CHAPTER 25*<\/p>\n
Instructions for the Tabernacle (25:1\u201331:18)<\/p>\n
Terumah<\/p>\n
THE MATERIALS (vv. 1\u20139)<\/p>\n
The account opens with a list of the basic materials needed for the construction of the Tabernacle, its appurtenances, and its operation. These are grouped in seven categories: metals, dyed yarns, fabrics, timber, oil, spices, and gems. All are to be acquired through public donations. A singular peculiarity of the fabrics is that some of them are fashioned of a mixture of wool and linen. Such a mixture, termed kil\u02beayim or sha\u02bfatnez in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11, is otherwise forbidden.6 This is true of the lower covers of the Tabernacle, the curtain in front of the Ark, the screen for the entrance of the Tent, and the screen for the gate of the Enclosure. It also applies to the High Priest\u2019s ephod, breastpiece, sash, and the pomegranates on the hem of his robe.<\/p>\n
1. The LORD spoke to Moses During the forty days he spent in seclusion on Mount Sinai.7<\/p>\n
2. the Israelite people The sanctuary is to serve the entire community, and its construction is therefore to be accomplished through the generosity of all.<\/p>\n
to bring Me \u2026 for Me The phrasing indicates a religious function, but the full purpose of the donations is withheld until the end of the unit (vv. 8\u20139).<\/p>\n
gifts Hebrew terumah is a technical term referring specifically to that which is set aside by its owner and dedicated for sacred use.8<\/p>\n
3. The metals are listed in descending order of value. This, in turn, determines their use for various objects; the closer the object is to the Holy of Holies, the more valuable the metal of which it is made. Iron is notably absent, either on account of its great rarity at this time or because its utilization for more efficient weapons of death made it incompatible with the spiritual ends that the sanctuary was intended to serve. See Comment to 20:22.9<\/p>\n
copper Hebrew ne\u1e25oshet most likely designates bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. This metal was used extensively in the Near East as early as the third millennium B.C.E.<\/p>\n
4. blue, purple, and crimson yarns These are the most expensive dyed yarns of antiquity.10 The sequence, once again, reflects their relative value and thus the degree of sanctity that attaches to the objects in which they are used, starting with the Holy of Holies. The dyes were all obtained from animal sources, and the yarns were to be used for the Tabernacle hangings and coverings and for the priestly vestments.<\/p>\n
blue In the Bible, Hebrew tekhelet is frequently paired with Hebrew \u02beargaman, purple, both being dyes produced from the murex, a marine snail termed \u1e25illazon in rabbinic tradition.11 This creature exudes a yellow fluid that becomes a dye in the red-purple range when exposed to sunlight. The desired shade was obtained by varying the species of murex and by adding other ingredients. Tekhelet was probably closer to a violet tint, while \u02beargaman had a more reddish hue.
\nThe Phoenician coast was famous for its dyeing industry. Immense quantities of marine-snail shells dating to the fifteenth century B.C.E. have been found at Ugarit. Modern attempts to reconstruct the process have shown that it required thousands of snails to produce sufficient dye for one robe. This, together with the intensity of the labor and the superiority of the dye\u2019s richness and stability, made the products very costly. Hence, possession of tekhelet-dyed or \u02beargaman-dyed fabrics were marks of wealth, nobility, and royalty.12<\/p>\n
crimson Hebrew tola\u02bfat shani. The first word means \u201ca worm\u201d; the second signifies the color. The combination designates the brilliant red dye produced from the eggs of scale insects of the Coccidae family that feed on oak trees.13<\/p>\n
fine linen Hebrew shesh is a very early term, borrowed from Egyptian \u0161\u015b, used for cloth of exceptional quality.14 In late biblical Hebrew shesh was replaced by buts, from which Greek byssos, Latin byssus, and English \u201cbyssus\u201d are all derived.<\/p>\n
goats\u2019 hair The Hebrew is elliptical, omitting the word \u201chair,\u201d which is left to the imagination.15 Goats\u2019 hair grows in long locks and was left undyed. As Exodus 35:26 shows, the spinning of goat\u2019s hair was a specialized skill of women.<\/p>\n
5. skins The use of animal hides and skins for human needs is very ancient and is widely attested in the Bible,16 although the technique of leather production is never described. Hence, it is unclear whether Hebrew me\u02beoddamim, literally \u201cmade red,\u201d refers to the tanning or dyeing process.<\/p>\n
Dolphin Hebrew te\u1e25ashim (sing. ta\u1e25ash), with one exception,17 always refers to the coverings of the Tabernacle. Its exact meaning is uncertain.18 In rabbinic times the ta\u1e25ash was invested with mythical association and identified with the unicorn. Because of the similarity with Arabic tu\u1e25as, du\u1e2bs, which denote both the dolphin and the dugong found in the Red Sea, modern scholars have variously identified the biblical creature with one or the other. A suggestion to equate the term with Akkadian du\u0161u (= ta\u1e2bs\u0306ia), the name of a precious stone of either yellow or orange color, seems more plausible since that word is also used to describe leather that is dyed and tanned the color of the stone.19 Significantly, only the hides of goats (and sheep) were so treated.<\/p>\n
acacia wood Other than in Isaiah 41:19, Hebrew shittim always refers to the timbers used in the construction of the Tabernacle and its appurtenances. A few biblical place-names testify to the presence of acacia groves in the region of the Land of Israel.20 There are about eight hundred different species of acacias, but only a few have an upright trunk suitable for cutting timbers for construction. These yield very hard, durable, but lightweight planks. The Hebrew shittah may well be an Egyptian loan word.21<\/p>\n
6. oil This is later specified as olive oil.22<\/p>\n
for lighting As distinct from oil for food preparation and for anointing. See Comment to 27:20.<\/p>\n
spices The ingredients of this aromatic oil are listed in 30:23\u201325. The oil will be used to desecularize the Tabernacle, its appurtenances, and its personnel, and to consecrate them for the service of God. The Hebrew stem m-sh-\u1e25, \u201canoint,\u201d is the base of the term mashia\u1e25, \u201cmessiah,\u201d which means \u201canointed one,\u201d and which in the Hebrew Bible is never used of anyone to whom supernatural power is ascribed.<\/p>\n
aromatic incense See Comment to 30:7. The set of aromatics is listed in 30:34.<\/p>\n
7. These precious stones are to adorn the vestments of the priests.<\/p>\n
lapis lazuli Hebrew shoham is an oft-mentioned gem of uncertain identity. The ancient versions and rabbinic sources preserve no consistent traditions about it. In Genesis 2:12 it is mentioned as one of the gems native to the mysterious \u201cland of Havilah\u201d near the Garden of Eden, and Ezekiel 28:13 places it in the garden itself.<\/p>\n
for setting Their identity and function are detailed in chapter 28.<\/p>\n
the ephod and \u2026 breast-piece These, too, are described in chapter 28.<\/p>\n
8. The purpose of assembling all these materials is to construct a sanctuary, in Hebrew, mikdash. This term defines that which is clearly enclosed and recognized as sacred space. In later Hebrew, mikdash\u2014or more fully beit ha-mikdash\u2014became the common designation for the Temple in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n
dwell Careful analysis of the language used here is essential for a proper understanding of the underlying concept and role of the sanctuary. First, the text speaks of God dwelling not \u201cin it,\u201d that is in the sanctuary, but \u201camong them,\u201d that is, among the people of Israel (v. 2). Then, the verb \u201cto dwell\u201d is not the common Hebrew stem y-sh-v but the rarer sh-k-n, which has a different connotation. This verb conveys the idea of temporary lodging in a tent and characterizes the nomadic style of life. That is why the structure is called a mishkan (e.g., v. 9) and why the verbal form is frequently used together with \u02beohel,23 the common word for \u201ca tent,\u201d and in connection with nomads.24 The noun mishkan is often employed in synonymous parallelism with \u02beohel,25 and the other designations of the wilderness Tabernacle are the \u201cTent of the Pact\u201d26 and the \u201cTent of Meeting.\u201d27
\nThus, the sanctuary is not meant to be understood literally as God\u2019s abode, as are other such institutions in the pagan world. Rather, it functions to make perceptible and tangible the conception of God\u2019s immanence, that is, of the indwelling of the Divine Presence in the camp of Israel, to which the people may orient their hearts and minds. A postbiblical extension of this usage of the verb sh-k-n is the Hebrew term shekhinah for the Divine Presence.<\/p>\n
9. The Tabernacle and its furnishings are conceived either as earthly replicas of celestial archetypes or as constructions based upon divinely given blueprints and pictorial representations.28 Both notions are found elsewhere in the Bible. According to the Chronicler\u2019s account of the building of Solomon\u2019s Temple (1 Chron. 28:11\u201319), David had received the specifications from God. Ezekiel;s detailed vision of the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem is likewise said to have been received by the prophet while standing on \u201ca very high mountain,\u201d as is told in Ezekiel 40:2. The notion of a celestial temple, a sort of cosmic sanctuary, is clearly conveyed in the vision of Isaiah 6:1\u20138. It is explicit in Micah 1:2\u20133, which foresees the Lord coming down from \u201cHis holy abode,\u201d from \u201cHis dwelling-place\u201d to \u201cstride upon the heights of the earth.\u201d The psalmist, too, declares that \u201cthe LORD is in His holy palace; the LORD\u2014His throne is in heaven\u201d (Ps. 11:4).<\/p>\n
Exactly as I show you A general admonition, later specified in relation to the menorah, the Tabernacle structure, and the outer altar, apparently all items that were difficult to conceptualize.29<\/p>\n
THE ARK (vv. 10\u201316)<\/p>\n
The directions for constructing the Tabernacle commence with the order to fashion an Ark. This takes up the point made in 24:12, that Moses is to ascend the mountain in order to receive the two stone tablets on which the Decalogue is incised. The Ark will permanently house them, and it is therefore the focus of the entire enterprise. That is why the Tabernacle as a whole, including the Ark, features the instruction formula in the third person: \u201cThey shall make,\u201d the people being the subject. This is distinct from the otherwise uniform wording for the other components: \u201cYou shall make,\u201d addressed to Moses. It is the Ark and its contents, the symbol of the covenant between God and Israel, that give meaning to the Tabernacle, for the religio-moral imperatives of the Decalogue constitute the foundation of Israelite society. The maintenance of the community\u2019s spiritual and moral environment is the responsibility of the entire people. Hence the directive \u201cThey shall make.\u201d<\/p>\n
10. an ark This has the shape of a wooden chest open at the top. In later times, Hebrew \u02bearon, in full \u02bearon kodesh, \u201csacred Ark,\u201d was transferred to the receptacle for the scrolls of the Torah in the synagogue.<\/p>\n
cubits Hebrew \u02beammah means literally \u201cforearm,\u201d that is, the distance between the elbow and the tip of the middle finger of an average-sized person.30 The standard biblical cubit is about 18 inches (45 cm.). This would give external dimensions of approximately 3\u00be feet in length and 2\u00bc feet in both width and height (1.12 m. \u00d7 .67 m.)<\/p>\n
11. Overlay it According to some rabbinic authorities, a nest of three separate chests of slightly varying dimensions was constructed; one was of wood and two were of gold. The main wooden chest, referred to in verse 10, was inserted inside one gold one, which became its jacket; the other gold chest was fitted inside the wooden chest as a lining.31 Another tradition has the wooden chest simply overlaid with gold inside and out.32 Either design would have been familiar to contemporary Egyptian artisans. King Tutankhamen\u2019s body was discovered reposing within a nest of three coffins, the innermost having been made of solid gold and the two outer ones of hammered gold over wooden frames.<\/p>\n
pure gold Of the highest grade, having undergone extra steps in the refining process to free it from impurities. See Comment to verse 31.<\/p>\n
molding The top of the chest is to be rimmed by a gold band that slightly overlaps its perimeter.33<\/p>\n
12\u201315. The Ark is to be transported from station to station in the wilderness by means of gold-plated wooden poles inserted through gold rings attached to its sides. The poles remained in place even when the Ark was stationary. This injunction was observed even after the Ark found its permanent resting-place in Solomon\u2019s Temple, as noted in 1 Kings 8:8. This arrangement probably originated as a precautionary measure to protect the Ark from contact with profane hands. It was the one item of furniture considered to possess supreme holiness and was regarded as endowed with a numinous quality. The tragic fate of a certain Uzzah son of Abinadab, who inadvertently touched the Ark as it was being transported to Jerusalem in the days of King David, well illustrates the point. The parallel text to 2 Samuel 6:3\u20137, which recounts the story, explicitly mentions that Uzzah\u2019s death came about \u201cbecause he laid a hand on the Ark\u201d (1 Chron. 13:9\u201310).
\nThe use of poles for transportation is mentioned again in connection with the spies whom Moses sent from the wilderness to reconnoiter the land of Canaan, as reported in Numbers 13:23. It is of interest that underneath the decorated cedar chest found in Tutankhamen\u2019s tomb were four poles that had been inserted into bronze rings attached to its base. The Torah is almost silent as to the precise placement of the rings on the sides of the Ark, specifying only that they are affixed to its \u201cfour feet.\u201d34 But we are not otherwise told about the Ark having feet, and this meaning of the Hebrew feminine plural pa\u02bfamot35 is not certain. The Targums rendered this term as \u201ccorners,\u201d which Rashi understood to mean the upper ones, and Rashbam took as referring to the lower ones. Ibn Ezra speculates that the Ark stood on legs and not directly on the ground.<\/p>\n
16. [the tablets of] the Pact Hebrew ha-\u02bfedut is elliptical, standing for lukhot ha-\u02bfedut,36 itself a variant of lukhot ha-berit,37 \u201cthe tablets of the Covenant.\u201d The Hebrew terms \u02bfedut and berit are synonymous; \u02bfedut is a very ancient Semitic term38 that fell into disuse in Hebrew and was displaced by berit. This latter word is exclusive to Hebrew.
