known as the Ten Lost Tribes. They never return to Canaan, giving birth to numerous tales and legends about their history and whereabouts. Some scholars think they survived in Mesopotamia, possibly merging with the later exiles from Judah; some may have come back to Israel later. While most modern scholars consider these legends to be fictional and assume that these tribes intermarried with their new neighbors and lost their separate identity, many groups have been identified with the Ten Lost Tribes. Groups\u2014Jewish and otherwise\u2014in India, the Middle East, and Africa have all claimed to be transported descendants of the lost tribes.
\nThe final part of Judges contains a record of two remarkable incidents: that of Micah and the Danites; and the \u201coutrageous act\u201d (20:6) performed at Gibeah and the consequent war that led to the near extermination of the tribe of Benjamin. The latter portion of Judges explains the extent to which some of the Israelite families were demoralized. Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron, and Jonathan, the son of Gershom and the grandson of Moses, are said to be living during this time period, indicating that only a generation separates Judges chronologically from the events in the first five books of the Bible.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: The book of Judges begins in an era of decline, following the deaths of Moses and Joshua. The judges come to leadership during various times and states of military emergency. The transition from leadership by Moses and Joshua, who were elected by divine authority, now to the rule by kings who are elected by the populace, is a turbulent one.
\nJudges is often connected to the repetitive cycle in which the people sin, God sends an enemy to oppress them, the people cry out, and God responds by sending a deliverer. The Bible is rife with examples of this cycle: every prophet records a similar pattern of sin, punishment, repentance, and forgiveness.
\nJerusalem and Its Temple
\nIn Judges, the city of Jerusalem appears as the stronghold of the Jebusites, resisting all assaults of the Israelites. The citadel of Zion remains unconquered until captured by David. From that time on Jerusalem is the capital and the center of Jewish national life. David transfers the Ark to Zion, making this the great sanctuary of the nation. Solomon builds himself a palace and the Temple on Zion. Part of the wall is broken down by Jehoash, but rebuilt by Uzziah and Jotham. The city and Temple are destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (586 b.c.e.) and then restored under Ezra and Nehemiah. In 37 b.c.e. Herod rebuilds the Temple with great magnificence, and he encloses the city by restoring a second and outer wall. A third wall is built by Agrippa. In 70 c.e. Jerusalem is finally taken and destroyed by the Romans under Titus.
\n1 Samuel and 2 Samuel
\nTITLE: The books of Samuel are so called not because Samuel was the author, but because he is the most prominent actor in the opening portion, and the great instrument in the establishment of the Kingdom of Israel, which occurs throughout the remainder of 1 and 2 Samuel. The two books are in reality a single work and are so regarded in the original Hebrew canon.
\nCONTENTS: The books of Samuel address three biographies, those of Samuel, Saul, and David. The period covered is approximately 1050\u2013970 b.c.e. 1 Samuel is the connecting link by which the judgeship passes on to monarchy. Whereas Judges reflects a cry for stable leadership, here this cry is translated into a request for a king. It is unclear precisely where the power lies\u2014with the priest, the prophet, the judge, or the king. The fact that these books are named after Samuel (a prophet) rather than Saul or David (who were both kings) exemplifies the tension between the kings\u2019 authority as political leaders and their subordination to God, whose will is communicated through prophets. In Deuteronomy 17:14, there is an explicit prohibition against kingship, and here the people are defying this prohibition by crying out for the establishment of a monarchy. They want a king to end the reign of political chaos resulting from the charismatic leadership appointed by God. The books of Samuel are essentially the point in Israelite history where the people demand personal responsibility for their leadership.
\n1 Samuel starts with Hannah\u2019s poem and introduces the monarchy; 2 Samuel begins by highlighting the death of Saul and reminding the reader that the narrative of conquest and struggle for power in 1 Samuel continues here. David\u2019s reign as the next king becomes the central focus of 2 Samuel. He eliminates his rivals, principally from the house of Saul, establishes a capital Jerusalem, and subdues external enemies. There is a great deal of bloodshed both preceding and following David\u2019s rise to power. Still, David emerges from these battles initially as a strong ruler of a unified nation, centered on a royal city that celebrates the blessings of God.
\nDavid\u2019s personal life looms large throughout these stories, ever present as a potential threat to his successes. David is one who is willing to go to extremes to achieve his heart\u2019s desire: murder, adultery, deception, and betrayal are means to an end for this king and warrior. But as the personal life of David unravels, so too does the monarchy itself. Following sexual transgressions and familial violence and betrayal in the House of David, Jerusalem becomes dangerous, and David is forced into exile. In his son Absalom\u2019s rebellion and revolt, David experiences the threat of another charismatic leader, thereby reliving the trauma experienced by Saul at the start of David\u2019s career as a king. Unlike the preceding stories of succession and military triumphs, however, the future of the monarchy is not determined by battles won. Rather, survival is the single most important factor in determining the heir to the throne, and it is Solomon, not Absalom, who ultimately survives.
\nAt the conclusion of 2 Samuel, there is some moral resolution: David takes responsibility for the suffering of his people; and the monarchy, after a tumultuous beginning, becomes strong.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Samuel\u2019s personal character, administrative skill, and intellectual ability transform anarchy into a peaceful monarchy with a respect for justice. It is easy to see why Samuel became one of the \u201cheroes of Hebrew history\u201d\u2014why, as the last representative of the judges, the first in the regular succession of prophets, and the inaugurator of the kingdom, he could be associated with Moses and Aaron in Psalms. 1 Samuel opens with a scene in which a barren woman, Hannah, prays to God for a child, promising to dedicate her offspring (Samuel) to God\u2019s service. The priest assumes that the weeping woman, whose lips are moving without uttering words aloud, must be drunk, but Hannah proves to be the first person to pray silently to God in her heart, thereby serving as a biblical precedent for silent prayer.
\nKing Saul begins well but ends badly. He is brought down by his fits of melancholy and jealousy, his bitter persecution of David, his moments of remorse, and his final defection, exhibited in his consulting the woman of En-dor just before the disastrous battle of Mount Gilboa. Often called \u201cthe witch of En-dor,\u201d the woman is a mystic, one who can bring dead spirits to life. Saul has made necromancy (consulting dead spirits) illegal, yet he comes to the woman of En-dor in disguise, begging for her services so that he might receive counsel from the deceased prophet Samuel before proceeding into battle. He believes that Samuel might provide hope or strength to him as he heads toward his certain downfall as the first monarch of Israel. Proud, selfish, reserved, obstinately stiff-necked, and profane, as he appears in parts of Samuel, Saul seeks to govern absolutely, instead of as the servant of God. But he is never sovereign of more than the central part of the country. Rather, he is more the pastoral chief of amalgamated tribes than the monarch of a kingdom.
\nIn David, for the first time we see a true monarch, and he becomes the founder of a dynasty that lasts for four centuries. In his career we note his early life as preparation for his subsequent career, his life at court and as an outlaw, his elevation to the throne after long and varied discipline, his devotion to Jonathan and his magnanimity toward Saul, his valor, his musical and poetic gifts, the depths to which he falls when he gives way to the temptations of passion, the seriousness of his contrition, and the severity of the punishment that follows the great sin of his life. David is a masterful politician and public speaker. He uses his strengths to gain widespread public affection while revealing few of his own motivations or emotions. He is saved again and again by those who love him (most notably Jonathan), though his weakness for women and his willingness to use their love to his own political advantage ultimately serve to expedite his downfall as a ruler and hero.
\n1 Kings and 2 Kings
\nTITLE: The books of Kings are so named because they recount 400 years of Israelite history through its kings\u2014from David\u2019s final years to the Babylonian exile, from approximately 970 to 586 b.c.e. In the original Hebrew both books of Kings were one book, called \u201cThe Book of Kings.\u201d It was broken into two parts by the Greek translators of the Septuagint, and this division was adopted in all later Christian and Jewish Bibles.
\nKings Saul, David, and Solomon
\nWhen Israelite tribes find themselves faced with invasion by the Philistines in the 11th century b.c.e., they demand that the judge and prophet Samuel choose a king to unite them. Fearful of tyranny, Samuel is reluctant to do so, but he eventually yields and asks God to choose for him. Samuel anoints Saul, who is successful in pushing back the Philistines and then the Amalekites. Despite victory, Saul\u2019s battle with the Amalekites causes him to lose the support of Samuel when Saul spares the Amalekite king, in defiance of Samuel\u2019s orders. Saul effectively remains king until his defeat in a second battle against the Philistines. Seeing his army\u2014including his sons\u2014slaughtered, Saul falls on his own sword and dies (1 Sam. 9\u20132 Sam. 1).
\nSamuel becomes disenchanted with Saul after his failure to kill the Amalekite\u2019s king, and so he anoints a young soldier and musician, David, in his place. David comes to the prophet\u2019s attention both for single-handedly defeating the Philistine giant Goliath and for his musical talent; his playing soothes Saul\u2019s depression. While Saul continues as king, David gains followers and military victories, even allying himself at times with Saul\u2019s enemies. When Saul dies, David takes the throne. His reign is a golden age for the Land of Israel; the Twelve Tribes are united as a powerful nation ruling all Canaan and much of the surrounding territory (2 Sam., 1 Kings 1\u20132).
\nDavid is succeeded by his son Solomon. Anointed by the priest Zadok and the prophet Nathan, Solomon acts as both a civil and religious leader. He builds a palace, fortifies the city, strengthens the army, and maintains political ties with nations from Phoenicia to Arabia. Solomon builds the First Temple and is said to have written the biblical books Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs (although his authorship is questionable). Despite the peace and prosperity of Solomon\u2019s reign, resentment grows over his 700 political marriages and heavy taxation, leading to the division of the kingdom following his death (1 Kings 6\u201312).