\nThe sole function of the Ark is to house the tablets of stone. According to the testimony of 1 Kings 8:9, in the Solomonic Temple \u201cthere was nothing inside the Ark but the two tablets of stone that Moses placed there at Horeb, when the LORD made [a covenant] with the Israelites after their departure from the land of Egypt.\u201d The practice of depositing legal documents in a sacred place was quite widespread in the ancient Near East. It symbolically underscored the importance of the document and projected the idea that the presiding deity witnessed and guarded it and oversaw its implementation. The disposition of such legal instruments in this manner is exemplified by, among others, the treaty of nonaggression and mutual assistance contracted between King Mattiwaza of Mitanni in Upper Mesopotamia and the Hittite monarch Suppiluliumas (ca. 1375\u20131335 B.C.E.). One copy was deposited \u201cbefore the Sun-goddess of Arinna\u201d and another \u201cbefore the deity Tessub.\u201d39 The phrasing means in front of the image of the god. In Egypt, Ramses II, who made a treaty with the Hittite king Hattusilis, confirms that duplicates of the document lie \u201cbeneath the feet\u201d of the respective gods of the contracting parties.40 Another Egyptian text, a copy of the Book of the Dead, carries a note that it was discovered in Hermopolis \u201cbeneath the feet of the god.\u201d41
\nThus, when Moses deposits in the Ark the tablets of stone that contained the fundamentals of the covenant between God and Israel, he is following an ancient and widespread Near Eastern legal tradition. His action also carries implications for the symbolic meaning of the Ark. God is never said to reside in it or to speak from it, only to communicate with Moses from above it (v. 22). It is therefore likely that the Ark represented the footstool of God\u2019s throne, which was imagined to be situated above it. In fact, it is metaphorically so described in 1 Chronicles 28:2.42 The footstool, like the throne, was an important prerogative of royalty, a token of dignity and power in the Near East. It was a distinctive and unique piece of furniture often symbolically ornamented and placed in the royal tomb together with the throne. A richly decorated one was recovered from the tomb of Tutankhamen.<\/p>\n
THE \u201cKAPPORET\u201d AND THE CHERUBIM (vv. 17\u201322)<\/p>\n
A solid slab of pure gold is to be placed above the Ark, which was open at the top. The dimensions of the slab correspond exactly to those of the Ark.43 This object is called in Hebrew kapporet, a word that has traditionally been rendered \u201cmercy-seat\u201d in the English versions. This is based on the Septuagint and Vulgate translations, which mean \u201can instrument of propitiation,\u201d and follow the usual sense of the Hebrew stem k-p-r, \u201cto atone, make expiation.\u201d This understanding would appear to be strengthened by the instruction in Leviticus 16:15\u201316 that at this spot in the Holy of Holies the High Priest is to perform expiatory rites on the Day of Atonement. Nevertheless, \u201cmercy-seat\u201d is not a satisfactory translation of kapporet, since the aspect of \u201cmercy\u201d is an interpretation and is not inherent in the word. The present translation, \u201ca cover,\u201d rests on a supposed primary meaning \u201cto cover\u201d for the Hebrew verb k-p-r, as in Arabic kafara.44
\nWhatever its precise meaning, the kapporet was far more than a mere lid for the Ark. It was a distinct entity with its own identity and symbolism. The Ark and kapporet are listed several times as two items in the various inventories of the contents of the Tabernacle.45 The fact that the kapporet has its own instruction formula and that its dimensions are separately measured reinforce this conclusion.
\nAt either end of the kapporet a cherub was hammered out. The two cherubim faced each other, with their heads bent slightly downward. Their fully outstretched wings were turned upward, sheltering the main body of the lid and the Ark below it. Verse 22 as well as Numbers 7:89 make clear that the divine voice was thought to issue from the space above the lid and between the two cherubim. Therefore, just as the Ark may poetically be the footstool, the kapporet with its cherubim would support the invisible throne of God. This explains a frequently employed epithet of God as the One who is \u201cEnthroned on the Cherubim.\u201d46 It is also said that \u201cHe mounted a cherub and flew.\u201d47 The outstretched wings of the cherubim also signify flight and mobility.
\nAs noted above, the biblical references, in assuming prior familiarity with the cherubim, suggest a connection with an existing tradition. Closest is the Akkadian term kuribu,48 a protective genius fashioned for the entrances of temples and palaces in Mesopotamia. These creatures are composites of human, animal, and avian features. Hybrids of this kind have turned up over a wide area of the ancient Near East and the Mediterranean lands, including Canaan.49 Such representations are highly reminiscent of the description of the cherubim in Ezekiel 1:6\u201311 and 10:14\u201322. However, a comparison of the non-Israelite creatures with the cherubim of the Tabernacle and with Ezekiel 41:18\u201319 shows considerable variation in the artistic theme.
\nWhatever the original inspiration, the cherubim of the Tabernacle certainly communicate some concepts of God that are fundamental to the religion of Israel. As bearers of the celestial throne, they evoke belief in divine, transcendent sovereignty. Their permanent place above the Ark expresses God\u2019s immanence\u2014His enduring presence in the covenanted community of Israel. Their outstretched wings represent the idea of consummate mobility, that is, of God\u2019s omnipresence.<\/p>\n
22. The imagery of the footstool and throne evoke the conception of God as King. In this capacity, He issues His royal decrees to Israel through the instrumentality of Moses. Hence, God may be said to \u201cmeet\u201d with Moses by the Ark and kapporet, a function of the latter object that is repeated several times.50 This gave rise to the term \u02beohel mo\u02bfed, \u201cTent of Meeting,\u201d as an alternative designation for the Tabernacle.51 We also find the combination mishkan \u02beohel mo\u02bfed, \u201cthe Tabernacle of the Tent of Meeting.\u201d52<\/p>\n
I will meet with you Hebrew no\u02bfadeti derives from the stem y-\u02bf-d, \u201cto appoint, to come at the appointed time, to meet by appointment.\u201d By popular etymology, the similar sounding, although distinct, stem \u02bf-w-d, which is at the base of \u02bfedut, \u201cpact,\u201d was connected with it so that the two words often appear together in these texts.<\/p>\n
THE TABLE AND ITS APPURTENANCES (vv. 23\u201330)<\/p>\n
Having dealt with the contents of the most sacred space, the text now presents instructions relating to the furniture and utensils that are to be housed in the second sacred zone of the Tabernacle. Of these, the table comes first because it is next in holiness, after the Ark. Made of acacia wood and overlaid with pure gold, the table top measures 2 cubits by 1 cubit (approximately 3 ft. \u00d7 1\u00bd ft., or 0.9 m. \u00d7 .45 m.) and stands 1\u00bd cubits from the ground (approximately 2\u00bd ft. or 0.67 m.). It is supported by four wooden legs to which golden rings are attached. Poles are inserted into these rings when the Table is to be transported. Its proper location in the Tabernacle is on the north side of the Holy Place, the second zone.53
\nSome of the constructional details are unclear. It appears that gilded molding embellished the top, and the legs were fastened to an underframe equipped with molding to afford greater stability.54 The Torah is silent about the shape and decoration of the legs. Josephus claims that they \u201cwere exquisitely finished\u201d in the lower half.55
\nThe main function of the table was to accommodate the bread of display. Hence, it is called \u201cthe table of display\u201d in Numbers 4:7. Another name, found in 2 Chronicles 29:18, is \u201cthe table of the row [of breads].\u201d Still a third designation, \u201cthe pure table,\u201d is used in Leviticus 24:6. This last refers either to the plating of pure gold,56 or it means that the rows of bread be placed \u201con the table proper\u201d and not on the side attachments.57<\/p>\n
24. molding See Comment to verse 11.<\/p>\n
25. a rim Hebrew misgeret is exclusive to this artifact, but it appears again as a technical term in connection with the laver in Solomon\u2019s Temple.58 The stem s-g-r denotes \u201cto close\u201d; hence misgeret might mean \u201can enclosure,\u201d \u201ca frame.\u201d59<\/p>\n
29. Four utensils were displayed on the table. These are referred to in other texts as \u201cservice vessels\u201d (Heb. kelei sharet) and also as \u201csacred utensils.\u201d60 Their functions are uncertain.<\/p>\n
bowls Hebrew ke\u02bfarot (sing. ke\u02bfarah) are understood in the Talmud to be the molds in which the loaves of bread were placed after baking so that they would retain their shape.61 Bekhor Shor understands them to be the pans in which the dough is baked.<\/p>\n
ladles Hebrew kappot (sing. kaf), literally \u201cpalm [of the hand],\u201d hence a palm-shaped vessel.62 These most likely contained the frankincense mentioned in Leviticus 24:7 that was placed on the table of the bread of display and that was burnt when the loaves were removed each Sabbath. In later Hebrew these two incense containers were known as bazikhin.63<\/p>\n
jars Hebrew kesavot. In Numbers 4:7 they are called kesot ha-nesekh, \u201clibation jugs,\u201d so that the following clause of the present verse\u2014\u201cwith which to offer libations\u201d\u2014also applies to these \u201cjars.\u201d This presents a difficulty, however, in that Exodus 30:9 expressly prohibits libations on the altar in this Holy Place. Either some ritual not otherwise recorded took place in connection with the bread of display, or these jars were simply symbolic. According to Bekhor Shor, they were water containers for use in kneading the dough. However, in Mena\u1e25ot 97a the kesavot are defined as \u201cprops\u201d (Heb. senifin) for the loaves of bread on display.64<\/p>\n
jugs Hebrew menakiyyot (sing. menakit) appears only in lists of ritual accessories.65 Their identity and function are uncertain. The literal meaning of the word should be \u201ccleansers\u201d; indeed, Bekhor Shor takes them to be utensils for clearing ashes from the oven and for cleaning the table. Mena\u1e25ot 97a takes them to be rods in the shape of hollow reeds broken in two that were placed on the table to permit free circulation of air between the cakes to keep them clean and fresh.<\/p>\n
30. the bread of display Hebrew le\u1e25em panim has been variously translated, depending on the understanding of panim, which usually means \u201cface, presence, interior.\u201d Ibn Ezra\u2019s explanation that they are perpetually set out before the Lord\u2014hence \u201cthe bread of the presence\u201d\u2014is supported by the end of this verse and by 1 Samuel 21:7. Rashi took the phrase figuratively: \u201cbread fit for dignitaries.\u201d66 Mishnah Mena\u1e25ot 11:4 interprets \u201cthat all its surfaces [Heb. panim] should be visible.\u201d According to Mena\u1e25ot 94b, the loaves were flat and oblong-shaped, \u201clike a broken box\u201d that has neither front nor back but only a base with two upright sides.
\nAs prescribed in Leviticus 24:5\u20139, there were twelve loaves in all, each prepared from two-tenths of an ephah measure of choice flour. This is twice the daily per capita ration of manna in the wilderness. According to Josephus, the loaves were unleavened.67 The significance of the number twelve is not explained, but it may symbolize the twelve tribes of Israel.68 The loaves were set out on the table in two equal rows,69 and they remained undisturbed for the entire week until the Sabbath, when they were replaced by freshly baked loaves. The old ones were eaten by the priests in the sacred precincts. From the manner in which they were displayed, the bread also became known as \u201cthe bread [arranged in] rows\u201d (Heb. le\u1e25em ha-ma\u02bfarekbet)70 and \u201cthe regular bread\u201d (Heb. le\u1e25em ha-tamid).71 The story of David and the priest Ahimelech of the sanctuary at Nob, as told in 1 Samuel 21:2\u20137, gives an insight into the actual use of the bread, although the story contains features that do not conform to the Torah\u2019s legislation.
\nThe Levitical clan of Kohathites was charged with the weekly task of baking the bread and arranging the loaves on the table. This was apparently a specialized skill, and in the days of the Second Temple it seems to have been the preserve of \u201cthe house of Garmu,\u201d which kept the process a closely guarded trade secret.<\/p>\n
THE MENORAH72 (vv. 31\u201340)<\/p>\n
The second sacred item of furniture that stood in the outer sanctum was the seven-branched menorah, the lampstand. It was positioned on the south side of the Tabernacle opposite the table.73 A talmudic statement has it that Moses himself found it difficult to conceptualize the object.74 The statement in Numbers 8:4 that God showed Moses a heavenly prototype no doubt reinforced that idea. Although the instructions about the menorah are very detailed, the text is obscure on many points and is characterized by a paucity of verbs of action, which complicates our understanding. Further, we are not told whether the lamps on the six side branches were level with that of the central shaft; and no information is forthcoming as to the material, clay or metal, from which the lamps were to be made. Also, for reasons unknown, the dimensions of the lampstand are not given.75 Equally exceptional is the specification of the weight of the gold from which it was to be manufactured (v. 39). Another unique feature is the requirement that the entire object be fashioned out of one solid block of gold (v. 36); the other articles of furniture were made of wood overlaid with gold. Finally, some of the technical vocabulary is still imperfectly understood.
\nNo lampstand that incorporates all or even most of the features of the Tabernacle menorah has yet been uncovered in the Near East. The famous menorah relief on the Arch of Titus cannot be used to reconstruct that of the Tabernacle. It deviates in important details from the prescriptions given here in Exodus, from the rabbinic sources, and from the account of Josephus, who was himself a priest and very likely actually saw the menorah in Herod\u2019s Temple. The Roman artist may have changed some details for his own aesthetic purposes, or he may have used a model other than that of the Temple. Moreover, it is likely that Herod\u2019s menorah, dating from at least one thousand years after the one in the Tabernacle, was itself the product of change and development.