\nThe dynasty of David continues to rule the Southern Kingdom of Judah until the Babylonian invasion in the 6th century b.c.e. In the Northern Kingdom of Israel, members of many families assume the kingship until the kingdom is destroyed in 722 b.c.e.
\nCONTENTS: The narrative falls into three parts: (1) the reign of Solomon and the undivided kingdom at the height of its power; (2) a parallel account of the two divided kingdoms, Judah and Israel, until the Babylonian exile; and (3) the history of the Kingdom of Judah until the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the captivity of the people. (For a list of the kings and the dates of their reigns, see \u201cChronology of the Monarchies,\u201d on p. 259).
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Throughout this period, the role of the prophet, as defined by Samuel, assumes special prominence. The prophets become the monarch\u2019s closest advisers, counseling him on certain issues, while criticizing him on others. They are also teachers, giving the people instruction from God. It is their function to defend and interpret the moral law, in order to guarantee the keeping of the covenant and to denounce oppression and injustice. The religious behavior of the monarchs is all-important and a determining factor in the fate of their kingdoms. The religious devotion of David and Solomon protects their people, but the impiety of the kings who come after them results in moral corruption and the ultimate fall of their kingdoms.
\nIsaiah
\nTITLE: The prophet Isaiah\u2019s name, meaning \u201cGod is salvation,\u201d serves as the title of the book. Isaiah son of Amoz is called to prophesy in the year that King Uzziah dies (about 740 b.c.e.) and continues his work at least until 701 b.c.e. Of his personal history we know little. His wife, \u201cthe prophetess,\u201d and his sons, whose names bear witness to his prophetic announcements, are mentioned. He has access to the kings of his time (Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah).
\nThe era in which he prophesies is critical. The state of the nation is somber, as described by Amos, who lived somewhat earlier, as well as by Isaiah himself and the prophets Hosea and Micah. Luxury, oppression, idolatry, immorality, vain confidence in humankind, and lack of confidence in God, together with zealous attendance to the ceremonials of religious worship, are the characteristics of both the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Assyria enters into a period of its greatest power and expansion, and Syria and Palestine are exposed to its severity. The Israelites\u2019 nearest neighbors also suffer from the Assyrian advance. The destinies of all these kingdoms are touched on by Isaiah, though the Israelites are foremost in Isaiah\u2019s thoughts. In every victory and defeat, Isaiah sees divine intention and intervention.
\nBiblical Politics: The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah
\nThe period of biblical history from the end of the Exodus through the Babylonian conquest in the 6th century b.c.e. centers on the Israelites\u2019 settlement in the area between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea, known as the Land of Israel, Palestine, and also Canaan. Initially, this region is divided into 12 largely independent tribal territories, which support each other but lack a central authority. This changes in the 11th century b.c.e., when the Philistines begin to threaten Israel.
\nIn response to the Philistine invasion, the Israelites develop a monarchy. Three kings in turn\u2014Saul, David, and Solomon\u2014rule this territory and rebuff invaders. They, in turn, expand their kingdoms into an empire centered in Israel. Religion as well as politics becomes more developed; the building of the Temple in Solomon\u2019s reign brings the Priestly cult and Jerusalem to new heights.
\nAfter Solomon\u2019s death, his son and heir, Rehoboam, fails to keep his kingdom intact. The 10 northern tribes secede with the bulk of the territory to form the Northern Kingdom, also known as the Kingdom of Israel. It continues as a monarchy, but it lacks a stable dynasty; politics in the Kingdom of Israel are marred by internal strife and civil war. In the first half of the 8th century b.c.e., Jeroboam expands the kingdom, but it collapses after his death. Already weakened by internal discord, the Northern Kingdom falls to the Assyrians in 722 b.c.e., and its people are scattered.
\nThe Southern Kingdom, the Kingdom of Judah, continues from the divide following Solomon\u2019s death until 586 b.c.e., more than a century and a half after the demise of the Northern Kingdom. The Southern Kingdom continues the dynastic tradition; with the exception of one queen, all of its rulers are descendants of David. The queen, Athaliah, assumes the throne after the deaths of her husband, Jehoram, and her son, Ahaziah, both descendants of David. Her attempt to consolidate power by eradicating the line of David fails; her grandson Joash survives the purge and successfully rises against her. The Kingdom of Judah grows in population following the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel at the hands of the Assyrians but is reduced to a subject of Assyria.
\nThe final crest in the history of the Southern Kingdom comes in the reign of Josiah, in the late 7th century b.c.e. He expands the kingdom to the west and north, including areas that had been part of the Northern Kingdom. The embattled Assyrians, however, ally themselves with Egypt. Josiah is killed in a final battle against the Egyptian forces, after which the Kingdom of Judah falls under the yoke of first Egypt and then Babylonia. In the end, Babylonian forces, led by Nebuchadnezzar, put down a revolt of Zedekiah, the last king of Judah, and they destroy Jerusalem and the First Temple.
\nCONTENTS: Isaiah consists of two distinct parts: chapters 1\u201339 and chapters 40\u201366. The first closes with the narratives derived from 2 Kings and records the events of the last great period of Isaiah\u2019s career. The second part never mentions Isaiah and seems to have nothing to do with him.
\nIsaiah 1\u201339 is a combination of various collections of prophecies and prophetic narratives mostly belonging to the age of Isaiah. They do not all purport to have been written by Isaiah, but it is Isaiah himself who records his call to prophecy, as well as certain other experiences of his earlier life. Later parts of this section read like a narrative about the prophet written by someone else. Some of the prophecies in this first half of the book of Isaiah predict the fall of Israel to Assyria. But Isaiah predicts that Israel and the holy city of Jerusalem will be restored and that a just and pious Judean king from the line of David will rule Israel.
\nIsaiah 40\u201366 focuses on the salvation of Israel, on the people\u2019s release from exile in Babylonia to return to the Land of Israel. It prophesies that there will be peace on earth, with all people under one God, the end of paganism. The author, or more likely authors, of these chapters are not known and are often referred to as Deutero-Isaiah, or Second Isaiah, and Trito-Isaiah, or Third Isaiah.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: As Isaiah is convinced of the coming redemption from the suffering of his people and of God\u2019s purposes bound up with it, the prophet sets himself to rouse the Israelites in exile from their unbelief and despondency by telling them of the uniqueness of God, that other gods (those of Babylon, for example) are not real gods. He also insists on the power and might of God and of God\u2019s ability to deliver the Israelites into freedom and restore them to their land. Isaiah and the other authors of the book speak of the Israelites\u2019 destiny to be a people who might bring their religion to the other nations.
\nIsaiah, Proponent of Social Justice
\nIsaiah was well known for his teachings on social justice. Speaking for the voiceless and downtrodden, he rails against land speculators who \u201cadd house to house and join field to field\u201d (5:8); against clever dissemblers and manipulators \u201cwho call evil good and good evil; who present darkness as light and light as darkness\u201d (5:20); and against distorters of justice and due process, \u201cwho vindicate him who is in the wrong in return for a bribe, and withhold from him who is in the right\u201d (5:23). Against this, Isaiah tries to give the people positive instructions in order to redress their crimes. \u201cDevote yourself to justice\u201d he teaches, \u201caid the wronged; uphold the rights of the orphan; defend the cause of the widow\u201d (1:17).
\nFrom Michael Fishbane, JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot.
\nIsaiah is the most familiar of the prophetic books. Many haftarot (readings that accompany the weekly Torah portions read during synagogue services) are taken from Isaiah, and there are some often-quoted passages here. There are roots of both Jewish and Christian beliefs in the Messianic Age and in social justice. Despite this, the book is not easy to read and understand; much of it is in verse, and the poetry is complex and its meaning often ambiguous.
\nJeremiah
\nTITLE: As the title suggests, the main character of this book is the prophet Jeremiah. His name in Hebrew means \u201cGod will rise.\u201d In Jeremiah\u2019s most famous confrontation with authority, he threatens the king: \u201cI will hurl you out of this land to a land that neither you nor your fathers have known \u2026\u201d (16:13), a prophecy that includes a possible pun on another translation of Jeremiah\u2019s name, \u201cGod shoots or hurls.\u201d
\nJeremiah is the son of Hilkiah and a priest of the Priestly city of Anathoth, three miles north of Jerusalem. He is called to prophesy when still a youth, in the 13th year of King Josiah (about 626 b.c.e.), and he continues to prophesy in Jerusalem and in other cities of Judah for 40 years, until the final capture of the city (586 b.c.e.). After the capture, he warns the people at Mizpah and their governor Gedaliah against going down to Egypt, but he is nonetheless carried there against his will by his countrymen, where he protests against their idolatry until the end. Some believe he was murdered in Egypt by those angered by his prophecies. There is no reliable record of his death; he may have died at Tahpanes or, according to a tradition, may have gone to Babylon with Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s army.
\nCONTENTS: According to a narrative found within Jeremiah, more than 20 years after his call to prophesy Jeremiah is directed to prepare a book of his prophesy. He does this, but the book is destroyed by King Jehoiakim. Jeremiah writes another book, and it is portions of this book that most likely survive in Jeremiah 1\u201325. The majority of the poems and narratives in these chapters are told in the first person and have a character of their own, which distinguishes them from the rest of Jeremiah. Chapters 26\u201345 consist mainly of narratives about the prophet and his life before 604 b.c.e. and are thought by most scholars to be mainly the work of his disciple Baruch. The third part of Jeremiah consists of a collection of prophecies concerning foreign nations.
\nAlthough Jeremiah struggles to understand and come to terms with the horror of the destruction of the Temple and banishment from the Land, he looks to a time when the Temple will be rebuilt and his people will return to Jerusalem, praising God, \u201cfor the Lord is good, for His kindness is everlasting!\u201d (33:11).