\nThe menorah prescribed here is not an idealized retrojection from the furniture in Solomon\u2019s Temple. The narrative in Kings76 that depicts the construction of the Temple does not mention such a cultic object; rather, it tells of ten lampstands fashioned for that edifice. They are not clearly described, and there is no evidence that they were of the branched type. Also, they were manufactured of \u201csolid gold\u201d (Heb. zahav sagur), whereas the Tabernacle one was made of \u201cpure gold\u201d (Heb. zahav tahor). The difference in technical terminology is significant. The former term is of Akkadian origin77 and indicates a northern source for the gold. The latter term is much closer to Egyptian metallurgic nomenclature,78 suggesting a more local, southern provenance.
\nOther affinities with Egypt are also discernible. The term for the shaft (Heb. kaneh) (v. 31) really means \u201ca reed\u201d or \u201ccane plant.\u201d It usually appears in the Bible in Egyptian contexts, for the reed flourishes in the Egyptian marshlands.79 The word here translated \u201ccups\u201d (Heb. gavi\u02bfa) is probably of Egyptian origin,80 and other Pentateuchal usages also have an Egyptian context.81 Above all, it is the extraordinary cluster of botanical terms and motifs that provides the strongest evidence of the world of ancient Egypt, where art and architecture are distinguished by renditions of plant life. Typical are the treelike columns with their floral decorations on the capitals.
\nThe contrasts between the Tabernacle menorah and the lamps of Solomon\u2019s Temple, together with the Egyptian affinities, are particularly significant in light of the fact that the designs and architectonics are distinctive of the Late Bronze Age\u2014the period of the Exodus. The structure points in the same direction. A central shaft with six branches, the floral ring molding, the bowl element, and the form of the so-called base have all been shown to belong to that period.82
\nAs verse 37 and other biblical sources make clear, the primary function of the menorah was utilitarian: to illuminate the area around it at nighttime.83 The responsibility for lighting and tending the lamps was the exclusive prerogative of Aaron and his sons.84 Still, since the elaborate design motifs in no way pertain to the practical use, it may be assumed that an additional, symbolic significance attaches to the sacred menorah, which, of all the furnishings in the sanctuary, is the only one repeatedly accorded the epithet \u201cpure.\u201d85 The shape of the lampstand\u2014the trunk with its branches extending on either side\u2014unmistakably evokes the image of a tree. Quite possibly, it represents the tree of life. The inflorescence of the almond tree most certainly bears symbolic value, for that tree (Heb. shaked) is the earliest spring-flowering plant in the Land of Israel, often even before the end of February. The stem sh-k-d means \u201cto be watchful, wakeful, vigilant\u201d; thus, the almond flower is a symbol of life renewed and sustained.86 The number seven, the totality of the lamps, is the outstanding symbolic number in the Bible, an expression of completeness and perfection. Finally, the lights constitute the most powerful symbol of all, for light intimates both life itself87 and the presence of the Giver of all life.88 This is the interpretation given in Shabbat 22b: The light of the menorah is testimony that the Divine Presence resides in the midst of Israel. Hence, in the prophet Zechariah\u2019s vision of the menorah, its light represents the invincible power of the spirit over brute force: \u201cNot by might, nor by power, but by My spirit\u2014said the LORD of Hosts\u201d (Zech. 4:6).
\nFollowing the destruction of the Temple, rabbinic law proscribed the production of a facsimile of the seven-branch menorah,89 but it has remained a pervasive symbol of Judaism and has been found as a frequent pictorial motif in early synagogues, catacombs, tombs, manuscripts, and on artifacts.90 Because the menorah has always been imbued with emotive and conceptual significance for Jews, it was adopted as the emblem of the State of Israel.<\/p>\n
31. a lampstand \u201cCandlestick\u201d or \u201ccandelabrum\u201d are anachronistic translations for biblical Hebrew menorah, since candles did not appear before the Roman period.<\/p>\n
pure gold See Comment to verse 11.<\/p>\n
hammered work See Comment to verse 18.<\/p>\n
its base Hebrew yarekh, literally \u201cloins, thigh.\u201d The regular pattern of ancient Near Eastern lampstands featured a gradual increase in the width toward the bottom. This type of flared base is probably what is meant here by yarekh, rather than the boxlike form featured on the menorah of the Arch of Titus.91<\/p>\n
shaft Hebrew kaneh, literally \u201ccane, reed,\u201d here refers to the branches.<\/p>\n
cups Hebrew gavia\u02bf is a goblet, hence a bulbous-shaped receptacle.<\/p>\n
calyxes Hebrew kaftor appears as an architectural term in Amos 9:1 and Zephaniah 2:14, where it designates the capital of a column. Since such were ornamented with a florid design, kaftor most likely refers to the calyx motif. Elsewhere in the Bible, Caphtor denotes the isle of Crete,92 where this type of ornamentation may have originated. Interestingly, Mena\u1e25ot 28b compares the shape of the kaftor to \u201cCretan apples.\u201d<\/p>\n
petals Hebrew pera\u1e25, usually meaning \u201cflower,\u201d is here rendered \u201clily\u201d by the ancient versions.93 In Egypt the lotus blossom, that is, the water lily, was for long highly popular as a floral decoration of columns. It symbolized nascent life. Solomon\u2019s Temple, too, had a lily design on the capitals of the columns.94 Mena\u1e25ot 28b compares the menorah\u2019s floral decoration to \u201cthe blossoms around the [capitals of] columns.\u201d<\/p>\n
of one piece Literally, \u201cthey shall be of it.\u201d All the above-mentioned elements, together with the central shaft, are to be made of a single block of gold and not assembled from individual parts.<\/p>\n
35. The \u201clampstand\u201d refers to the central shaft; its ornamentation is to be located just beneath the points from which the side branches extend.<\/p>\n
37. the lamps The containers for the wick and oil. The text leaves unclear whether they were all of a piece with the rest of the menorah or were separate and removable.95 If the latter, they were most likely ceramic. Genesis Rabba 20:18 refers to a gold menorah with ceramic lamps (Heb. ner) on top.<\/p>\n
shall be so mounted The meaning of Hebrew ve-he\u02bfelah depends on the resolution of the issue discussed in the preceding note as to whether the lamps were removable. The term could either mean \u201ccausing the flame to rise\u201d or \u201cplacing the removable lamps on top of the extremities of the branches.\u201d The statement is parenthetical. The verbs are phrased in the third person singular instead of the second person like the others, and they deal with the daily utilization of the menorah, not with its construction.<\/p>\n
on its front side The lamps are to be arranged in such a way that the light is thrown forward toward the table facing it.96 Less likely is the interpretation that the lights are to focus upon the central shaft.97<\/p>\n
38. tongs \u2026 fire pans These nouns are objects of the verb \u201cmake\u201d in verse 37. The \u201ctongs\u201d (Heb. melka\u1e25ayim) were used98 to remove the burned wicks; the fire pans (Heb. ma\u1e25tah), to receive them.99<\/p>\n
39. a talent The value of Hebrew kikkar cannot be accurately determined, since there was no uniform weight system. See Comment to 38:24\u201330.<\/p>\n
CHAPTER 26<\/p>\n
THE TABERNACLE COVERINGS (vv. 1\u201314)<\/p>\n
Now that the instructions regarding the furnishing of the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place have been given, the text turns to the coverings that serve as the roof. These comprise four separate layers: linen, goats\u2019 hair, ram skins, and, uppermost, ta\u1e25ash leather.<\/p>\n
The Lowest Layer (vv. 1\u20136)<\/p>\n
The lowest layer is to comprise ten multicolored sheets of fine linen decorated with the cherubim motif, each sheet measuring 28 cubits \u00d7 4 cubits (42 ft. \u00d7 6 ft. = 12.8 \u00d7 8 m.). They are sewn together in paired sets of five, yielding two long sheets, each 28 cubits \u00d7 20 cubits (42 ft. \u00d7 30 ft. = 12.8 m. \u00d7 9.1 m.). Fifty blue loops are fixed along one of the edges of each section. The two sets are fastened together by gold clasps inserted into the loops, resulting in a total measurement of 40 cubits \u00d7 28 cubits (60 ft. \u00d7 42 ft. = 18.2 m. \u00d7 12.8 m.). The linen drapes are then to be placed lengthwise over the Tabernacle, which measures 30 cubits \u00d7 10 cubits (35 ft. \u00d7 15 ft. = 10.7 m. \u00d7 4.6 m.), so that on the north and south walls they hang down 1 cubit (1\u00bd ft. = 0.45 m.) short of the full height and, on the west side, they touch the ground. There is no overlap on the east side. These calculations disregard the thickness of the walls, on which see the introductory Comment to verses 15\u201330 below.<\/p>\n
1. the Tabernacle Already mentioned above in 25:8\u20139. Here, Hebrew mishkan has the restricted sense of the two sacred zones.<\/p>\n
strips of cloth Hebrew yeri\u02bfah (sing.) invariably refers to the fabrics of which tents are made.1<\/p>\n
twisted Hebrew moshzar, a technical term found only in connection with the linen of the Tabernacle. It is most likely related to the Arabic stem shazara meaning \u201cto twist cord.\u201d Twisting is the all-important operation in spinning. Hence, the lowest layer is to be made of a fine grade of linen that is woven of ply yarns. According to talmudic sources, the yarns of linen were to consist of six strands of multicolored threads.2<\/p>\n
a design of cherubim Hebrew keruvim ma\u02bfaseh \u1e25oshev, literally \u201ccherubs, the work of a thinker\/designer,\u201d that is, of a creative and imaginative artist.3 This phrase apparently refers to some highly specialized technique of weaving, different from that mentioned in verses 36 and 28:32. Yoma 72b records a difference of opinion on the meaning of the technical terms. One view holds that double-faced weaving is intended; that is, the design is so woven into the fabric as to appear the same on both sides. The other view has different designs on the obverse and reverse.4 Ibn Ezra suggests that the linen fabric was decorated with ink or pigment. Examples of such are, in fact, well known from ancient Egypt.5<\/p>\n
3. joined Apparently stitched together with needle and thread.<\/p>\n
4. loops Hebrew lula\u02beot is used only in the context of the Tabernacle.6<\/p>\n
6. clasps Hebrew keres is another technical term exclusive to this context.7 The clasps, probably S-shaped, are to be inserted through the two parallel sets of loops.<\/p>\n
one whole The ten separate fabrics that cover the area that constitutes the Tabernacle in its restricted sense become a unified entity.<\/p>\n
The Second Layer (vv. 7\u201313)<\/p>\n
A coarser covering made of goats\u2019 hair was to be laid above the linen fabric. It comprised eleven strips, each measuring 30 cubits \u00d7 4 cubits (45 ft. \u00d7 6 ft. = 13.7 m. \u00d7 1.8 m.). Five strips and six strips were to be stitched together, yielding an area of 44 cubits \u00d7 30 cubits (66 ft. \u00d7 45 ft. = 20.1 m. \u00d7 13.7 m.) when secured by loops and clasps. The text does not specify the color of the loops, which suggests that they were not dyed. The clasps were made of bronze. The long fabric was to be spread lengthwise over the entire area of the Tabernacle starting from the eastern entrance and extending toward the rear. The outermost strip, called \u201cthe sixth,\u201d which began at the entrance, was to be doubled over, thus leaving an overhang of 10 cubits on the north and south sides so that the coverings of goats\u2019 hair just touched the ground. On the west side, the fabric, which was 12 cubits (18 ft. = 5.5 m.) long, would trail 2 cubits (3 ft. = 0.9 m.) along the ground.<\/p>\n
7. goats\u2019 hair See Comment to 25:4.<\/p>\n
for a tent As a protective shield over the ornamented linen cover.<\/p>\n
eleven One strip more than the number of linen cloths.<\/p>\n
12. overlap The Hebrew stem s-r-\u1e25 means \u201cto overrun limits.\u201d8<\/p>\n
the tent The covering.<\/p>\n
The Third and Fourth Layers (v. 14)<\/p>\n
The measurements of the two uppermost leather coverings are not given. A difference of opinion about them is recorded in Shabbat 28a. Rabbi Judah understands that there were to be two layers, one of dyed ram skins and one of ta\u1e25ash skins, while Rabbi Nehemiah holds that there was only one more layer, consisting half of ram skins and half of ta\u1e25ash skins.<\/p>\n
dolphin See Comment to 25:5.<\/p>\n
THE WOODEN STRUCTURE (vv. 15\u201330)<\/p>\n
The instructions now proceed to outline the structure that is to hold the drapes. Three walls are to be constructed of gilded timber planks (or frames) cut from acacia trees. Twenty such planks (or frames) make up the northern and southern walls; the western wall requires eight; the eastern side has none. The northwestern and southwestern corners are each reinforced by an additional wooden support.
\nEach plank (or frame) measured 10 cubits (15 ft. = 4.6 m.) in height and 1\u00bd cubits (2 ft. 3 in. = 0.3 m.) in width. The thickness is not given; Josephus claims that each was \u201cfour fingers.\u201d9 In Shabbat 98b Rabbi Nehemiah asserts that the thickness of the wood was uniformly 1 cubit (1\u00bd ft. = 0.45 m.), whereas Rabbi Judah maintains that each plank tapered from 1 cubit at the bottom to a fingerbreadth at the top. The entire structure would have measured 30 cubits (45 ft. = 13.7 m.) in length and 10 cubits (15 ft. = 4.6 m.) in both width and height. As such, the Tabernacle was exactly half the size of Solomon\u2019s Temple in length and width and one-third its height, according to the dimensions given in 1 Kings 6:2.
\nIt is not entirely clear how all the wooden pieces were held in place. Several devices seem to have been adopted. Two grooves were hollowed out at the top of each upright, and gold ringlike fasteners were inserted into each groove. These were just large enough to fit into the adjacent groove of the plank alongside it as well. In addition, two tenons were cut into the bottom of each upright and were mortised into silver sockets. There were ninety-six tenons in all. To provide still greater stability, five gilded crossbars made from acacia wood were inserted into gold ringlike holders affixed to the uprights on each of the three walls.<\/p>\n
15. the planks Hebrew kerashim (sing. keresh). Abravanel notes that the word appears with the definite article because the use of planks is taken for granted in the construction of a sanctuary. In Ugaritic texts the singular form of the same noun is the regular designation of the shrine of the Canaanite god Il.10 According to a widely held scholarly view, keresh indicates a wooden frame rather than a plank; this is based on the fact that the massive weight of the forty-eight (or fifty) planks of wood required for the Tabernacle would have imposed an intolerable burden on those charged with transporting them in the wilderness.11 In response, it has been pointed out that the Levitical clan of Merarites were provided with four wagons drawn by eight oxen for the purpose, as stated in Numbers 7:8.12 While the latter argument is persuasive, it is not decisive, since frames of the number and size given would also have required wagons.13 Moreover, the clan of Gershonites was also given ox-drawn wagons even though their porterage duties involved a relatively light load, as specified in Numbers 4:22\u201327 and 7:6\u20137.<\/p>\n
acacia See Comment to 25:5.<\/p>\n
upright Literally, \u201cstanding,\u201d which may specify straight-trunked trees; or it may refer to the placement of the planks vertically, and not horizontally as is usual in log construction.14<\/p>\n
17. tenons The traditional rendering of Hebrew yadot, from yad, \u201chand.\u201d15<\/p>\n
parallel Hebrew meshullavot is of uncertain meaning. In 1 Kings 7:28\u201329, shelabbim (sing. shalav) seems to mean \u201ccrossbars.\u201d16<\/p>\n
18. on the south side Hebrew negbah teimanah. Both terms mean \u201cto the south.\u201d The first derives from the name Negeb, \u201cdry, arid,\u201d given to the southern part of Israel; the second stems from yamin, \u201cright hand, south,\u201d the direction to the right when one faces the rising sun.17<\/p>\n
19. sockets Hebrew \u02beeden can also mean \u201cbase, pedestal.\u201d18<\/p>\n
22. the rear Hebrew yarkatayim, literally \u201ctwo thighs,\u201d is often used figuratively to connote the extremities, remotest parts, in this case, the west.19<\/p>\n
to the west Hebrew yammah, literally \u201cseaward,\u201d that is, in the direction of the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n
23. corners Hebrew mekutsa\u02bfot (miktso\u02bfot in v. 24 and elsewhere) is an architectural term for some kind of special corner structure. Here it seems to involve two extra supports, one at each corner of the western wall.20<\/p>\n
24. This verse has not been satisfactorily interpreted. It apparently means that the corner buttresses are to be perfectly aligned and secured at both top and bottom.<\/p>\n
match \u2026 terminate The Hebrew features the word play to\u02beamim = tammim. The first verb means \u201cto twin.\u201d<\/p>\n
26. bars Hebrew beria\u1e25 denotes a crossbar, usually one that secures doors and gates.21 The location and arrangement of the bars here are uncertain.<\/p>\n
30. This refers back to 25:9.<\/p>\n
THE INNER CURTAIN (parokhet) (vv. 31\u201335)<\/p>\n
The Tabernacle is to be partitioned into two unequal sections by means of a dividing curtain, or veil, called in Hebrew parokhet. Its function is stated in verse 33. The inner section will form a perfect cube measuring 10 cubits (15 ft. = 4.6 m.) on each side. This is the Holy of Holies, which will contain the Ark and the kapporet, as prescribed in 25:17. The outer section will measure 10 cubits in width, 20 cubits in length, and 10 cubits in height (15 ft. \u00d7 30 ft. \u00d7 15 ft.). It is called the \u201cHoly Place\u201d and will receive the table, the menorah, and the altar of incense.
\nThe parokhet, a term used in the Bible solely in the present context, is also variously known as \u201cthe curtain for screening\u201d (Heb. parokhet ha-masakh)22 because of its function in screening off the most sacred area; \u201cthe curtain of the Pact\u201d (Heb. parokhet ha\u02bfedut),23 an ellipsis for \u201cthe curtain of the Ark of the Pact,\u201d because the latter was veiled by it; and \u201cthe curtain of the Shrine\u201d (Heb. parokhet hakodesh),24 referring to the Holy Place in front of it. The term parokhet probably derives from a stem meaning \u201cto bar the way, to mark off an area.\u201d25
\nThe parokhet is made from the same fabric and designed with the same colors as the lowest coverings. It, too, is adorned with figures of cherubim. Its size is not given, but both reason and tradition require 10 \u00d7 10 cubits (15 \u00d7 15 ft.\u20144.6 \u00d7 4.6 m).26
\nIn later Hebrew the term parokhet was transferred to the ornamented curtain covering the Ark that contains the Torah scrolls in the synagogue. Ashkenazim hang it in front of the doors, while Sephardim place it behind them. Jewish religious law requires that a parokhet no longer in use not be destroyed; it must be stored away.27<\/p>\n
32. books Hebrew vav, the name of the sixth letter of the Hebrew alphabet. In the ancient script it was shaped like a two-pronged fork.28<\/p>\n
sockets of silver In 38:27, the same are called \u201cthe sockets of the sanctuary.\u201d<\/p>\n
33. Ramban notes that the sequence here does not reflect the reality of the construction and assembly. As 40:3 shows, the Ark was to be put in place first and the curtain thereafter.<\/p>\n
THE OUTER CURTAIN (vv. 36\u201337)<\/p>\n
A second screen (Heb. masakh)29 separated the entrance of the Holy Place on the eastern side from the outer court. It was made of the same multicolored fabric as the parokhet but was not decorated with cherubs. It also differed from it in that it was embroidered (v. 36) and rested on five pillars instead of four, and its pillars fitted into bronze rather than silver sockets.<\/p>\n
36. done in embroidery Hebrew ma\u02bfaseh rokem, another specialized type of weaving, required less skill than that required for the coverings of the Tabernacle and the parokhet.<\/p>\n
CHAPTER 27<\/p>\n
THE OUTER ALTAR OF SACRIFICES AND ITS ACCESSORIES (vv. 1\u20138)<\/p>\n
The prescriptions now move from the Holy Place to the enclosure of the Tabernacle. Once again, they begin with the most important item in it, the \u201caltar of burnt offering\u201d (Heb. mizba\u1e25 ha-\u02bfolah),1 so-called because that specific sacrifice, performed twice daily,2 was the mainstay of the cult. This altar was also known as \u201cthe altar of bronze,\u201d3 on account of its metal overlay and also to distinguish it from the altar of gold, which was used for incense. A third name, found in rabbinic literature, is \u201cthe outer altar.\u201d This name derives from its location and is to be contrasted with the \u201cinner altar,\u201d the golden incense altar that stood in the Holy Place.4
\nThe precise position of the altar of burnt offering is not specified, but its approximate location is given in 30:18 and 40:6\u20137, 29\u201330. The details of its construction are quite complicated and imperfectly understood. It formed a square of 5 cubits (7\u00bd ft. = 2.3 m.) and stood 3 cubits high (4\u00bd ft. = 1.35 m.). It also had four bronzed, horn-shaped projections on top of each corner. The inside was hollow. No mention is made of the \u201ctop\u201d of the altar, in contrast to the incense altar (30:3). It is assumed that it was filled with fieldstones and earth in the wilderness encampments. This would have satisfied the requirement of 20:24 that there be \u201can altar of earth.\u201d It would also have protected the wooden structure below from the fire on the altar. Porterage was facilitated by means of bronzed poles inserted, when necessary, into rings affixed to its sides.<\/p>\n
1. the altar The patriarchs frequently built altars, and Moses himself did so twice.5 Since an altar was an indispensable implement of worship and ritual, its presence in the Tabernacle is taken for granted\u2014hence, the use of the definite article. The altar for burnt offerings uncovered in the Judean temple at Arad in the Negeb corresponds exactly to the dimensions of the altar in the Tabernacle.6<\/p>\n
2. The horn-shaped projections at the upper corners were to be carved out of the wooden structure and then bronzed, so as to become integral parts of the altar. They were not to be made separately and then attached to it. According to the tradition cited in Zeva\u1e25im 54b, they were hollow. The golden altar of incense also had horns, and Ezekiel envisages a horned altar for the rebuilt Temple.7 A Canaanite horned altar was found at Megiddo, and Israelite examples have been excavated at both Dan and Beer-sheba.8
\nAll this shows that great importance was attached to the horns, a conclusion reinforced by the ritual connected with them. They were daubed with blood from the slaughtered animal sacrifices in rites of consecration and expiation.9 It also seems to have been an ancient custom for fugitives to seek asylum by clutching the horns of the altar, as demonstrated by the stories in 1 Kings 1:5\u201353 and 2:28\u201334. See Comment to Exodus 21:14.
\nThe Megiddo altar and others prove that the horned altar was not exclusively Israelite. Its origin and significance are shrouded in mystery. The horn may have been widely regarded as a symbol of strength, power, and fertility.10 The altar horns also appear to have served a practical function; as Psalm 118:27 indicates: \u201cBind the festal offering to the horns of the altar with cords.\u201d<\/p>\n
3. Five accessories needed for the performance of the sacrificial rites are now listed. The number of each is not given.<\/p>\n
pails Hebrew sir is usually a large vessel with a wide mouth.11<\/p>\n
scrapers Hebrew ya\u02bfeh is a kind of shovel with which the refuse on the altar is gathered up and placed in the pails for removal.12<\/p>\n
basins Hebrew mizrak, from the stem z-r-k, \u201cto sprinkle,\u201d is a vessel in which the blood of the sacrificial animal is collected for sprinkling on the altar.13 This exercise was an integral and important part of the ritual. The biblical idea is that blood constitutes the life essence and therefore belongs exclusively to God, the Giver of all life.14 That is why the Torah strictly and repeatedly forbids its consumption.15 The act of sprinkling the blood on the altar symbolizes its return to God. See Comment to 24:6.<\/p>\n
flesh hooks Hebrew mizlagah is an implement that is dug into the flesh to turn it over while it is being burnt on the altar.16 In 1 Samuel 2:13 a mazleg, used on the meat by the priest, is clearly a three-pronged large fork.<\/p>\n
fire pans Hebrew ma\u1e25tah. See Comment to 25:38. The verbal stem means \u201cto scoop up coals, to rake embers.\u201d Thus, the noun would be an instrument with which to perform this task.17<\/p>\n
4\u20135. More detailed instructions for the design of the altar are now given.<\/p>\n
4. a grating Hebrew mikhbar is presumed to be connected with kevarah, which means \u201ca sieve\u201d in Amos 9:9 and later Hebrew. It is here further defined by \u201ca meshwork.\u201d As Rashi notes, the order of the Hebrew words is inverted and should be understood to mean, \u201cMake for it a bronze grating, a meshwork.\u201d The function of this item is not defined. It is to be placed beneath a ledge that runs all the way around the altar. It may perhaps be intended to catch falling embers.<\/p>\n
5. the ledge Hebrew karkov. It may have been purely decorative. The Megiddo and Arad altars both have ledges near the top, although the two items are not identical. According to some rabbinic authorities, the ledge was a projection that served as a walkway for the priests officiating on the altar.18<\/p>\n
the middle Depending on the category of sacrifice, the blood had to be sprinkled either above or below this line.19<\/p>\n
6\u20137. poles For porterage.<\/p>\n
8. Assyrian altars were also often hollow.<\/p>\n
THE ENCLOSURE (vv. 9\u201319)<\/p>\n
As in all temples and sanctuaries, the sacred area must be well demarcated to separate it from the profane space outside. The prescriptions now deal with the enclosure of the entire Tabernacle compound, termed \u1e25atser in Hebrew. This area constitutes an oblong measuring 100 cubits (150 ft. = 45.7 m.) on the north and south sides, and 50 cubits (75 ft. = 22.9 m.) on the east and west sides, thus giving a total of 5,000 square cubits (approximately 11,250 square feet). The perimeter measures 300 cubits (450 ft. = 137.2 m.) and is surrounded on three sides by hangings of fine white twisted linen fabric. On the east side, the entrance, an area of 15 cubits from each end toward the center, was covered by hangings; the 20 remaining cubits in the middle were enclosed by a screen. The hangings were to be suspended from sixty pillars, each 5 cubits (7\u00bd ft. = 2.3 m.) high and spaced at intervals of 5 cubits. These are distributed as follows: twenty pillars on both north and south sides, and ten on the west side. Three pillars are to uphold the fabrics on each of the extremities of the east side, and four to support the entrance screen. The pillars rest in sockets of bronze. The hangings are held down by pegs and guy-ropes (v. 19).
\nThe instructions do not fix the location of the Tabernacle proper within the larger area of the enclosure. It is widely assumed that the entrance to the Holy Place on the eastern side was positioned along a north-south line that divided the enclosure into two equal squares of 50 by 50 cubits. Since the length of the Tabernacle on the east-west axis was 30 cubits, it follows that 20 cubits separated its western wall from the western boundary of the enclosure. It is also likely that the Tabernacle was equidistant from the enclosure on the northern and southern sides. Because the Tabernacle was 10 cubits wide, there would have been a space of 20 cubits on either side.