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: No prophet reveals more to us about the inmost recesses of his mind than Jeremiah. Naturally shy and timid, subject to despondency and sadness, he is called to a work requiring undaunted resolution and rare courage. Belonging to the orders of both priest and prophet, he is compelled to witness against each when these offices sink into the lowest state of degradation. He is devoted to his duty and maintains his work to the end.
\nHis style reflects the sadness of his mission; his poetry expresses the painful imagery that colors his thoughts. The book varies between prose and poetry and contains history mingled with prophecy. The prophetic utterances are often broken by outbursts of prayer or complaint, and the bitter opposition of his enemies wrings from him occasionally words of indignation and cries for vengeance.
\nEzekiel
\nTITLE: Ezekiel is a prophet whose name means \u201cGod strengthens.\u201d He is the son of Buzi and of Priestly descent through the House of Zadok. He is taken away with King Jehoiachin at the time of Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s second attack on Jerusalem and settles with a Jewish colony on the banks of the river Chebar in Babylonia, where he sees visions. He continues to prophesy for 22 years, beginning 5 years after he goes into captivity.
\nCONTENTS: The first part of Ezekiel contains prophecies uttered before the destruction of Jerusalem to caution the people against the false hope of relief from their suffering in Egypt and to exhort them to repent for their unfaithfulness to God. It includes Ezekiel\u2019s call to prophecy, the general carrying out of his commission, the rejection of the people because of their idolatry, the sins of the age in detail, the nature of the judgment, and the guilt that caused it.
\nThe second section announces God\u2019s judgments on the seven heathen nations\u2014Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, Sidon, and Egypt\u2014and is largely written between the beginning of Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s siege of Jerusalem and the news of its fall. It also foretells the re-creation of the Land of Israel and of its people and contains a detailed vision of the restored Temple, Jerusalem, and the nation.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Ezekiel is a prophet who, unlike the other prophets, loves drama. It is not unusual, for instance, for him to hold up a potter\u2019s flask and smash it in front of people as he speaks, to symbolize that Jerusalem will be destroyed and the people will be scattered to the winds.
\nEzekiel believes it is his prophetic mission to reach people one by one and win them back to God, and he considers himself personally responsible for every individual soul. Ezekiel plants his hope for the future on two things: law and worship. In response, the people become a congregation, political aims and tasks no longer exist, and monarchy and state become subservient to all-powerful God. With no other prophet are vision and ecstasy so prominent. Ezekiel repeatedly refers to symptoms of severe maladies striking his body, such as paralysis of the limbs and of the tongue, and he is relieved of these physical ailments only after he announces the downfall of Jerusalem.
\nEarly Jewish mysticism is based on Ezekiel\u2019s vision of the chariot in the first chapter.
\nHosea
\nTITLE: The book is named after the prophet Hosea, whose name means \u201cGod has saved.\u201d Hosea is of the Northern Kingdom. He begins to prophesy toward the close of the reign of Jeroboam II (before the overthrow of the House of Jehu) and continues to do so during the anarchic period of the kings that follows. In spite of the external prosperity of the reign of Jeroboam II, there are corrupting influences that assert themselves during the anarchy following his death. The kings are recklessly wasteful; the priests fail to teach the knowledge of God, and moral standards plummet; God is forgotten, and the rulers are forced to look to Assyria or to Egypt for help in their misfortunes.
\nCONTENTS: The opening chapters give us the key to the imagery that colors all of the prophet\u2019s language thereafter. The unfaithfulness of Hosea\u2019s wife, who has borne him two sons and one daughter, is used as a symbol of the idolatry of the nation in the sight of God. Degraded as she is, so \u201c\u2026 the Israelites shall go a long time without king and without officials, without sacrifice and without cult pillars, and without ephod and teraphim. Afterward, the Israelites will turn back and will seek the Lord their God \u2026\u201d (3:4\u20135).
\nThe second part of Hosea consists, under the most vivid imagery, of accusations against the Israelites for their sins, which the prophet denounces unsparingly: their dishonesty, idolatry, distrust of God, and unwillingness to return to God. But it concludes with a hope for Israel\u2019s return to God\u2019s favor through repentance.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: What is especially significant about Hosea is his marriage to the prostitute Gomer, at God\u2019s command, so that Hosea might understand firsthand how it feels to be betrayed by a beloved. Like Hosea, God has been betrayed by the Israelites, who idolize others\u2019 gods, and God severely punishes them and then forgives them.
\nThe relationship between God and the Israelites is expressed in rural and domestic pursuits, such as the snaring of birds, sowing, reaping, threshing, and baking bread, and this gives us insight into the daily life of the time. The women are decked with earrings and jewels, the feasts and Sabbaths are days of mirth, the people sacrifice on mountaintops and burn incense on hills, while the priests, forgetful of their functions, lie in wait \u201cLike the ambuscade of bandits,\/ Who murder on the road to Shechem \u2026\u201d (6:9).
\nJoel
\nTITLE: The prophet Joel, whose name means \u201cAdonai\/Lord God is God,\u201d is the son of Pethuel and prophesies at a time not directly stated in the book or elsewhere.
\nCONTENTS: In the opening chapters, Joel describes an impending visitation of locusts and drought, which may represent the threat of invasions. He exhorts the people of Judah to repent, fast, and pray to avert these calamities. He then promises a blessing in their stead, declaring that while there will be a judgment of the heathen in the Valley of Jehoshaphat and Edom and that Egypt will be wasted, Judah will be blessed.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: The prophet Joel speaks out against the people\u2019s worship of Baal and their rejection of God. He criticizes them for their sins and their impiety, making many references to nature: planting and fertility, birth and growth. His prophesy about the threat of locusts, for example, is very vivid and poetic, describing them first in the form of agricultural devastation and then as a marching army. His concern, however, is not limited to such a disaster. He sees them as a symbol of deeper significance: a sign of future judgment, \u201cthe day of the Lord.\u201d In fact, five of the 19 explicit references to \u201cthe day of the Lord\u201d in the Bible are found in this short book.
\nHosea, along with Amos and Isaiah, his contemporaries, is one of the earliest prophets of ancient Israel whose prophecies were recorded.
\nAmos
\nTITLE: The prophet Amos, whose name is a derivative of the word that means \u201cto bear a burden,\u201d is a native of Tekoa in Judah, about 12 miles from Jerusalem, a \u201ccattle breeder and a tender of sycamore figs\u201d (7:14). Like many of the other biblical prophets, Amos was not an official or professional prophet, but someone who suddenly felt called by God. The imagery of his visions is full of country life; he writes about the \u201clion roar in the forest\u201d (3:4); the shepherd rescuing \u201cfrom the lion\u2019s jaws,\/Two shank bones or the tip of an ear \u2026\u201d (3:12); the \u201cbird drop on the ground\u2014in a trap\u2014\/With no snare there\u201d (3:5); \u201cblight and mildew\u201d (4:9); the \u201cfish baskets\u201d (4:2); \u201cthe rain from you,\/Three months before harvesttime\u201d (4:7); dangers from \u201ca lion\u201d and \u201ca bear\u201d (5:19); \u201cthe king\u2019s reaping\u201d (7:1) and \u201cthe late-sown crops\u201d (7:1); \u201cshakes [sand] in a sieve\u201d (9:9); \u201cthe plowman shall meet the reaper,\/And the treader of grapes\u201d (9:13); \u201ca wagon is slowed,\/When it is full of cut grain\u201d (2:13). The prophet also shows knowledge of the great historical movements not only of his own nation, but of other nations as well.
\nCONTENTS: In the reign of Jeroboam II, king of the Israelites, and Uzziah, king of Judah, Amos is sent to Bethel to prophesy against the Israelites. His prophecies include an announcement of the coming of a day, when, captured by the Assyrian invaders, the priest\u2019s wife will be reduced to earning her living by infamy; that the priest\u2019s sons and daughters will be slain by the sword; that the Israelites will be enslaved; and that the priest himself will die in a polluted land. After delivering his message at Bethel in rebuke of the people\u2019s vices (extreme luxury, revelry, and debauchery, combined with cruelty and oppression of the poor), however, he delivers a final message of comfort and hope to the Israelites.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Amos is most known today for being the prophet who cries out for social justice in a wealthy, corrupt society. In its essence, the book is a long prophetic poem with refrains in which the prophet denounces the sins, especially the inhumanity, of the nations bordering on Israel and Judah\u2014Syria, Philistia, Tyre, Edom, Ammon, and Moab\u2014and, at greater length, the sins of Israel itself. He speaks of the iniquities of the Israelites, the elect people of God, and the punishment that is to come to them\u2014in five striking visions. The book concludes with words of hope and promise, depicting the raising up of the Temple and the final restoration of God\u2019s people.
\nObadiah
\nTITLE: The name of Obadiah the prophet means \u201cworshiper of God.\u201d We know nothing of his personal history
\nCONTENTS: A considerable part of this brief book reappears in Jeremiah, and it is not clear which was written first, which of the two prophets repeats the denunciations of the other. The prophecy contains two parts: the first is the denunciation of Edom, sketching its punishment and the sins of the people that led to that punishment; the second predicts the future restoration of the Israelites, who, after their return, should possess the land of Edom and Philistia and rejoice in the establishment of the kingdom of God.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Obadiah is the shortest book in the Bible, only one chapter long, describing the animosity between Edom and the Israelites. The hatred between the Edomites and the Israelites is one of the oldest examples of deep conflict in human and familial relationships. It began even before their ancestors, Esau and Jacob, were born, jostling each other in the womb of their mother Rebekah. Later, the Edomites refused to let the Israelites pass through their land on the way to the Promised Land. The animosity continued for centuries, and Obadiah prophesies a message of inevitable doom for the Edomites because they are the Israelites\u2019 enemy, despite their familial connection.