\nSuch positioning would have placed the point of intersection of the diagonals of the western square precisely in the center of the Holy of Holies. It is likely that the Ark was at exactly this location. Similarly, for the sake of symmetry, the altar of sacrifice would most likely have been placed at the point of intersection of the diagonals of the other square, the outer court, east of the Holy Place. Between it and the altar stood a bronze laver (30:18; 38:8).<\/p>\n
9. south side See Comment to 26:18.<\/p>\n
hangings Hebrew kela\u02bfim (sing. kela\u02bf), literally \u201cplaited, basket work,\u201d probably refers to the type of textile manufactured by basketry technique. Linen of this type has been found in Egypt dating to around 2500 B.C.E.20<\/p>\n
10. posts According to 38:17, the bronze posts had silver tops.<\/p>\n
bands The stem of Hebrew \u1e25ashuk means \u201cto be attached to.\u201d Some kind of fillet or connecting rod seems intended.<\/p>\n
12. west See Comment to 26:22.<\/p>\n
13. on the front, or east side Hebrew kedmah mizra\u1e25ah, literally \u201con the front toward the rising sun.\u201d<\/p>\n
16. done in embroidery See Comment to 26:36.<\/p>\n
A SUMMATION (27:18\u201319)<\/p>\n
19. the Tabernacle Here, Hebrew mishkan means the entire Tabernacle compound and not the Tabernacle proper, in which the accessories were of gold, not bronze.<\/p>\n
pegs Pegs and guy-ropes are mentioned several times in connection with the enclosure.21<\/p>\n
THE OIL FOR LIGHTING (vv. 20\u201321)<\/p>\n
Tetsavveh<\/p>\n
The instructions for constructing the menorah have been given above. Here the text deals with the fuel that is to be used to provide the illumination. \u201cOil for lighting\u201d was originally listed in 25:6 but without any specification.<\/p>\n
20. You shall further instruct Placing the personal pronoun before the verb at the beginning of the sentence is a way of introducing a new topic.22<\/p>\n
to bring you The same Hebrew verb l-k-\u1e25, literally \u201cto take,\u201d as is used in 25:2. Ramban points out that the frequently used formula \u201cthey shall make\u201d would be inappropriate here because they had no facilities in the wilderness for acquiring olives and extracting the oil. Oil had to be brought in its prepared state. Hence, it was to be brought to Moses for inspection as to its quality. The oil was either included among the supplies carried out of Egypt or was acquired in the wilderness from caravaneers.<\/p>\n
clear oil of beuten olives The oil listed in 25:6, like the other items mentioned there, refers to a one-time donation for the making of the Tabernacle. The present prescription mandates an ongoing obligation.23 Oil extracted from olives is specified because several other sources of oil, including sesame seed, flax, and animal fats, were utilized in the ancient Near East. The oil used for the Tabernacle lamps had to be \u201cclear\u201d (Heb. zakh), that is, refined so as to be free of lees. This condition was obtained by pounding the olives in a mortar with a pestle rather than by grinding them in a mill\u2014hence Hebrew katit, \u201cbeaten.\u201d24 The oil was then passed through a strainer, resulting in a clear, refined grade that yields a far brighter light and produces a minimum of smoke. The category of zakh oil is used in the Bible exclusively for the Tabernacle lamps. Ba\u1e25ya points out that this is contrary to everyday practice in which the clear olive oil of this grade was reserved for culinary purposes, while the cruder type was used as fuel for lamps, that is, \u201clampante oil.\u201d<\/p>\n
for kindling lamps Hebrew ner is here a collective, as shown by the parallel passage in Leviticus 24:2\u20134, in which ner and the plural nerot are used interchangeably.<\/p>\n
regularly Hebrew tamid may mean \u201cwith unfailing regularity\u201d or \u201cuninterruptedly.\u201d Thus, the \u02bfolat tamid refers to the burnt offering brought twice daily, while \u02beesh tamid is the fire that burns perpetually on the altar and is never extinguished. Regarding the present case, verse 21 and Leviticus 24:3 explicitly state that the lamps are to burn from evening until morning.25 Further, 1 Samuel 3:3 mentions that \u201cthe lamp of God had not yet gone out\u201d in the sanctuary at Shiloh. Accordingly, as Rashi and Ibn Ezra recognize, ner tamid means a lamp kindled on a regular basis each evening. However, Josephus, referring to the Second Temple, records that on the lampstand \u201cthere is a light which is never extinguished by day or night.\u201d26 Ramban is of the opinion that the ner tamid is indeed a perpetually lit lamp from which light was taken at dusk each day to kindle the menorah.
\nIn later Judaism the ner tamid was understood to mean \u201ceternal light\u201d and to refer to the perpetually lit lamp usually suspended from the ceiling above the Torah Ark in the synagogue. This lamp serves as a symbolic reminder of the original menorah, although the assigned place of that lampstand was on the western side of the Tabernacle, not on the eastern side where the \u201ceternal light\u201d is now placed in synagogues. The ner tamid also symbolizes the Divine Presence, the Shekhinah that accompanies the community of Israel through its dispersal.27<\/p>\n
21. Aaron and bis sons Rather, \u201cAaron or his sons,\u201d as \u1e24izkuni observes. This tradition that the ritual of lighting the lamps may be performed by any priest is reflected in 2 Chronicles 13:10\u201311. It is also taken for granted in the description of the Temple service given in Mishnah Tamid 3:9. In other biblical passages, however, the duty to attend to the lamps seems to be the exclusive prerogative of Aaron, that is, of the High Priest. This apparently variant tradition is found in Exodus 30:7\u20138, Leviticus 24:3, and Numbers 8:1\u20133.28 Mention of Aaron anticipates the next section, for he has not yet been appointed to the priesthood.<\/p>\n
Tent of Meeting Hebrew \u02beohel mo\u02bfed is a variant term for the Tabernacle. See Comment to 25:8. For the understanding of mo\u02bfed, see Comment to 25:22. The designation \u201cTent of Meeting\u201d stresses the oracular function of the Tabernacle: that is, the place where God communicates His word to Moses.<\/p>\n
outside the curtain That is, in the Holy Place.<\/p>\n
a due Provision of the oil is henceforth to be a permanent public obligation.<\/p>\n
CHAPTER 28<\/p>\n
THE PRIESTHOOD AND THE PRIESTLY VESTMENTS (vv. 1\u201343)<\/p>\n
A sanctuary requires officiants, and Moses is ordered to appoint Aaron and his sons to fill this role. Clearly, the office is to be hereditary.
\nJust as sacred space must be differentiated from profane space, so the occupants of the sacred office must be distinguishable from the laity. Hence, special attire, the insignia of office, is ordained for Aaron, the archetypal High Priest, and for his sons, the priests of lower rank.
\nThe main concern of this chapter is with the vestments of the High Priest, the chief cultic officiant. The vestments of the ordinary priests are detailed only in verses 40 and 42. However, there is an overlap in the two sets of ceremonial robes. The High Priest dresses in eight articles of clothing, the ordinary priest, in four of these (with some slight differences); the description of the latter is really encompassed by the detailed account of the former. No mention is made of footwear, for the priests officiated barefoot. See Comment to 3:5.1<\/p>\n
The High Priest (vv. 1\u201339)<\/p>\n
The attire of the High Priest is colorful, distinguished by the prominent use of gold. Hence, in rabbinic Hebrew parlance it is referred to as bigdei zahav, \u201cgolden attire.\u201d On Yom Kippur, however, the officiant performed his duties clothed in white linen garments, as prescribed in Leviticus 16:4. These are called bigdei lavan, \u201cwhite attire.\u201d2
\nSome idea of the impression made upon the worshipers by the appearance of the High Priest attired in his full regalia may be gained from this description in Ben Sira (ca. 190 B.C.E.) 50:5ff: \u201cHow glorious was he when\/he looked forth from the Tent\/and emerged from behind the\/Temple veil!\/He was like the morning star\/appearing between the clouds,\/Like the full moon on a festival day.\u2026\u201d
\nAlthough the various items of dress are given in detail, not all the specialized technical terms have been fully clarified. Our understanding is enhanced by the living traditions from Second Temple times, which are found in Ben Sira,3 Josephus,4 and rabbinic literature.5 But allowances must be made for adjustments and changes that may have occurred over the centuries.<\/p>\n
1. You shall bring forward To the Tent of Meeting, once it is erected.6 Until now Moses has acted in the capacity of chief cultic officiant; he is the one who is to \u201cbring forward,\u201d that is, induct into office, the newly appointed chief priest.7<\/p>\n
from among the Israelites 1 Chronicles 23:13 explains this phrase: \u201cAaron was set apart, he and his sons, forever, to be consecrated as most holy, to make burnt offerings to the LORD and serve Him and pronounce blessings in His name forever.\u201d8<\/p>\n
Nadab and Abihu Aaron\u2019s four sons are first listed in the genealogy of 6:23. The two mentioned here accompanied their father and the elders of Israel partway up Mount Sinai, to the point from which Moses ascended alone to perform the covenantal ceremony, as described in 24:1\u201311. They later perished while discharging their priestly duties.9<\/p>\n
Eleazar and Ithamar These two sons continued to exercise the priestly functions after the death of their brothers.10 Eleazar succeeded to the high priesthood on the death of his father.11 Ithamar directed the building of the Tabernacle.12 The priestly house of Eli seems to have been descended from him.13<\/p>\n
2. Make That is, you are responsible for having them made.<\/p>\n
sacral vestments Hebrew bigdei kodesh,14 so-called either because the High Priest wore them while officiating in the Holy Place15 or because the vestments themselves were regarded as endowed with sanctity since they were anointed with the sacred oil, as 29:21 prescribes.16 They are also called \u201cservice vestments\u201d (Heb. bigdei serad)17 and \u201cofficiating vestments\u201d (bigdei sharet)18 in rabbinic sources.<\/p>\n
for dignity and adornment As befits the exalted office. Maimonides points out that this attire was worn not for the self-glorification of the High Priest but solely because it was divinely commanded.19<\/p>\n
3. skillful Literally, \u201cwise of heart.\u201d The heart is regarded as the seat of intelligence. Wisdom in the biblical view, is as much concerned with the practical realities of life as with considerations of moral conduct. The term is therefore frequently applied to the possession of exceptional skill and talent in a specialized field. The \u201cgift of skill\u201d is literally \u201cthe spirit of wisdom,\u201d which is considered to be divinely bestowed.20<\/p>\n
4. Only six of the eight articles of clothing are listed. The other two\u2014the frontlet and the breeches\u2014are prescribed in verses 36\u201338 and 42\u201343. Each item is separately described below.<\/p>\n
5. These elements are made of the same materials as the Tabernacle fabrics.<\/p>\n
they \u2026 shall receive That is, the skilled craftsmen are to receive these contributions directly from the people.21<\/p>\n
The Ephod (vv. 6\u201312)<\/p>\n
Following the pattern of the prescriptions for building the Tabernacle, the instructions for the priestly vestments commence with the most important item, the ephod. Its preeminence is indicated by its utilization of all five colors. And here again the definite article implies an object already well known. This is borne out by the use of the word in the cognate form ipd in Ugaritic,22 where it refers to some kind of expensive robe, and in the form epattu in Assyrian and Akkadian,23 where it also signifies some costly garment.
\nAn ephod is mentioned several times in the Bible, but the name seems to apply to different kinds of cultic objects, some of them idolatrous. It is connected with teraphim in many passages, and also with sculptured and molten images, all of which are illegitimate in the religion of Israel.24 Gideon is said to have made a golden ephod after which \u201call Israel went astray\u201d and which \u201cbecame a snare to Gideon and his household.\u201d25 In 1 Samuel 21:10 it is related that an ephod had a fixed place in the sanctuary at Nob and that Goliath\u2019s sword was kept behind it. Elsewhere the ephod was an object that could be \u201ccarried\u201d in the hand26 and that was \u201cgirded on\u201d the body.27 It is explicitly stated that it was used to ascertain divine will.28 This is particularly pertinent to the understanding of the function of the ephod as a vestment of the High Priest because the \u201cbreastpiece\u201d (Heb. \u1e25oshen) in verse 29 was attached to it and served a similar purpose.
\nIt is not easy to reconcile all these varied references to the ephod. It may quite possibly have been an item of apparel that was once widespread among the upper classes in the Near East and that eventually became outmoded. The innate conservatism of religious institutions made for its retention in ecclesiastical circles alone, where it developed into a sacral vestment. A modern analogy to this process would be the distinctive dress of Hasidim, which evolved from the one-time attire of the Polish gentry. The association of the ephod with idols may derive from the pagan practice of robing the god.