\nJonah
\nTITLE: The prophet Jonah\u2019s name means \u201cdove.\u201d Jonah is the son of Amittai, who was born at Gath-hepher, a village in Zebulun.
\nCONTENTS: This book, unlike those with which it is grouped, is not a book of prophecies, but rather a story about a prophet. Jonah is commissioned to proceed to Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, which is a city of sinners. Being an unwilling prophet (and believing the people of Nineveh to be beyond salvation), Jonah refuses and hastens to Joppa, where he boards a ship set for Tarshish. A furious storm arises, and at his own request, the mariners fling him into the sea. Here a great fish swallows him, and he remains in its belly 3 days and three nights. He prays earnestly, and the fish casts him out onto the land. Bidden a second time to go to Nineveh, he dares not disobey, and once there he proclaims his message: that in 40 days Nineveh shall be overthrown. Hearing this, the king and people of Nineveh repent, their penitence is accepted, and they are saved from impending doom. Disappointed and angry, the prophet sits in a booth of woven boughs outside the city, waiting in vain for the judgment he had denounced. The book closes with an exhibition of Jonah\u2019s petulance and God\u2019s tender mercy even toward the sinners of Nineveh.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Unlike the other prophetic books, Jonah is a narrative. One of the most well-known stories in the Bible, it is the story of the enforcement of profound religious truths about the nature of divine command, reprimand, repentance, compassion, and forgiveness. It describes one man\u2019s journey toward understanding that God is merciful and forgiving.
\nJonah is read on Yom Kippur because of the connection of the book\u2019s theme of repentance to the holiday.
\nMicah
\nTITLE: The prophet Micah, whose name means \u201cwho is like (unto God?),\u201d was a native of Moresheth-gath, in Judah. He prophesied during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, during the late 8th and early 7th centuries b.c.e. He is contemporary with Isaiah, and in much the same style as Isaiah, Micah rebukes those who are corrupt, including wealthy landowners and the \u201cchiefs of the House of Israel\u201d (3:1).
\nCONTENTS: The prophecies in Micah fall into three sections, each opening with a call to listen to God\u2019s message. In the first three chapters, a threatening tone dominates. Micah proclaims that the immoral and the false prophets are heading for disaster and ruin and that Jerusalem will be destroyed. In the next section, the tone and contents shift abruptly: restoration of Zion and of its Temple and its people are promised. In the final section, the sins of the past are recounted, followed by instructions for reform. Micah promises God\u2019s forgiveness and the restoration of the nation of God.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Like many of the other prophets, Micah speaks out against the oppression of the people by both spiritual and secular leaders. According to Micah, injustice shows itself in coveting what belongs to others, in perverting justice, and in hypocritical religiosity. From his words, it is possible to clearly see his self-confidence and his mission. He says, \u201cBut I,\/I am filled with strength by the spirit of the Lord,\/And with judgment and courage,\/To declare to Jacob his transgressions\/And to Israel his sin\u201d (3:8). This confidence distinguishes Micah from the other prophets.
\nNahum
\nTITLE: The prophet Nahum, whose name means \u201cconsoler,\u201d was a native of Elkosh. It is not known when he lived, and scholars are not certain when in the 7th century b.c.e. the book was written. Nahum may have been the son of an Israelite captive. Those who believe so say it is because the prophet could not have described the doom of Nineveh in language so pictorially vivid if he had not drawn the scenes from personal observation, and they point to the interspersion of Assyrian words in his writing as an indication that Assyria was the scene of his prophecies.
\nCONTENTS: Nahum comes to the people to console them and to foretell the overthrow of Assyria. Unlike many of the other prophets, his prophecy is devoted to a single theme: the coming destruction of Nineveh, the capital of Assyria. Assyria had long been dominant in this region, and for the past century Judah had suffered severely as a result of the harsh Assyrian rule. Nahum hardly speaks directly about Judah; rather, his words simply predict the downfall of its enemy.
\nNineveh is notorious for brutal violence, cruelty, and bloodshed as well as blasphemy and hostility against God. Nahum pronounces that its destruction is near and will be swift and complete. There are three very distinct predictions: (1) a general description of God sitting in judgment; (2) the certain fall of Nineveh, with a vivid picture of the siege and sack of the city, aided by the sudden inundation of the Tigris River; and (3) Nineveh\u2019s utter destruction and desolation, a desolation so complete that the city vanishes entirely from view, and Alexander can march over it.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Nahum presents God as a warrior-god who is sovereign over all things, people, nations, and history itself; God is holy and just; God will simply not endure sin forever. Nahum is not so much communicating his own private thoughts about the people of Nineveh (whom God had saved in the time of Jonah, after their repentance) as he is proclaiming God\u2019s frustration with these sins. Though some argue that Nahum conveniently overlooks the sins of his own people, his intention in his prophecy is not to discuss the sins of Judah (who will likely be punished as well for sinning), but to preach specifically against Nineveh.
\nHabakkuk
\nTITLE: \u201cHabakkuk\u201d is an ambiguous Hebrew name, which might come from the same root as the modern Hebrew word hibbuk, which means \u201cclose embrace.\u201d We know nothing of the prophet himself, but from the musical directions attached to chapter 3 of Habakkuk, a psalm, \u201cFor the leader; with instrumental music\u201d (3:19), some conjecture that he is a Levite.
\nCONTENTS: Writing after the great reformation in the days of Josiah, Habakkuk has to sustain hope and teach patience under difficult circumstances. Neither sincere repentance, nor earnest turning to God and the removal of the \u201chigh places\u201d (referring to practices of idolatry), nor the great national fast removes the threat of invasion of the Kingdom of Judah by the Chaldeans. Thus the suffering of the chosen people of God from cruel, ruthless oppressors, \u201cFleeter than wolves of the steppe\u201d (1:8), seems like a mysterious trial.
\nIn chapter 1, the prophet appeals to God and asks how long the people will suffer. Habakkuk then describes the fierceness of the Chaldeans, and he stands on his watch and waits for an answer. He is told that \u201cthe righteous man is rewarded with life\/For his fidelity\u201d (2:4). Habakkuk is also assured that the suffering shall be removed and the oppressor shall perish. Then, a series of \u201cwoes\u201d follow, and Habakkuk breaks into a note of prayer, which introduces the great hymn of faith, recounting the miraculous deliverances of old as indication of future redemption from suffering.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: This book focuses on an attempt to grow from a faith of perplexity and doubt to a place of absolute trust in God. Habakkuk is unique among the prophets in that he openly questions the wisdom of God. In the first part of the first chapter, he sees injustice and asks why God does not take action, crying, \u201cHow long, O Lord, shall I cry out\/And You not listen,\/Shall I shout to You, \u2018Violence!\u2019\/And You not save?\u201d (1:2). Then, at the end of the first chapter, Habakkuk expresses shock at God\u2019s choice of instrument for judgment and awaits God\u2019s response to his challenge. God explains that the Chaldeans will also be judged harshly, whereupon Habakkuk expresses his ultimate faith in God, even if he doesn\u2019t fully understand.
\nZephaniah
\nTITLE: The prophet Zephaniah, whose name means \u201cGod has hidden,\u201d was the son of Cushi and the great-grandson of Hezekiah; he tells us himself that he prophesies \u201cduring the reign of King Josiah son of Amon of Judah\u201d (1:1), in the late 7th century b.c.e. The date of his prophecy was at about the time of Jeremiah\u2019s call, before Josiah\u2019s reformation suppressed worship to the god Baal, which Zephaniah denounces.
\nCONTENTS: The prophecy of Zephaniah begins with a harsh denunciation of the idolatry of Judah and a description of God\u2019s judgment day. It continues with a call to repent and escape the punishment that is to fall on the Philistines, Moab, Ammon, Ethiopia, and Nineveh. It concludes with promises that the day of Zion\u2019s restoration will come and the judgment of wicked nations will end.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: The major themes of Zephaniah are prevalent ones in the books of the Minor Prophets: judgment and deliverance. The book explicitly states that God will judge those in Judah who practice pure paganism and who mix the worship of God with the worship of other deities, who choose to identify with the heathen by their dress, who practice violence and deceit, and who have abused their authority and forsaken their stewardship. Zephaniah then states that divine judgment is the means by which God removes sins, which will lead to the ultimate deliverance of these people.
\nHaggai
\nTITLE: The prophet Haggai, whose name comes from the Hebrew word meaning \u201cfestive,\u201d is the first of the prophets after the Babylonian exile. He was a contemporary of Zerubbabel; of Joshua, who led those who returned from Babylon; and of the prophet Zechariah, with whom he is mentioned in Ezra.
\nCONTENTS: Haggai was inspired by God to rouse the people to support Zerubbabel and Joshua in building the Temple. His prophecies consist of two chapters, and they were all delivered in the second year of Darius Hystaspes, very probably spoken directly to the people at the festivals of the New Moon and of the Feast of Tabernacles, which is the season of the autumn rains. Haggai\u2019s prophesies all aim to scold the people for their lethargy and encourage them to complete the Temple.
\nThe book begins by rebuking the apathy of the people for not devoting themselves in earnest to restoring the Temple and for listening to those who tried to persuade them that the time is not opportune for such work. Haggai\u2019s words are persuasive, and the people resume the rebuilding of the Temple. Haggai encourages them with the assurance that the glory of the rebuilt Temple will be greater than that of the former. Then he promises them that from the day they begin the restoration in earnest, the harvests will become more plentiful and the years of drought and famine will change into blessings. Finally, Haggai\u2019s words contain a special word of encouragement for Zerubbabel.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: The key words of Haggai\u2019s prophecies and their repetition are worth noting, for they highlight the importance of his message to the people at a critical time in history: \u201cBe strong \u2026 be strong \u2026 be strong\u201d (2:4), and \u201cConsider how you have been faring \u2026 Consider how you have fared \u2026 take thought \u2026 Take note\u201d (1:5, 7; 2:15, 18).
\nZechariah
\nTITLE: The prophet Zechariah, whose name means \u201cGod has remembered,\u201d is the son of Berechiah and grandson of Iddo, who is the head of one of the Priestly houses. A contemporary of Haggai, he begins to prophesy two months after Haggai\u2019s first prophecy and continues for two years.
\nCONTENTS: Like Haggai, Zechariah\u2019s goal is to rouse the people from their lethargy, but his style is very different. In a series of night visions received during the rebuilding of the Temple, he seeks to ignite in the people a national enthusiasm for the great work.
\nThis book, the longest of the Minor Prophets, consists of two distinct parts: the first contains Zechariah\u2019s prophecies and visions, and the second contains anonymous prophecies. Zechariah\u2019s prophecies and visions include a call to repentance and a series of visions. It concludes with a command to make a crown for \u201cthe Branch\u201d (King David\u2019s lineage). After the last vision, there is a two-year pause in Zechariah\u2019s prophetic activity, but in the fourth year of King Darius, the word of God again comes to him. Certain people ask a question about continuing to fast as they had done in the past, as Chaldeans set fire to Jerusalem. It seems ridiculous to them to continue fasting, as they suffer losses and tragedies even as they repent. They long for a prophet to come who might expound on the nature of a true fast and then convert these fasts into feasts of joy and gladness
\nThe anonymous prophesies at the end of Zechariah present greater difficulties than the rest of the book. Many hold that there are two distinct prophets, while others maintain their connection with the rest of Zechariah. In general, like most prophecy after the exile to Egypt, these chapters are prophecies of promise. Judah, now subject to foreign rulers, is promised its own native king and that it will become supreme, with Jerusalem as the religious center of the world.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: The visions of Zechariah distinguish him from the other prophets. His first vision is of the four horsemen of God. The second is of four horns and four smiths, symbolizing the approaching judgment of the heathen. The third is of a man with a measuring line who is enlarging the boundaries of Jerusalem, symbolizing the inclusion of the nations. The fourth is of the cleansing of the Priesthood and the advent of \u201cthe Branch.\u201d The fifth vision is of the golden candelabrum, symbolizing the restored community, fed by two olive trees, representing the two heads of the community, Joshua and Zerubbabel. The sixth is of a flying scroll, or vengeance on the ungodly. The seventh is of a woman hidden in an ephah (a lidded tub, commonly thought to be a symbol of the hidden or entrenched wickedness of the Israelites) and borne eastward, symbolizing the departure of that guilt from Judah. In Zechariah\u2019s vision, the lid is removed from the ephah, and the hidden woman is exposed. Finally, the eighth vision is of four chariots issuing from two brazen mountains, symbolizing the course of divine providence. Many of these images are also thought to be symbolic of God\u2019s mercy and forgiveness.
\nMalachi
\nTITLE: The prophet referred to as Malachi, which means \u201cmy messenger,\u201d was most likely of the Priestly order or had close relations with the priesthood. Nothing is known of his life including his real name and personal history. Though his book is the last of the prophetic books, he is not the latest prophet whose writings survive. Most scholars agree that Malachi wrote in the period after the Babylonian exile, when Nehemiah is absent for 12 years at the court of Artaxerxes.
\nCONTENTS: After dwelling on the affection of God for Judah, speaking of God as a loving father and ruler of God\u2019s people, Malachi rebukes the priests as the leaders of the spiritual defection that he witnesses. Then he rebukes the mixed marriages and also the divorces, evidenced by the deserted wives weeping at the altar. Finally, he predicts the coming of a faithful messenger who will purify the people of their sinful ways. He pleads with them to remember the Torah and to look forward to the coming of Elijah, who will \u201creconcile parents with children and children with their parents\u201d (3:24).
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Malachi, unlike the other prophetic books, stresses ceremonial observance, that the priest is God\u2019s messenger, and that the laws of Moses must be strictly observed. Malachi talks of the social duties that people owe to one another, explaining that ceremonial observance of laws and statutes is valuable only so long as these practices lead to spiritual service. He scathingly reveals and curses the degeneracy of his time and is especially severe toward those who enter into wedlock with heathen women.
\nPsalms
\nTITLE: In Hebrew, Psalms is called \u201cSefer Tehillim,\u201d \u201cthe Book of Praises\u201d or simply \u201cPraises.\u201d The Greek translated the Hebrew mizmor, meaning a song with musical accompaniment, as psalmos, \u201cpsalms,\u201d and titled the entire collection \u201cPsalms.\u201d
\nWhen we speak of \u201cthe psalms of David,\u201d it is not to imply that all of them were actually written by King David, but rather that they are written in the style of David. Only about half of them are attributed to him; some were attributed to Asaph, Solomon, the sons of Korah, and to others we do not know.
\nCategorizing the Psalms
\nBecause they express so many different emotions, and there are often seemingly conflicting emotions in the same psalm, the poems and prayers of the book of Psalms cannot be rigidly categorized by theme, but in a very general sense there are three kinds of psalms: (1) hymns (songs of praise to God), (2) elegies or laments (poetry or personal or communal sorrow), and (3) didactic (teaching) poems. Bible scholars have identified other groupings, useful for comparison. Here are some common ones.
\nType
\nIdentifying Features
\nExample
\nPraise
\nPraise of God\u2019s power and might, acknowledgment of the universality of God\u2019s reign
\nPsalm 24
\nThanksgiving
\nPersonal or national gratitude for God\u2019s help in a specific time of distress or war, contrast of God\u2019s power with that of other gods
\nPsalm 115
\nNature
\nCelebration of God\u2019s actions in creation or use of natural images to describe God\u2019s power
\nPsalm 104
\nTrust
\nHumble surrender to God\u2019s care, statement of faith in God\u2019s providence, contentment
\nPsalm 23
\nPilgrimage
\nLonging for the Temple, praise of Jerusalem as the city of David, celebration of liturgical gathering, invocation of peace
\nPsalm 122
\nRoyal
\nPraise of Israel\u2019s king as a representative of the divine kingship of God, invocation of God\u2019s help for the ruler
\nPsalm 21
\nNational lament
\nCry for God\u2019s attention, description of the nation\u2019s unjustified suffering at the hands of enemies, plea for God\u2019s help, promise to return to faithfulness
\nPsalm 79
\nPersonal lament
\nVivid description of the speaker\u2019s distress, reminder of the covenant, protestation of innocence, condemnation of evildoers, profession of faith in God\u2019s ability to save
\nPsalm 22
\nConfession
\nAdmission of personal or national wrongdoing, plea for forgiveness, promise of conversion
\nPsalm 51
\nDidactic Poem
\nRecounting of God\u2019s past actions on behalf of Israel, reminder of the wisdom of keeping the covenant, contrast of good and evil or wisdom and foolishness
\nPsalm 145
\nFrom Cullen Schippe and Chuck Stetson, The Bible and Its Influence.
\nCONTENTS: Psalms is the longest book of the Bible, with 150 chapters, or psalms. There is no narrative here, nor connection from one psalm to the next; each psalm stands on its own.
\nPsalms is a collection of great variety and the full range of human emotions. At times, it is the pure intensity of the language\u2014especially the language of rebuke\u2014that moves us. The energies of the Psalmist can abruptly shift from a seemingly rational consideration of the enemy or the powers of the world to a description of the passion and suffering experienced by the poet at the hand of God. Other psalms move swiftly from rebuke to lament, speak of yearning to be close to God, or ask God for favors. As a collection, they express the entire the range of human emotions and provide a language for those wishing to express longing, loneliness, disgust, exasperation, hope, or love for the Divine.
\nIn Second Temple times, each day had its special psalm. Psalm 24 is for Sunday, Psalm 48 is for Monday, Psalm 82 is for Tuesday, Psalm 94 is for Wednesday, Psalm 81 is for Thursday, Psalm 93 is for Friday, and Psalm 92 is titled \u201cA psalm. A song; for the sabbath day.\u201d There are psalms for remembrance (38:1), which may indicate that they were sung at the offering of incense; and psalms \u201cfor praise\u201d (100:1). There are 15 psalms that bear the title of \u201cA song of ascents\u201d or \u201cA song for ascents\u201d (120\u2013134). Some believe that they were the songs sung either by the Jewish exiles on their return from Babylon or by the Jewish pilgrims on their journeys up to Jerusalem for the annual feasts. There are psalms that can also be classified according to their subjects: psalms that are instructive, devotional, messianic, and historical.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: The psalms, more than any other text, have captured the heart of the human audience, and they are integral to the prayer books of both synagogues and churches; cycles of psalms mark the liturgical life of both traditions. The language of the psalms has so shaped the very language and ethos of religious life that it is difficult sometimes to remember the source of that influence.
\nProverbs
\nTITLE: Proverbs opens with the words \u201cThe proverbs of Solomon son of David, king of Israel\u201d (1:1), from which the abbreviated title in the Hebrew Bible \u201cMishle\u201d (\u201cthe proverbs of\u201d) originates. Proverbs consists of teachings for everyday life, which come in numerous literary forms, not just as short proverbs. Wisdom is the highest goal here, and it is viewed as a latent, God-given quality in all people. Thus, divine revelation becomes unnecessary, placing Proverbs in tension with many books in the Torah. The Hebrew word mashal means \u201cto rule\u201d or \u201cto govern,\u201d suggesting that Proverbs are not just wise sayings but rules spanning a broad range of topics that govern life. Just as Psalms is often called \u201cthe psalms of David\u201d because David is considered the author of many of them, Proverbs is thought to be connected to Solomon, even though he was most likely not the actual author.