\nThe biblical description of the priest\u2019s ephod includes four elements: the main body of the garment, two shoulder straps, and a richly decorated band. Left unclear is whether the ephod covered the lower and\/or upper parts of the body and whether the back and\/or front. Josephus, himself a priest in the last days of the Second Temple, likens the ephod to the upper part of a woman\u2019s tunic that had shoulder straps and sleeves and was fastened by brooches\u2014a sort of waistcoat.29 Rashi compares the ephod to a pinafore worn by upper-class Frenchwomen when they went horseback riding; that garment fully covers the upper part of the back. Rashbam describes it as being wrapped around the body from the loins down.<\/p>\n
8. band Hebrew \u1e25eshev appears only in connection with the ephod. It probably derives from the stem \u1e25-v-sh, \u201cto bind,\u201d with the order of the second and third consonants reversed.30<\/p>\n
9\u201312. The names of all the tribes engraved on the gems and affixed to his vestments serve as a perpetual and humbling reminder of the High Priest\u2019s role as the representative of the entire community of Israel before God.<\/p>\n
9. engrave on them The technique of miniature engraving on precious stones was highly developed in the Near East. A gem-engraving industry existed in Egypt in the period of the Eighteenth Dynasty (16th\u201314th cent. B.C.E.).<\/p>\n
10. in the order of their birth As recounted in Genesis 30 and 35:16\u201318. According to Josephus, the names of the six elder sons were listed on the stone of the right shoulder and the six others, on the left. Rabbi Hanina ben Gamaliel, in Sotah 36b, understood the arrangement to be that of the tribal listing in Exodus 1:1\u20135, which is matrilineal (see Comment to 1:1\u20135). According to Maimonides,31 the order on the right side was Reuben, Levi, Issachar, Naphtali, Gad, and Joseph,32 and on the left, Simeon, Judah, Zebulun, Dan, Asher, and Benjamin. This totaled twenty-five Hebrew consonants on each side.<\/p>\n
11. seal Hebrew \u1e25otam is of Egyptian origin.33<\/p>\n
12. for remembrance This twice-repeated word points to the dual function of the engraved stones: as a reminder to the High Priest, as noted above; and as an invocation to God to be mindful of His people Israel, with whom He enacted a covenant.<\/p>\n
The Breastpiece and the Urim and Thummim (vv. 13\u201330)<\/p>\n
Fastened to the ephod, and made of the same fine multicolored fabric, was a pouch about nine inches square worn over the breast. Twelve different gemstones were affixed to it, and each was engraved with the name of one of the tribes of Israel. These stones were arranged in four rows of three. The pouch, called in Hebrew \u1e25oshen, contained the Urim and Thummim, on which, see verse 30 below.<\/p>\n
13\u201314. These two verses prescribe the means by which the \u1e25oshen is to be attached to the ephod. The braiding is to provide greater strength. Further details are given in verses 22\u201328.<\/p>\n
15. a breastpiece of decision Hebrew \u1e25oshen mishpat was usually rendered \u201cbreastplate of judgment\u201d in earlier translations. But it was not a plate, and all available sources indicate that it was a device for determining divine will;34 see Comment to verse 30. The origin of the term \u1e25oshen is uncertain. It may be related to an Arabic word \u1e25asuna, \u201cto be excellent, beautiful,\u201d and designate the most splendid article of the High Priest\u2019s attire. Another possibility is to connect the word with Hebrew \u1e25osen, \u201cstore, treasure,\u201d35 and with postbiblical ma\u1e25san, \u201cstorage place,\u201d hence, \u201ca receptacle.\u201d36<\/p>\n
16. square and doubled By doubling over the piece of cloth, it became a square, taking the form of a pouch.<\/p>\n
a span Hebrew zeret is the maximum distance between the top of the little finger and the thumb, approximately 9 inches, or half a cubit.37 The word seems to be of Egyptian origin.38<\/p>\n
17\u201320. The identity of the twelve stones cannot be established with certainty. Three are unique to this passage and to its parallel text in 39:10\u201313, namely, leshem, shevo, \u02bea\u1e25lamah; three appear several times in the Bible and were clearly the most easily obtainable by the Israelites, namely, sappir,39 tarshish,40 shoham;41 nine of the twelve are listed in Ezekiel 28:13 as gems found in the Garden of Eden. Whether this is coincidence or whether it has any intentional bearing on the selection of stones for the High Priest\u2019s vestment is uncertain.42<\/p>\n
21. According to Maimonides43 and Rashi, the tribal names were engraved in order of their birth; see Comment to verse 10. A tradition recorded in Yoma 73b adds that the names of the three patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, were also inscribed on the gems, as was the Hebrew phrase shivtei yeshurun, \u201cthe tribes of Jeshurun.\u201d44 Once again, the insignia of office symbolize the role of the High Priest as the representative of the entire community and the personification of its historic ideals.<\/p>\n
22\u201328. Instructions for fastening the breastpiece to the ephod and keeping it in position utilize the items mentioned in verses 13\u201314.<\/p>\n
28. held in place Hebrew ve-yirkesu; the stem r-k-s appears in both Akkadian and Ugaritic with the meaning \u201cto bind.\u201d45<\/p>\n
a cord of blue Hebrew petil tekhelet is the same phrase used in Numbers 15:38 in connection with the tsitsit; see Comment to 25:4.<\/p>\n
29. See Comment to verse 10.<\/p>\n
30. Urim and Thummim It is quite clear from the association with \u201cthe breastpiece of decision\u201d and \u201cthe instrument of decision\u201d that these two items constituted a device for determining the will of God in specific matters that were beyond human ability to decide. The reference in Numbers 27:21 spells this out: \u201cHe shall present himself to Eleazar the priest, who shall on his behalf seek the decision of the Urim before the LORD. By such instruction they shall go out and by such instruction they shall come in, he and all the Israelites, the whole community.\u201d In 1 Samuel 28:6, it is told that \u201cSaul inquired of the LORD, but the LORD did not answer him, either by dreams or by Urim or by prophets.\u201d And Ezra 2:63 (= Neh. 7:65) reports that among those Jews who returned from the Babylonian exile following the Cyrus Declaration were some who could not substantiate their claim to priestly genealogy. They were therefore forbidden to eat of the most holy offerings \u201cuntil a priest with Urim and Thummim should appear,\u201d through whose instrumentality a divine decision would be obtained.
\nThe use of the definite article with the Hebrew terms in this passage indicates that the Urim and Thummim are not an innovation here but are already well known. This conclusion is reinforced by the instruction \u201cyou shall place\u201d instead of the usual formula, \u201cyou shall make.\u201d46 While the function of this device is clear, neither the above-cited texts nor the only other references to it in the Torah\u2014Leviticus 8:8 and Deuteronomy 33:8\u2014carry a description of it or of the technique employed in its use. A revealing text is 1 Samuel 14:37\u201341, which tell that King Saul had \u201cinquired of the Lord\u201d without success, and he then begged the Lord to \u201cshow Thammim [sic].\u201d The Greek version of this text reads as follows: \u201cWhy have You not responded to Your servant today? If this iniquity was due to my son Jonathan or to me, O Lord God of Israel, show Urim; and if You say it was due to Your people Israel, show Thummim.\u201d This reading is apparently based on a tradition that each object was a kind of counter and that the required decision depended on which one the priest drew out of the \u1e25oshen, or breastpiece, in which the two were kept. This procedure is similar to the casting of lots, which is mentioned several times in the Bible.47 Although numerous pagan divinatory devices are condemned, the Urim and Thummim, like lots, are permitted. There is no mention of them ever being used in an idolatrous context. They are in the exclusive possession of the priest and are always administered on behalf of the leader of the people in matters of national import.
\nThis mode of discovering the divine will never appears beyond the Davidic age. Ezra 2:63, cited above, implies that it was not available in early Second Temple times. Josephus reports that it had ceased to operate two hundred years before his time, in the days of the Hasmonean High Priest John Hyrcanus (135\u2013104 B.C.E.).48 Mishnah Sotah 9:12 relates that \u201cwith the death of the first prophets, the Urim and Thummim ceased\u201d; but it is unclear precisely to which period this refers.49 Yoma 21b claims that they were present in the Second Temple but did not function as before.50
\nThe meaning of the two terms remains obscure. Yoma 73b connects Urim with Hebrew \u02beor, \u201clight,\u201d that is, \u201cthey made their words enlightening,\u201d and Thummim with tam, \u201ccomplete,\u201d that is, \u201cthey fulfilled their words.\u201d The Septuagint understands \u201cinstruction and truth,\u201d that is, \u201ctrue instruction.\u201d The Vulgate similarly renders doctrina et veritas.<\/p>\n
The Robe (vv. 31\u201335)<\/p>\n
Beneath the ephod and the \u1e25oshen the High Priest is to wear a long robe (Heb. me\u02bfil) woven entirely of woolen thread dyed the aristocratic color tekhelet, on which, see Comment to 25:4. In 39:22 this garment is described as \u201cwoven work.\u201d It seems to have been ankle-length,51 with armholes but no sleeves, and rather free flowing.52 The neck opening is reinforced to prevent fraying. The hem of the robe is fringed with tassels of three colors representing pomegranates, and with gold bells. Other biblical references to the robe suggest a garment distinctive of persons of high social rank.53<\/p>\n
31. of pure blue With no admixture of the other two characteristic colors listed in 25:4.54<\/p>\n
32. a binding Hebrew safah, literally \u201clip, edge,\u201d here \u201cedging,\u201d implying something like a turnover collar.<\/p>\n
a coat of mail The unique Hebrew ta\u1e25ra\u02be (so 39:23) has traditionally been so understood. The reference is probably to the leather collar that protected the neck, a feature of the kind of armor worn by Canaanite charioteers and depicted in a chariot relief of Thutmose IV.55<\/p>\n
so that \u2026 tear Hebrew lo\u02be yikkarea\u02bf either explains the reason for reinforcing the collar, or it is a prohibition: \u201cIt may not be torn.\u201d Both interpretations are given in Yoma 72a.<\/p>\n
33. hem Hebrew shulayim otherwise refers to the skirt of a garment.56<\/p>\n
pomegranates This is one of the seven characteristic fruits of the Land of Israel as listed in Deuteronomy 8:8.57 The columns of Solomon\u2019s Temple were adorned with hundreds of pomegranate figures.58 In Second Temple times the fruit appears as a motif on the coins struck by the Hasmonean kings from Alexander Yannai (103\u201376 B.C.E.) to Mattathias Antigonus (40\u201337 B.C.E.), as well as by Herod (37\u20134 B.C.E.). It also appears on coins struck during the first two years of the Jewish revolt against Rome (66\u201368 C.E.). The significance of this use of the pomegranate is not clear.59 In the Song of Songs, however, it is mentioned several times as a symbol of beauty and fertility.60<\/p>\n
between them Hebrew betokham may also mean \u201cinside them.\u201d Hence the difference of opinion among the commentators as to whether verse 34 prescribes an alternation of bells and pomegranates, as held by Rashi, Rashbam, and Maimonides, or whether the bells were to be fixed inside the pomegranate-shaped figures, as maintained by Ramban.<\/p>\n
34. all around In Zeva\u1e25im 88b the sages are divided as to whether there were seventy-two or thirty-six bells in all.<\/p>\n
35. while officiating Hebrew le-sharet, literally \u201cto officiate,\u201d implying that anything short of scrupulous and undeviating adherence to the detailed prescriptions disqualifies the officiant and renders his priestly service null and void.61<\/p>\n
the sound of it is heard The unexplained role of the bells has given rise to various conjectures. Rashbam refers to the requirement of Leviticus 16:16\u201317 that only the High Priest\u2014and nobody else\u2014shall be present in the Tent of Meeting when he enters it to make expiation. Thus the tinkling of the bells alerts the other priests to vacate the premises. The cited text speaks only of Yom Kippur, however.
\nBekhor Shor and Ramban draw an analogy from the convention governing the entry of a subject to a royal palace. Just as one should not appear abruptly and unceremoniously before royalty, so the delicate sounds of the bells signal one\u2019s presence and intention. Still other suggestions are that the tinkling attracts the attention of the worshipers outside the Tent to the fact that the High Priest is performing the ritual; or the bells sent out a message that no mishap had occurred in the course of the priestly duties such as had happened to Aaron\u2019s two sons (see Leviticus 10). Another possibility is that the High Priest is himself reminded by the sound of the bells on his robe that he is to attune his heart and mind to his solemn duties and that he must be fully conscious of the fact that he is in the presence of God.<\/p>\n
that he may not die This conventional formula62 probably refers to the entire section and not just to the matter of the bells. Any deviation from the prescribed rules places the priest in the category of an unauthorized person and invalidates his service. He is thus an encroacher\u2014Hebrew zar\u2014in the sacred precincts. The formula expresses the severity with which such an offense is viewed.<\/p>\n
The Frontlet (vv. 36\u201338)<\/p>\n
The prescriptions now turn to the High Priest\u2019s headwear. Once again, they follow the pattern of commencing with the most important and most sacred element; in this instance it is the gold plate worn on the forehead over the head-dress and bearing the inscription kodesh l-YHWH, \u201cHoly to the Lord.\u201d According to one tradition, cited in Shabbat 63b, the gold plate extended from ear to ear and was two fingerbreadths wide. The plate is termed tsits in Hebrew, a word that usually means \u201ca blossom, flower.\u201d63
\nIn biblical texts, the tsits is used in parallelism with \u02bfatarah, \u201ca crown,\u201d64 and is either identical with or associated with the nezer, \u201ca diadem,\u201d or the ornamental headband,65 which was emblematic of royalty and aristocracy.66 The diadem is well known from Egyptian paintings. Its outstanding feature is the lotus flower, a symbol of nascent life.67
\nThe Hebrew inscription most likely signified the sacred nature of the office and person of the High Priest, the one who is consecrated and committed to the service of God all his life. Several biblical texts testify to this understanding.68 Additionally, \u201cHoly to the Lord\u201d may also refer to Israel, who is explicitly so referred to by this term in Jeremiah 2:3, as Rashbam notes. The role of the High Priest as Israel\u2019s representative before God is visibly projected by his vestments, as vv. 9\u201312, 21, and 29\u201330 demonstrate.<\/p>\n
36. \u201cHoly to the Lord\u201d The ancient sources differ as to how the two Hebrew words were inscribed on the tsits. One talmudic view is that the divine name alone appeared on the left side of the upper line, and KDShL (\u201cHoly to\u201d) was placed on the right side of the lower line. Eliezer ben Rabbi Yose, who claimed to have seen the object in Rome, said that the entire two words were inscribed on one line.69 Both the Letter of Aristeas (2nd cent. B.C.E.) and Josephus record that only the tetragrammaton, YHVH, the most sacred name of God, was written on the tsits, and in the ancient Hebrew script.70<\/p>\n
37. a cord of blue This was apparently threaded through holes punched in the tsits and served to hold it in place.<\/p>\n
the headdress Hebrew mitsnefet is not actually prescribed until v. 39. Its mention here, with the definite article, implies an item of apparel that is taken for granted. Elsewhere in the Bible it is a symbol of royalty. It clearly means \u201ca turban.\u201d71<\/p>\n
38. It shall be on Aaron\u2019s forehead This instruction is repeated with the addition of Hebrew tamid, \u201cat all times,\u201d meaning, \u201cwhenever the High Priest performs the service.\u201d (See Comment to 27:20.) Rashi and Bekhor Shor, contrary to the traditional accentuation, connect tamid with the following clause.<\/p>\n
to take away any sin Because the Hebrew expression nasa\u02be \u02bfavon may mean both \u201cto remove sin\u201d72 and \u201cto bear sin,\u201d73 that is, incur responsibility, the present verse is ambiguous. Analogous texts like Leviticus 22:15\u201316 and Numbers 18:1 indicate that the reference is to the High Priest\u2019s assumption of responsibility for any infraction of the rules governing the sacred offerings. The wearing of the tsits inscribed with the legend \u201cHoly to the Lord\u201d helps to concentrate his thoughts on his duties and on his accountability. At the same time, this consciousness effectively secures atonement for such offenses.<\/p>\n
The Tunic (v. 39)<\/p>\n
Once again, the definite article indicates a well-known garment, and Hebrew kuttonet is mentioned many times in the Bible. It was fashionable in the Near East in the Late Bronze Age, and became standard dress in the Iron Age.74 Both men and women wore it, mainly as an ankle-length undergarment, usually next to the skin.75 Some types were clearly marks of prestige, such as the garment that Jacob gave to Joseph as well as those worn by princesses in the days of David (see Gen. 37:3 and 2 Sam. 13:18\u201319).