\nCONTENTS: Proverbs is a manual of practical rules for daily life, a book of lessons for all ages and for all men and women. Its preface sets forth the general character of the contents, introducing the value of wisdom and the character of wisdom, a central theme of the book as a whole. The purpose of Proverbs is to teach, not to argue or debate, but to provoke thought by vivid pictures and pithy language.
\nProverbs\u2019 Literary Collections
\nThe book of Proverbs is made up of at least seven different literary collections. They are separated by internal titles, and each of them has a slightly different literary form.
\n1. The Proverbs of Solomon, Son of David, King of Israel: This collection extends from 1:1 to 9:18 and is made up mostly of long poems, while much of the rest of Proverbs is composed of short sayings. The style of this collection is often like that of a parent admonishing a child.
\n2. The Proverbs of Solomon: The sayings in this collection, which include 10:1\u201322:16 and 25:1\u201329:27, are connected by catchwords like \u201cthe wise\u201d and the \u201cfoolish.\u201d The literary style consists of brief and somewhat disconnected sayings.
\n3. The Words of the Wise: There is a distinct change in style and content in this collection as well, which extends from 22:17 to 23:11. Many of the sayings are found in the writings of a famous Egyptian sage.
\n4. The Sayings of the Wise: The style here (23:12\u201324:34) is that of slightly longer poems with similes and metaphors. The collection also deals with some strong moral issues.
\n5. The Words of Agur: This collection is found in chapter 30. The literary form here is that of an oracle, a series of riddle-like sayings to force the listener to think along with the speaker.
\n6. The Words of King Lemuel: The literary style of 31:1\u20139 is \u201can oracle that his mother taught him.\u201d
\n7. Praise for the Capable, or Good, Wife: The final collection is 31:10\u201331, often called \u201cWoman of Valor.\u201d It is an acrostic poem in Hebrew, organized alphabetically by the first Hebrew letter of each opening line.
\nAdapted from Cullen Schippe and Chuck Stetson, The Bible and Its Influence.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Proverbs is part of the Wisdom Literature of the Bible (along with Job and Ecclesiastes) because its main themes focus on the pursuit of knowledge and the centrality of the knowledge of God. (See the chapter \u201cWisdom Literature.\u201d) The implication that reverence and respect for God in all circumstances bring true knowledge is emphasized in Proverbs again and again. God\u2019s people are taught that Torah is something that is part of life and it is our duty to obey it. Proverbs calls this kind of obedience \u201cthe fear of the Lord\u201d (1:7, 10:27, 15:33). This sacred obligation of creating and maintaining a connection to the Divine through everyday actions is similar to the ancient command to \u201cknow God.\u201d Therefore, \u201cknowledge of God\u201d (2:5) is synonymous with holy behaviors, involving reverence, gratitude, and commitment to do the will of God in every circumstance.
\n\u201cWoman of Valor\u201d
\nThe poem \u201cEishet Chayil\u201d (\u201cWoman of Valor\u201d) (Proverbs 31:10\u201331) is a tribute bestowed on a woman who exemplifies traditional Jewish values, such as running a home, raising children, and doing good deeds (mitzvot). But she not only manages the household estate with great competence, she is also a successful businesswoman, independent of her husband. This is a significant development, because Proverbs (and indeed most all Wisdom Literature in the Bible) addresses only the ideal virtues of men and boys.
\nThe poem\u2019s first line is often quoted: \u201cA woman of valor, who can find? Her price is far beyond rubies\u201d\u2014or, as in the NJPS translation: \u201cWhat a rare find is a capable wife! Her worth is far beyond that of rubies.\u201d Jewish lore has it that Solomon wrote it for his mother, Bathsheba, but others say it was written by Abraham as a eulogy for Sarah, his wife. The poem is often recited at the graveside of a Jewish woman.
\nWhile some feminist scholars have critiqued \u201cEishet Chayil\u201d as perpetuating sexist notions of a woman\u2019s place in society, others have argued that in valorizing wives and mothers, the poem compliments and supports women. In ancient Israel, everything that married mothers did was seen as essential to the financial and spiritual sustenance of the family. Hence, ascribing the virtues described in \u201cWoman of Valor\u201d to a wife was not considered confining or degrading, but empowering. It is a traditional Sabbath ritual for men to pay homage to their wives by reading \u201cEishet Chayil\u201d to them. Today, however, some prefer to substitute their own, more modern interpretation of this tribute.
\nJob
\nTITLE: The title comes from the name of its main character, Job, a righteous man, whose life illustrates the theological question of why \u201cbad things happen to good people.\u201d It is uncertain when Job was written, but features of its language point to a dating after the Babylonian exile in the 6th century b.c.e. In any case, the issues Job raises are timeless and not dependent on a particular time.
\nCONTENTS: Job is a wealthy, God-fearing man living in patriarchal style in the land of Uz. Without warning, he is struck by a succession of calamities and is stripped of his property, his children, and his health\u2014all because God enters into a wager with Satan: Will Job continue to be a faithful servant even if his loved ones and his comforts in life are taken away? The book begins with a prose narrative about the cause and extent of Job\u2019s sufferings; it affirms that Job is righteous and that sin is not the cause of his calamities (though this assertion is not known to Job or his mortal friends, only to the omniscient narrator and the reader).
\nThen prose turns to poetry in the conversations between Job and his friends\u2014musings about the cause of Job\u2019s (and more generally, of human) suffering. His friends affirm that the cause is sin, and they exhort Job to repent. Job denies their accusations and claims that he is righteous. Moreover, he asserts that other righteous men such as he suffer, while some wicked men prosper. This conversation consists of a series of speeches: Job\u2019s complaint, followed by assertions of Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar, each being successively answered by Job; another series of speeches by the three friends, and Job\u2019s responses; and then a speech by Eliphaz and Bildad, and Job\u2019s replies. Finally, another friend, Elihu, argues that sufferings are remedial and for the good of the one afflicted, and Job asserts that he is righteous despite his suffering, and then Elihu replies by again defending God\u2019s justice with a magnificent description of God\u2019s wonderful works in the world of nature.
\nThen God, speaking from out of a whirlwind, puts a series of questions to Job, intended to compare the unfathomable wisdom and power of God with the littleness of humankind. The book continues with what some consider a confession by Job that he had spoken beyond his limited knowledge. Its conclusion, in prose, reaffirms Job\u2019s righteousness, condemns the friends for their ungrounded accusations, and tells of the peace and prosperity that Job enjoys for the rest of his life.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: One of the most striking things about Job is that in all its 42 chapters there is not a single reference to Israelite history. Job appears to be \u201ceveryman.\u201d
\nThere is irony in the fact that while most scholars concur that Job is best described as one of the books of Wisdom Literature, it takes an \u201canti-Wisdom Literature\u201d stance. God rejects the theories of Job\u2019s friends (God says at the end of the book that the friends \u201chave not spoken the truth about Me\u201d [42:7, 42:8],\u201d as did Job), even though their beliefs reflect many generally held tenets articulated within Wisdom Literature (and throughout the Bible), such as the assumption that good is rewarded and evil is punished and that God is a judge of supreme justice. These beliefs include the assumption that Job is certainly being punished for some unknown sin, which necessitates his repentance and prayer to God for forgiveness (4:17). God seems to refute these assumptions at the end, thereby making the book truly unique within biblical theology. (See also the chapter \u201cWisdom Literature.\u201d)
\nSong of Songs
\nTITLE: The Hebrew title \u201cShir ha-Shirim,\u201d \u201cthe Song of Songs,\u201d may mean the greatest or sweetest of all songs in the same way that \u201cKing of kings\u201d means \u201cSupreme King.\u201d The book claims Solomon as its author, which accounts for its being called \u201cSong of Solomon\u201d in most Christian Bibles.
\nCONTENTS: Song of Songs consists in large part of dialogue, words exchanged between two or more people. The theme of the dialogues is love. Two alternative theories of Song of Songs are that it is a drama involving two or three chief characters and that it is a collection of popular Hebrew songs, of a simple dramatic nature.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Song of Songs separates itself immediately from the other books in the Bible: the opening words introduce a poetic work whose subject is romantic love and its physical expression. It is one of the most enigmatic books in the Bible because there is no consensus about many of its elements. Are there two main characters or three? How does one divide the speaking parts? What is the structure of the book? Who wrote it? How many people wrote it? For centuries, the common wisdom among Jews concerning Song of Songs was to view it strictly as an allegory\u2014expressing the love between the People of Israel and God. The logic that prompted such a view was that all books in the Bible are about God, and since Song of Songs is in the Bible, it is about God. Still, there is really no internal or external justification for this assumption of allegory; some say its only benefit is to justify why Song of Songs is in the Bible. Its inclusion in the scripture was long debated and quite controversial. This is due in large part to the radically different tone of the book and its sensuality and eroticism, to its passion and seeming disregard for social mores of the time.
\nSong of Songs is read during Passover because it is a spring holiday and the themes of the blossoming of nature, love, and awakening beauty are all motifs of springtime. Some say it is because the book speaks of Pharaoh\u2019s chariots.
\nRuth
\nTITLE: Ruth is named for its heroine and is set in the times of the judges.