\nThe High Priest\u2019s tunic is defined as the tashbets type, and the same verbal stem, sh-b-ts, is used here.76 Usually understood as \u201cchequered work,\u201d it is here translated \u201cfringed,\u201d but neither rendering is certain. Josephus reports that the tunic of the High Priest was \u201cof a double texture,\u201d of ankle-length, and had long sleeves tightly laced around the arms.77<\/p>\n
The Headdress (v. 39)<\/p>\n
This item has been discussed in the Comment to verse 37. According to one account of Josephus,78 the headdress was a tiara wreathed with blue and encircled by a crown of gold. However, in a second report,79 he describes it as a nonconical cap over which was stitched another cap embroidered in blue, encircled by a three-tiered golden crown, and topped by a golden calyx. The origin of these descriptions is not known.<\/p>\n
The Sash (v. 39)<\/p>\n
Hebrew \u02beavnet80 is specified in 39:29 as being made of \u201cfine twisted linen, blue, purple, and crimson yarns, done in embroidery.\u201d It was girded over the tunic. Beyond the priestly context, the \u02beavnet is mentioned only in Isaiah 22:21, where it belongs to the regalia of a high official. According to Maimonides,81 the cloth of the \u02beavnet was three finger-breadths wide82 and thirty-two cubits (48 ft. = 14.6 m.) in length, and it was wound around the body. He maintains that its function was to demarcate the upper from the lower part of the body.<\/p>\n
The Vestments of Ordinary Priests (vv. 40\u201343)<\/p>\n
Four in number, the last of which is mentioned in verse 42.<\/p>\n
40. turbans These probably differ from the High Priest\u2019s headdress because a different Hebrew word, migba\u02bfot (pl.), is used, although no description is given.83 Josephus84 describes the item as a nonconical\u2014that is, flattish\u2014cap that only partially covered the head. It consisted of a band of woven linen wound round and round, and repeatedly stitched with a muslin veil enveloping it from the top down to the forehead in order to hide the unsightly stitches.<\/p>\n
41. This verse and the following chapter prescribe the manner in which the priesthood, anticipated in verse 1, is to be officially installed into office once the Tabernacle is erected. The ritual involves laving the body, robing, anointing, ordination, animal sacrifices, and offerings of unleavened bread. The actual consecration of the priests is described in Leviticus 8.<\/p>\n
put these That is, the vestments, as they apply respectively to Aaron and his sons.<\/p>\n
anoint them The formula for compounding the special aromatic oil for this rite is specified in 30:22\u201325. The oil was forbidden to be duplicated for any other purpose. The vestments for both Aaron and his sons were sprinkled with the oil;85 in addition, the High Priest had oil poured over his head.86 The Tabernacle vessels too were anointed.87 This symbolic ceremony effectuates the transition from the profane to the sacred.<\/p>\n
ordain them The Hebrew idiom mille\u02be yad literally means \u201cto fill the hand.\u201d It is most frequently used in the sense of installing persons into priestly office.88 The phrase must have originated in some concrete situation wherein some object was ceremoniously placed in the hand of the novitiate.89 It then became a mere figure of speech meaning \u201ccommissioning, issuing a mandate.\u201d90 This last English word itself derives from Latin manus + dare, \u201cto give into the hand.\u201d<\/p>\n
consecrate them This probably does not signify another distinct ceremony but sums up the consequence of performing the entire complement of rituals. Ibn Ezra understands the verb to be declarative: \u201cand so declare them to be consecrated.\u201d<\/p>\n
42. Hebrew mikhnasayim, \u201cbreeches,\u201d occurs in the Bible solely in connection with the priestly attire.91 They are here listed separately because they cannot be subsumed under the rubric of vestments that are \u201cfor dignity and adornment\u201d (v. 40), and also because, to avoid unseemliness, the priest put these on by himself, unlike the vestments, into which he is helped by others (v. 41).<\/p>\n
to cover their nakedness See Comment to 20:23(26).<\/p>\n
43. This instruction most likely refers to the aggregate of vestments and not just to the last item.<\/p>\n
CHAPTER 29<\/p>\n
The Installation of the Priests (29:1\u201346)<\/p>\n
All the details regarding the priestly vestments having been set forth, the instructions to Moses now concentrate on the rituals for the installation of the priests themselves. Moses is to preside over the ceremonies, during which he will act as the sole priest. This role underlies Psalm 99:6, which speaks of \u201cMoses and Aaron among His priests.\u201d
\nThe installation rituals, which are to last seven days, comprise animal sacrifices, cereal offerings, the washing of the body, robing, and anointing. The performance of the installation is reported and described in Leviticus chapters 8\u20139.1<\/p>\n
THE MATERIALS (vv. 1\u20133)<\/p>\n
These are listed first, just as in 25:1\u20137, and their functions are specified subsequently.<\/p>\n
1. In the narrative of Leviticus 8 the three animals are termed \u201cthe bull of sin offering,\u201d \u201cthe ram of burnt offering,\u201d and \u201cthe ram of ordination,\u201d respectively.<\/p>\n
to them To Aaron and his sons.2<\/p>\n
Take3<\/p>\n
without blemish This requirement applies to all three animals.<\/p>\n
2. The cereal offerings are to consist of three varieties of unleavened bread, matsah, made of choice wheat flour: (1) plain, oven-baked; (2) with the dough mixed and kneaded with oil; (3) with oil smeared on top after the baking.4 The significance of the variations is unknown. These unleavened breads are only for the ram of ordination.<\/p>\n
3. present Literally, \u201cbring forward,\u201d that is, to the Tent of Meeting.5<\/p>\n
THE WASHING (v. 4)<\/p>\n
Before being dressed in the sacred garments of office for the first time, Aaron and his sons must undergo ritual purification by immersion of the entire body in water.6 For the regular daily services, only the hands and feet need to be washed, as prescribed in 30:17\u201321.<\/p>\n
THE ROBING AND ANOINTING OF AARON ALONE (vv. 5\u20137)<\/p>\n
For reasons of delicacy, the linen breeches are not mentioned. Aaron puts on this undergarment himself.7 The order of robing prescribed here inexplicably differs from that described in the narrative of Leviticus 8:7\u20139.<\/p>\n
6. diadem Hebrew nezer, on which see the introductory Comment to 28:36\u201338.<\/p>\n
7. See Comment to 28:41. The present verse implies that Aaron alone is to be anointed. The narrative of Leviticus 8:12 also makes no mention of the anointing of Aaron\u2019s sons. In fact, the biblical title \u201cthe anointed priest\u201d (Heb. ha-kohen ha-mashia\u1e25), refers exclusively to the High Priest.8 Other passages, however, make clear that the ordinary priests were indeed anointed.9 Either the texts reflect two strands of tradition,10 or the citations pertaining to the sons refer to the ceremony of sprinkling the oil on their vestments, as prescribed in verse 21 and as described in Leviticus 8:30.<\/p>\n
THE ROBING OF AARON AND HIS SONS (vv. 8\u20139)<\/p>\n
In the Hebrew text these instructions deal in turn with the vestments of the ordinary priests and with the items common to them and Aaron. For the sake of clarity, the present English rendering rearranges the order of the clauses.11<\/p>\n
8. turbans Hebrew migba\u02bfot applies only to the headdress of the ordinary priests. That of the High Priest, called mitsnefet, was mentioned in verse 6.<\/p>\n
sashes The sash of the High Priest was described in 28:4, 39, but was not mentioned in the instructions of verses 5\u20136 above.<\/p>\n
9. their right for all time According to Sanhedrin 83b, the instructions for the investiture close with this pronouncement in order to signify that the priestly prerogative is effective only so long as the priest is fully and properly attired in his sacerdotal vestments.<\/p>\n
You shall ordain See Comment to 28:41.<\/p>\n
THE ANIMAL SACRIFICES (vv. 10\u201326, 31\u201342)<\/p>\n
Immediately before the slaughtering of each of the three animals listed in verse 1, the priests are to perform \u201cthe laying on of the hands\u201d (Heb. semikhah).12 The text clarifies neither the manner in which this is to be done nor the meaning of the ceremony. According to rabbinic tradition, it applies, with only rare exceptions, to the sacrifices brought by individuals and not to communal sacrifices, and it is always done by the owner of the animal, who presses down on the head with bare hands.13
\nIn certain circumstances the rite is also performed on persons,14 and no single explanation accounts for all the occasions that require it. It sometimes seems to designate the animal or person for a specific role or fate; at other times it serves to identify and affirm ownership of the sacrificial animals. And in the case of the installation of the Levites prescribed in Numbers 8:10 and of the appointment of Joshua as Moses\u2019 successor recorded in Numbers 27:18, 23 and Deuteronomy 34:9, the action appears to signify the transfer of authority. It is this last interpretation that gave rise to the use of the Hebrew term semikhah for rabbinical ordination.<\/p>\n
The Bull of Sin Offering (vv. 10\u201314)<\/p>\n
This is essentially a purificatory and expiatory sacrifice.<\/p>\n
10. hands The plural is always employed when the object of the rite is a person;15 the singular is mostly used in connection with an animal.16 However, on the basis of the cardinal number \u201ctwo\u201d defining the singular form of the Hebrew consonantal spelling of the noun (shetei ydw not ydyv) in Leviticus 16:21, rabbinic exegesis inferred that two hands are required in all cases.17<\/p>\n
12. See Comments to 24:6\u20138 and 27:2. The precise significance of daubing specifically the horns of the altar with blood is not known.<\/p>\n
13. the protuberance on the liver Hebrew yoteret ha-kaved literally means \u201cthe redundance of\/upon the liver.\u201d In Mishnah Tamid 4:3 the same is called \u201cthe finger of the liver,\u201d and without doubt the reference is to the lobus caudatus. The requirement to remove and burn this part is quite likely a reaction against the great importance attached to the liver in ancient Near Eastern divination, a reference to which appears in Ezekiel 21:26. Numerous clay models of the liver have been uncovered in Mesopotamia, some divided into fifty sections and inscribed with omens and magical formulas for the use of diviners.18<\/p>\n
The Ram of Burnt Offering (vv. 15\u201318)<\/p>\n
The first of the rams is to be an \u02bfolah offering, one that is completely consumed by fire on the altar.<\/p>\n
16. against all sides The blood was collected in a vessel and dashed against the altar from diagonally opposite corners in such a way that each of the two sprinklings spattered two of the sides.19<\/p>\n
18. a pleasing odor This phrase is a technical term in ritual texts connoting divine acceptance of the sacrifice.20<\/p>\n
an offering by fire This rendering of Hebrew \u02beishsheh assumes a derivation from \u02beesh, \u201cfire.\u201d Another possibility connects it with Ugaritic \u02beu\u0161n, \u201ca gift.\u201d21<\/p>\n
The Ram of Ordination (vv. 19\u201326)<\/p>\n
This comes under the category of Hebrew zeva\u1e25 shelamim, \u201can offering of well-being\u201d or \u201ca sacred gift of greeting.\u201d22 It is only partly burnt on the altar. The rest belongs to the priests. This offering consummates the entire ceremony of installation and is accompanied by elaborate rites.<\/p>\n
20. The daubing of the blood of the sacrifice on the priest\u2019s extremities has its counterpart only in the law of Leviticus 14:14ff., governing one who has recovered from the severe dermatological affliction called tsara\u02bfat in Hebrew. There the ceremony has a purificatory function, and it most likely serves the same purpose here. The singling out of the ear, hand, and foot may well symbolize the idea that the priest is to attune himself to the divine word and be responsive to it in deed and direction in life.<\/p>\n
the ridge It is uncertain whether the part of the ear denoted by Hebrew tenukh refers to the cartilage or the lobe.<\/p>\n
21. As the text explains, and as the description of Leviticus 8:30 repeats, this ritual effectuated the consecration of the priests.<\/p>\n
22. for this is a ram of ordination This explanatory note is needed because normally the right thigh of the animal is assigned to the priest and not, as here, offered up in smoke on the altar.23<\/p>\n
24. an elevation offering Hebrew tenufah is the technical term for an offering that undergoes the special ritual of being \u201craised up.\u201d Mishnah Mena\u1e25ot 5:6 describes the procedure as follows: The priest places his hands beneath the pile of offerings and waves it forward and backward, upward and downward. Based on this source, the tenufah has traditionally been rendered \u201cwave-offering\u201d in English. A different tradition has been preserved by the Aramaic Targums, which employ the stem r-w-m, \u201cto raise up,\u201d in both nominal and verbal forms. This understanding is supported by the inherent difficulty in performing a waving motion: it would tend to unbalance the pile of offerings. Further, several biblical passages support a meaning of \u201celevate\u201d for the stem n-w-f.24
\nShadal suggests that the function of this ritual was to signify that the object elevated has passed from the domain of the owner to the domain of God.<\/p>\n
26. Here, because the installation ceremonies are not quite completed and because Moses acts in a priestly capacity, he is entitled to that which would routinely be the priest\u2019s portion in the future.25<\/p>\n
THE INSTALLATION OF FUTURE PRIESTS (vv. 27\u201330)<\/p>\n
These verses interrupt the theme. They explain that the foregoing applies only to the present inaugural and that different rules will govern the installation of priestly successors.<\/p>\n
28. their gift to the LORD Who assigns these parts to the priests.<\/p>\n
29\u201330. The eight garments that are the uniform of the High Priest, as described in 28:3\u20134, 42, are to be handed down from father to son to be worn for the successor\u2019s installation ceremony, which is also to last for seven days. Numbers 20:22\u201329 narrates the death of Aaron and the investiture of his son as the successor High Priest: \u201cMoses stripped Aaron of his vestments and put them on his son Eleazar.\u201d<\/p>\n
THE SACRIFICIAL MEAL (vv. 31\u201334)<\/p>\n
The instructions for the present installation of Aaron and his sons now resume.<\/p>\n
31. in the sacred precinct In the enclosed court of the Tabernacle.26<\/p>\n
32\u201333. The ritual of the shelamim offering involves a sacrificial meal, as prescribed in Leviticus 7:15. See Comments to 18:12 and 24:6, 11.<\/p>\n
33. a layman Hebrew zar, literally \u201cstrange, alien, removed,\u201d is used in cultic contexts to refer to an outsider or an unauthorized person or thing in relation to specific roles or functions.<\/p>\n
34. On the law of notar in connection with sacrifices, see Comment to 12:10.<\/p>\n
A WEEK-LONG OBSERVANCE (vv. 35\u201337)<\/p>\n
These verses appear to mean that the entire installation ceremony is to be repeated each day for seven days. Leviticus 8:33\u201336 is less explicit on this point, but there the priests are forbidden, in addition, to leave the Tabernacle precincts throughout the seven-day period.<\/p>\n
36. As a piece of furniture fashioned by human beings, the altar is assumed to possess a natural impurity. Hence, it must be anointed, purged of defilement and consecrated before being used for its sacred function. Ezekiel, in his vision of the Temple rebuilt, similarly provides for a seven-day period of purification for the altar (43:18\u201327).<\/p>\n
37. most holy Hebrew kodesh kodashim, literally \u201choly of holies,\u201d is usually a technical term for the inner sanctum of the Tabernacle. However, it is also used, as here, in the sense of superior, rather than superlative, holiness.<\/p>\n
shall become consecrated That is, its holiness is contagious.27 In Mishnah Zeva\u1e25im 9:1 some sages restrict the application of this principle to those items for which the altar is the proper place. Libations, for instance, would not contract holiness by coming into contact with the altar, according to this view.<\/p>\n
THE REGULAR BURNT OFFERING (vv. 38\u201342)<\/p>\n
The fourfold mention of the altar in the previous two verses affords appropriate occasion for introducing its primary, permanent function: to accommodate the daily burnt offering. This was the core of the whole sacrificial system. Twice daily, a lamb was wholly burnt on the altar. Called in Hebrew \u02bfolat ha-tamid, \u201cthe regular burnt offering,\u201d the sacrifice came to be known simply as the tamid in postexilic times. First instituted with the installation of the priesthood, it was thereafter to be continued on a regular basis. The prescription is repeated in the comprehensive register of public offerings given in Numbers 28\u201329, where it heads the list.