\nCONTENTS: During a period of famine, Elimelech and Naomi leave Bethlehem with their two sons, Mahlon and Chilion, to seek a home in the land of Moab. There Elimelech dies, and then his sons, who have married two of the daughters of Moab, Orpah and Ruth, die also. Naomi prepares to return to her native town, and Ruth, who cannot be dissuaded, accompanies her. Reaching Bethlehem, Ruth goes to glean in the fields of Boaz, a wealthy relative of Elimelech. Struck by Ruth\u2019s loyalty to her mother-in-law, Naomi, Boaz permits Ruth to share in the harvest set aside for his servants to glean. Naomi urges Ruth to claim kinship with Boaz, who would then be obliged, under the levirate law, to marry her to maintain the family line. Boaz first offers a closer relative the opportunity to fulfill this duty, but he refuses, and so Boaz marries Ruth. Through Ruth, Boaz becomes the father of Obed, the grandfather of King David.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: This moving narrative is a familiar Bible story, with its poignant themes of loyalty and lovingkindness (hesed) and of redemption. Socially, the Israelites were aware of their responsibility to protect the weak and unprotected among themselves. Redemption secures the life of the people as a community, not just as individuals. In this story, Boaz is called the \u201credeemer\u201d of Ruth (and Naomi) when he fulfills the familial obligation to marry the widow of a deceased relative who never was able to father children, to both continue the family line and protect the otherwise vulnerable single women in the family.
\nPerhaps the overall theme in Ruth is about the real actor, God. God\u2019s actions, not a series of commendable human qualities, are praised in Ruth. God accomplishes more than we could ever hope or imagine, demonstrated through the lovingkindness of ordinary people.
\nIt is possibly this ability to see God in every action that makes this story of loyalty and kindness a favorite among readers of the Bible. Ruth\u2019s promise to Naomi is often quoted and repeated by others who wish to invoke an act of supreme loyalty: \u201cDo not urge me to leave you, to turn back and not follow you. For wherever you go, I will go; wherever you lodge, I will lodge; your people shall be my people, and your God my God.\u201d (1:16). Even her vow of loyalty involves God and is seen by many as the first story of religious conversion after that of Abraham in Genesis.
\nRuth is traditionally read on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot, because it is a harvest festival and Ruth meets Boaz during harvesttime and because (as a convert) she accepts the Torah, which was given at Shavuot.
\nLamentations
\nTITLE: The name \u201cLamentations\u201d comes from the Hebrew word kinot, which is the plural of the term applied to David\u2019s funeral song for Saul and Jonathan, considered by many to be the quintessential dirge in biblical literature.
\nCONTENTS: Lamentations is not a single poem, but five distinct poems. Chapter 1 dwells on the desolation and grief of the city; chapter 2 describes its destruction and acknowledges that it is the result of sin. Chapter 3 complains of the bitter cup that God\u2019s people have to drink but traces God\u2019s mercy in the infliction of their miseries. Chapter 4 describes the horrors of the siege and capture of the city, and the last chapter repeats many of the painful details, concluding with a prayer for deliverance.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Lamentations provides a detailed description of Jerusalem under siege and of the destruction of the First Temple, told in an intricate set of dirges. It bewails Jerusalem, once teeming with life and now sitting abandoned and alone like a solitary widow, capturing the horror of the siege: children pleading for water and bread in vain, the cannibalism of hungermaddened mothers, nobles hanged, women raped, priests defiled.
\nLamentations is read on the Jewish occasion of Tisha b\u2019Av, the Ninth of Av, commemorating the anniversary of the destruction of the First and Second Temples.
\nEcclesiastes
\nTITLE: The title of this book in Hebrew is \u201cKoheleth\u201d (the assembler), after the book\u2019s narrator. The English title, Ecclesiastes, is the ancient Greek rendering of the Hebrew, which means \u201ca member of the assembly.\u201d The intention of the title may be to call together an assembly, a group of people, to address them on the subject of wisdom. Ecclesiastes, along with Job and Proverbs, is part of the Wisdom Literature of the Bible. (See the chapter \u201cWisdom Literature.\u201d) Ecclesiastes is written in the person of Solomon, son of King David, but many facts point to the book being the work of a writer whose name is unknown, living long after the Babylonian exile, when his people were the subjects of a foreign government, either Persian or Greek.
\nCONTENTS: Ecclesiastes consists in the main of reflections on and illustrations of the complete vanity of life. According to Ecclesiastes, people can get nothing new or satisfying out of all of their toil. The fate of humankind is not determined by their conduct in this life, and there is no life beyond death for humans any more than there is for beasts: The righteous may meet with calamity, the unrighteous with prosperity.
\nMingled with such reflections are others that contradict them: the certainty of a judgment that distinguishes the righteous from the unrighteous, and that we should fear God. This combination of opposing viewpoints in the same book has been be explained by some as the work of a single writer presenting the conflict between a higher and a lower self, and by others as the work of one writer whose words were added to by another.
\nWho Is Koheleth?
\nKoheleth was traditionally identified with King Solomon, but scholars today do not regard Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes. It is significant that the speaker is not called Solomon by name, as he could have been if the author had wished to actually identify him with that king. Koheleth speaks as king only once (Eccles. 1:12\u20132:26); elsewhere he speaks as a non-royal sage, one who blames the government for injustices (5:8), and the epilogue (12:9\u201314) makes no mention of Koheleth\u2019s royal station. Koheleth is a literary figure, not a historical one, who is given the Solomon-like blessings of power, wealth, and wisdom to qualify him to examine the true value of those assets.
\nMichael V. Fox
\nIn addition, there is no single genre in Ecclesiastes: the work is a mixture of poetry and prose. The whole of Ecclesiastes seems to imply a diversity of opinions and rhetorical styles on each topic it addresses.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Ecclesiastes consists of personal or autobiographic teachings, largely articulated in pithy statements and maxims interspersed with reflections on the meaning of life and the best way to live one\u2019s life. The work emphatically proclaims all the actions of humans to be inherently \u201cmeaningless,\u201d as the lives of both wise and foolish people end in death. Ultimately the author concludes that this search for meaning in life points to the fact that humankind\u2019s paramount duty is to fear God and keep God\u2019s commandments, while enjoying simple pleasures whenever possible.
\nEcclesiastes is read in most Ashkenazic and some Sephardic synagogues on the Sabbath during Sukkot, possibly because it speaks about the transience of life, like the temporary booth, the sukkah.
\nEsther
\nTITLE: The title of the book comes from the name of the main heroine, Esther. It is either from the Persian word for \u201cstar\u201d or the name of the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, even though we are told that Esther\u2019s Hebrew name is Hadassah, meaning \u201cmyrtle.\u201d She is selected, in place of Queen Vashti, to become the favorite wife of the Persian king.
\nWhy Is Esther in the Bible?
\nThe events in Esther are implausible as history and, as many scholars now agree. The book is better viewed as imaginative storytelling, not unlike others that circulated in the Persian and Hellenistic periods among Jews of the Land of Israel and of the Diaspora. This story seems to have been known in several different versions, or to have gone through a number of different stages in its development before it was linked with Purim and incorporated into the Bible.
\nAs a diaspora story\u2014a story about, and presumably for, Jews in the Diaspora during the Persian period\u2014it provides an optimistic picture of Jewish survival and success in a foreign land. In this it resembles other diaspora stories such as the biblical book of Daniel (chapters 1\u20136) and the apocryphal books of Judith and Tobit. But unlike those books, Esther lacks overtly pious characters and does not model a religious lifestyle.
\nEsther is the most \u201csecular\u201d of the biblical books, making no reference to God\u2019s name, to the Temple, to prayer, or to distinctive Jewish practices such as dietary laws. Yet Esther, of all the biblical books outside of the Torah, is the only one that addresses the origin of a new festival. For this reason, if for no other, Esther should be considered a \u201creligious\u201d book. Its main concern, the very reason for its existence, is to establish Purim as a Jewish holiday for all generations. In fact, the book of Esther, more than anything else, is responsible for the continued celebration of Purim. It also opened the way for the establishment of later holidays that, like Purim, could be instituted without divine command if they commemorated an important event or served an important function in the life of the Jewish people.
\nFrom Adele Berlin, JPS Bible Commentary: Esther.
\nCONTENTS: Esther\u2019s cousin, the Jew Mordecai, who \u201csat in the palace gate\u201d (2:19), discovers that the eunuchs are planning to assassinate the king. He divulges this information, thereby saving the king\u2019s life, and the record of his services is entered in the royal chronicles. But he has a rival for the royal favor: Haman, an Agagite, a descendant of the ancient Amalekite kings. Haman, jealous of Mordecai, forms a plot for the wholesale destruction of the Jewish exiles, especially when he learns that Mordecai refuses to bow down to him.
\nMordecai discovers Haman\u2019s plans to destroy the Jews and informs Esther. She puts her life at risk, interceding with the king on behalf of the Jews, and Haman is hanged on the very gallows he had designed for Mordecai, while Mordecai is advanced to high honor in the Persian court.
\nThe Jews, saved from peril themselves, slaughter their enemies, and thereafter celebrate their victory on the holiday of Purim.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: The feast of Purim, meaning \u201clots,\u201d is a holiday still celebrated among Jews to commemorate the ironic destruction of their great enemy Haman and in memory of their miraculous survival in the face of a plot that sought to destroy them. It is likely that because the festival Purim has its origins in the book of Esther (or, as it is commonly called, Megillat Esther, \u201cScroll of Esther\u201d), this biblical book became part of the Jewish canon.
\nIt is doubtful that the events told in this humorous, at times even hilarious, book of the Bible are historically accurate; rather, they are a parable of the seemingly miraculous survival of the Jewish people throughout history. It is interesting that there is no mention of God in the unfolding of the events of the Purim story; this is the only biblical story that does not explicitly attribute its successful outcome to divine intervention.
\nDaniel
\nTITLE: Daniel was a Jew in exile in Babylon in the 5th century b.c.e. He was recognized by the rulers there as \u201cintelligent and proficient in all writings and wisdom without blemish, handsome, proficient in all wisdom, knowledgeable and intelligent, and capable of serving in the royal palace\u201d (1:17) and also for his ability to interpret dreams and decipher messages in strange writings. Because of these abilities he was appointed one of the three highest officials in the land. Daniel is at the center of the stories in the first half of the book and is the visionary in the second half.
\nCONTENTS: The first part of Daniel, chapters 1\u20136, is in many ways linked to the second, chapters 7\u201312: The first section contains in the interpretation of Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s dream an apocalyptic element, while the second contains Daniel\u2019s visions of disastrous events, of apocalypse. Both parts are written partly in Aramaic, partly in Hebrew. That is, Daniel 1:1\u20132:4a is in Hebrew, then 2:4b\u20137:28 is in Aramaic. Chapters 8\u201312 switch back to Hebrew.
\nThe most well known of the stories is of Daniel in the lions\u2019 den. Officials in the court of the Persian ruler Darius, jealous of Daniel, arrange for Darius to forbid the worship of any gods. Daniel, faithful to God, ignores the ordinance and continues to pray, and for this he is arrested and thrown into a den of lions. But he is not killed by the lions, for God protects him. When Darius sees this, he is in awe of God and reverses his order; now all must worship Daniel\u2019s god.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: The date of the book of Daniel is likely shortly before the death of Antiochus Epiphanes in 164 b.c.e., after the defilement of the Temple, the cessation of the Jewish daily service, and the erection of an altar to Zeus Olympus in the Temple. Written under such circumstances, the author\u2019s intent was to inspire and build up the morale of the Jews. He did this in two ways: first, by telling stories of those who, like Daniel, stood firm to their religion under severe trials, and then, by contrasting the power of God with the impotence of the most exalted and proud earthly monarchs.
\nDaniel\u2019s visions were later interpreted by Christians as predictions of Christ\u2019s resurrection. The Rabbis thus deemed Daniel a seer, but not a prophet. Therefore, in Jewish Scripture the book of Daniel is placed with Kethuvim (Writings), while in the Christian Old Testament Daniel is placed with the major prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel.
\nEzra
\nTITLE: Ezra, whose name means \u201chelp,\u201d is the son of Seraiah and was probably born in Babylon. He is a scribe who went to Jerusalem with a later group of returning Jewish exiles.
\nCONTENTS: Ezra consists of two sections, with a considerable interval of time between the writing of the two. The first is an account of the return of the Jews from Babylon at the beginning of the reign of Cyrus, 538 b.c.e. and of the rebuilding of the Temple. The second, which takes place more than half a century later, tells of the second return of exiles in the 7th year of Artaxerxes (457 b.c.e), led by Ezra. The entire period covered by the book extends over 79 years.
\nThe Temple
\nIn the 10th century b.c.e., King Solomon built the Temple in Jerusalem, larger than the Tabernacle but of similar design. Surrounded by a great courtyard, it consisted of a main hall with the sacrificial altar and an inner chamber, the Holy of Holies, for the Ark of the Covenant (2 Sam. 7; 1 Kings 6).
\nThis First Temple was destroyed in the 6th century b.c.e. by Nebuchadnezzar, who drove the Israelites into exile in Babylon (2 Kings 25). After the Israelites\u2019 return half a century later, the high priest, Joshua, oversaw the rebuilding of the Temple, following the plan of the First Temple. It was sacked in the 2nd century b.c.e. by Antiochus and restored three years later by the Maccabees (1 Maccabees).
\nSometime between 37 b.c.e. and 5 c.e., Herod expanded the Temple, doubling its size and adding a room in which the judicial court met. The Second Temple was finally destroyed in 70 c.e. by the Roman warrior Titus, although the Western Wall still stands and remains a holy site.
\nSome scholars contend that Ezra may have originally been part of a larger work, along with Nehemiah and Chronicles, but Ezra appears to contain within it practically unaltered extracts from memoirs written by Ezra himself, plus other sections from his memoirs modified by the editor.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Ezra begins where 2 Chronicles ends (even though Chronicles comes later in the Bible). Ezra, along with Nehemiah, records the fulfillment of God\u2019s promise to restore God\u2019s people to their land after 70 years of Babylonian enslavement. Ezra stresses the theme of God\u2019s covenant with God\u2019s people, reflected especially in God\u2019s special presence in the Temple and Israel\u2019s special access through God-appointed sacrifice. Religious reform must be accompanied by spiritual and ethical reform, and so marriages to foreign women are outlawed to renew religious purity. The overall focus in Ezra is on the return of God\u2019s people to the worship of the God and to the keeping of the covenant, to the land God promised them, and to religious and ethical purity. Thus the rebuilding of the altar and the Temple and the offering of sacrifices receive considerable attention in this book.
\nNehemiah
\nTITLE: Nehemiah means \u201cGod comforts.\u201d The son of Hacaliah of Judah, he is among the Jews exiled to Babylon. After the Babylonian empire falls to the Persians, Nehemiah becomes the royal cup-bearer in the palace of the Persian king Artaxerxes, and upon the Jews\u2019 return from exile, he is made the civil governor of Jerusalem, where Ezra is High Priest.
\nThe books of Nehemiah and Ezra are very closely linked, and although recent scholarship questions it, some scholars speculate that they were once one unified work, written by Ezra. These two books are the only ones in the Bible that contain memoirs.
\nCONTENTS: Nehemiah and Ezra have a common goal: to renew their community with a rebuilt Temple and rededication to the laws of God. When Nehemiah hears of the deplorable condition of Jerusalem and of the residents in Judah, he is filled with sorrow and prays to God. God opens the heart of Artaxerxes to give Nehemiah a commission to rebuild the walls of his ancestral city. (Zerubbabel had previously rebuilt the Temple, but not the city walls.) Many oppose Nehemiah\u2019s work, but he prevails, calling on everyone in the city, of every rank and order, to work with him night and day, and in 52 days the wall is complete.
\nAfter holding the position of governor of Jerusalem, Nehemiah returns to the court of Artaxerxes. During this absence, the residents of Jerusalem stray from the Law, and when he is informed of this, Nehemiah once more leaves the Persian court for Jerusalem, so that he can put down abuses, restore the holiness of the Sabbath, denounce mixed marriages, and lead a second reformation.
\nLarge parts of Nehemiah are told in the first person and may be extracts from memoirs written by Nehemiah himself or perhaps based on his memoirs. In other sections, both Ezra and Nehemiah are referred to in the third person, though the narrative may be based on the memoirs of Ezra.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Whereas both Ezra and Nehemiah focus on the rebuilding of the Temple and the renewal and restoration of the purity of the people, their leadership style is very different. Ezra\u2019s is one of collaboration, while Nehemiah\u2019s is that of an outspoken and charismatic leader. They exemplify how two people living at the same time and in the same place approach leadership differently.
\n1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles
\nTITLE: 1 and 2 Chronicles are one work in the Hebrew, \u201cThe Acts [or Annals] of the Days,\u201d from which comes the title \u201cChronicles.\u201d As mentioned earlier, until recently, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah were all thought to have originally been one book; today modern scholars believe that they were separate books but that the writer of Chronicles, referred to as \u201cthe Chronicler,\u201d had read Ezra and Nehemiah and was influenced by them.
\nCONTENTS: 1 and 2 Chronicles, the last books of the Bible, tell the history of the Temple and its Priesthood, emphasizing its centrality to religious continuity. They also describe the House of David and the tribe of Judah, guardians of the Temple, and state the case for their importance in Jewish history.
\nThe books are naturally divided into four parts. The first consists of genealogies from Adam: the line from Adam to Abraham; from Judah to Elishama; the kingly line of David through Zerubbabel; priests to the Babylonian exile; and the three leading families of singers, one of which is the line of Samuel. The second part tells the history of David and is remarkable both for its omissions of the narrative that is found in 1 and 2 Kings and for many new facts not given in those biblical books. The third part contains the reign of Solomon, and the fourth recounts the history of the kings of Judah up to the exile.
\nOF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE: Chronicles shows us the methods used by a redactor of a historical work. By comparing Chronicles with Samuel and Kings, we can see how the Chronicles\u2019 redactor sometimes incorporated the earlier material practically unaltered, sometimes abbreviated it, sometimes expanded it, and corrected its theology, as when he wrote that it is Satan, not God, who compels David to take a census of the people (1 Chron. 21:1; 2 Sam. 24:1). Accordingly, the value of Chronicles is that it reveals the interests, ideas, and temperament of certain Jewish circles about 300 b.c.e. Along with Ezra and Nehemiah, it is a key source of knowledge about this period.
\nCompared with the parallel histories of Samuel and Kings, the redactor of Chronicles has a great tendency to dwell on the details of Temple worship, on the arrangement of the Priestly vestments, and on the Levites as well. He has a marked bias for genealogical tables and for assigning names to persons engaged in any of the events narrated. Finally, when it comes to discussing Solomon\u2019s reign, the building of the Temple, and the ensuing history of Judah, not only is Judah and its subsequent kings treated sympathetically, but all references to the Northern Kingdom of Israel are omitted.
\nChronicles was evidently not intended to supersede Samuel and Kings, for knowledge of the history contained in those books is in several places presupposed, while many sections in Chronicles agree almost verbatim with those of Samuel and Kings. Others are found only in Chronicles. The most important of these are certain songs at the bringing up of the Ark by David, the account of the organization of Temple ritual, various incidents in the history of the kings and the \u201ccalls\u201d to prophecy by several of the prophets, and the account of the great Passover feasts kept by Hezekiah and Josiah.
\nWhat makes Chronicles unique is its overriding belief in God\u2019s compassion and forgiveness. While on the surface it recounts the history of Israel, there is a strong message of hope here: that people who repent for their sins will be forgiven, and those who do good deeds will be rewarded.
\nGlossary<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
Judges TITLE: Judges receives its title from those who were raised up to be the deliverers of the Israelites from their enemies, after the death of Joshua. The Hebrew word for these deliverers is shofet; its plural is shofetim, which has come to mean \u201cjudges.\u201d CONTENTS: Judges opens with an account of the conquest of … <\/p>\n