\nThe great importance that attached to the tamid in Temple times may be gauged by the fact that its suspension by the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes in the year 167 B.C.E. was regarded by Jews as a disaster. The Book of Daniel (8:11\u201312; 11:31; 12:11) and 1 Maccabees 1:41\u201345 record the calamitous event. Mishnah Ta\u02bfanit 4:6 includes the abolition of the tamid among the disasters to be commemorated by the Fast of the Seventeenth of Tammuz.28<\/p>\n
38. regularly On the meaning of Hebrew tamid, see Comment to 25:30 and 27:20.<\/p>\n
39. at twilight On Hebrew bein ha-\u02bfarbayim, see Comment to 12:6.<\/p>\n
40. a tenth of a measure Specifically of the ephah, on which see Comment to 16:36.<\/p>\n
hin This term for a liquid measure is of Egyptian origin, as Ibn Ezra observed. It appears originally to have designated a type of vessel.29<\/p>\n
42. there This refers back to the Tent of Meeting, not to the entrance. See Comment to 33:9.<\/p>\n
A SUMMATION (vv. 43\u201346)<\/p>\n
The wealth of technical detail relating to the physical structure of the Tabernacle, its constitutive elements, and its ritual and practitioners may tend to obscure its original higher purpose. Therefore, the chapter closes with an emphatic reaffirmation of its religious and spiritual content, values, and meanings.<\/p>\n
43. I will meet See Comment to 25:22.<\/p>\n
it shall be sanctified That is, the Tent of Meeting.<\/p>\n
My Presence See Comment to 16:10.<\/p>\n
44. The Tabernacle as such possesses no innate sanctity, nor does the regimen of ritual produce it. No efficacious magic derives from them. The sacred status of the priests and of the edifice, with its furniture and utensils, flows solely from Divine will.<\/p>\n
45. I will abide See Comment to 25:8.<\/p>\n
I will be their God See Comment to 6:7.30<\/p>\n
46. they shall know A key phrase in the Exodus narratives. See Comment to 1:8. God\u2019s Presence is manifest and meaningful to Israel through His intervention in the events of history.<\/p>\n
CHAPTER 30*<\/p>\n
An Appendix to the Instructions (30:1\u201338)<\/p>\n
This chapter comprises supplementary instructions relating to the construction of the Tabernacle and to its rituals. It contains five sections in all: (1) the incense altar (vv. 1\u201310); (2) the expiation money (vv. 11\u201316); (3) the bronze laver (vv. 17\u201321); (4) the aromatic anointing oil (vv. 22\u201323); and (5) the ingredients of the incense (vv. 34\u201338). All the materials needed for these final items were anticipated in the list of invited donations in 25:3\u20136. There may be a specific reason why each of these items is relegated to an appendix and not included in the preceding instructions.<\/p>\n
THE INCENSE ALTAR (vv. 1\u201310)<\/p>\n
The use of incense in rites of worship was widespread and had a long history in the ancient world. It is surprising, therefore, that the instruction to build an altar for the ritual burning of incense in the Tabernacle is not included in the main pericope. A possible answer is that although incense is foretokened in 25:6, it plays no role in the installation ceremonies of the priesthood. Hence, notice of its use is deferred until those directives are completed. As to the reason for omitting the incense offering from those rituals, the symbolism that attached to it made it inappropriate to the occasion. There are grounds for believing that the cloud of aromatic incense in the Tabernacle and later in the Temple was perceived to be emblematic or a reminder of God\u2019s invisible, active Presence, just as was the cloud that accompanied the Israelites at the Exodus from Egypt and in the course of the wanderings in the wilderness, as noted in the Comment to 13:21. The ritual for the Day of Atonement requires that the High Priest \u201cshall put the incense on the fire before the LORD so that the cloud from the incense screens the cover that is over\u201d the Ark (Lev. 16:13). It is explained that God appears \u201cin the cloud over the cover\u201d (Lev. 16:2). Thus, the cloud of incense screens the High Priest from the Divine Presence even as it serves as a constant reminder of It. The cloud of glory is said to descend on the Tabernacle and to suffuse it only after the structure is entirely completed and only at the end of the seven days of ceremony.1 That phenomenon expresses divine satisfaction and acceptance of the shrine and signifies its divine legitimation as the house of worship.2 Hence, it would have been premature to produce the cloud of incense at the installation of the priesthood.
\nThe present sequence of topics also allows for certain verbal and thematic connectives with both the previous chapter and the following section: Mention of God\u2019s \u201cmeeting\u201d with Moses appears in 29:42\u201343 and 30:6; the performance of purification occurs in 29:36\u201337 and 30:10; the phrase \u201cthroughout the ages\/generations\u201d3 is featured in 29:42 and 30:8, 10; and the description \u201cmost holy\u201d is applied in 29:37 and 30:10. Moreover, both the incense of verses 1\u201310 and the half-shekel of verses 11\u201316 fulfill an expiatory function.
\nThe importance attached to the altar for incense is shown by its placement in the Holy Place just outside the curtain that veils the Holy of Holies. This contrasts with the siting of the altar of burnt offerings in the outer court.
\nThe altar is known by several names: \u201cthe altar of gold\u201d4 (Heb. mizba\u1e25 ha-zahav), to distinguish it from the \u201caltar of bronze\u201d used for animal sacrifices; \u201cthe altar of incense\u201d5 (Heb. mizba\u1e25 ha-ketoret), to designate its exclusive function; and, in rabbinic literature, \u201cthe inner altar\u201d6 (Heb. mizbea\u1e25 ha-penimi), to differentiate it from the other altar of the outer court.
\nThe object in question was quite small, measuring a mere 1.5 feet (0.45 m.) square at the top and standing 3 feet (0.9 m.) high. This is 9 inches higher than the table. It had a flat top, unlike the other altar, which was hollow and had none.7 Like the Ark and the table, it was embellished with a molding,8 and also like them, it was transported through the wilderness by means of poles inserted through rings affixed to its sides.9<\/p>\n
1. an altar Hebrew mizbea\u1e25, literally \u201cplace of slaughter,\u201d is strictly applicable only to an altar for animal sacrifice but is used for this object because of its similar shape.10<\/p>\n
for burning incense Maimonides maintains that the use of incense was originally instituted to ameliorate and sweeten the stench of the burning flesh of the sacrifices.11 While this may be so, there is no doubt that it became an independent ritual in its own right, with its own significance and mystique. The ingredients of which the incense is to be compounded are listed in verses 34\u201338.<\/p>\n
3. pure gold See Comment to 25:11, 31.<\/p>\n
7\u20138. Although it would appear from these verses that both the incense offering and the tending and lighting of the lamps are to be the prerogatives of the High Priest, we know that the daily performance of these rituals was carried out by the ordinary priests as well. Not only does 27:21 make this clear in respect of the lamp lighting, but 2 Chronicles 26:18, Mishnah Yoma 4:4, and Mishnah Tamid 6:3 all attest to it in regard to the incense offering.<\/p>\n
7. aromatic incense Hebrew ketoret sammim. The noun ketoret derives from a stem meaning \u201cto burn, smoke\u201d; it eventually became the generic term for the substance that produces the aroma. The identical semantic development is seen in the English words \u201cincense,\u201d from Latin incendere, \u201cto burn,\u201d and \u201cperfume\u201d from a combination of Latin per, \u201cthrough,\u201d and fumum, \u201csmoke.\u201d The second Hebrew word, sammim, is of uncertain origin. It points to a specific type of incense. In later Hebrew sam denotes a drug, medicine, or poison.<\/p>\n
tends Literally, \u201cmakes good,\u201d that is, cleans the lamps of refuse and replaces the wicks and the oil.12<\/p>\n
9. alien incense Hebrew ketoret zarah. On the latter word, see Comment to 29:33. Any incense not precisely compounded according to the formula of verses 34\u201336 is invalid. Compare the narrative about the infraction of the cultic rules by Aaron\u2019s two sons, as told in Leviticus 10:1\u20137.<\/p>\n
or a burnt offering \u2026 It is to be used exclusively for the prescribed incense offering.<\/p>\n
10. The sole exception to the last-mentioned rule is when the High Priest has to perform the purificatory rites for reconsecrating the altar each Yom Kippur, as prescribed in Leviticus 16:16\u201319.<\/p>\n
most holy See Comment to 29:37.<\/p>\n
THE CENSUS AND THE POLL TAX13 (vv. 11\u201316)<\/p>\n
Ki Tissa\u02be<\/p>\n
A census of males above the age of twenty is to be accompanied by the imposition of a poll tax of one half-shekel on each. This payment is considered to be a ransom for the life of the individual; it serves to avert a plague. In other words, it has an expiatory function, which connects this topic with the one immediately preceding it. Both feature a threefold emphasis of the Hebrew stem k-p-r, variously translated \u201cpurification, ransom, expiation.\u201d
\nThis passage recognizes that census taking is a necessary administrative measure but regards it as fraught with danger to the public. The several such head counts recorded in the Bible are usually related to army service and warfare.14 In only one other instance is there any mention of the payment of ransom money or of ill consequences\u2014the remarkable exception of the census ordered by David, which resulted in a visitation of pestilence, as told in 2 Samuel 24. Joab\u2019s reluctance to undertake the assignment, and David\u2019s subsequent uneasy conscience about it, reflect the same underlying notion as stated here: a peacetime census is a perilous enterprise that engenders popular anxiety. There may have been sound historical reasons for Joab\u2019s reaction, for a census almost invariably portended preparation for war or the imposition of some new tax. It is of interest that the postbiblical term kenas, a Hebraized form of Latin census, means \u201ca penalty,\u201d and the verbal form denotes \u201cto sentence, impose a fine, confiscate property.\u201d
\nThe head count envisaged in the present section is separate from that commanded in Numbers 1. This one precedes the construction of the Tabernacle, as 38:24\u201328 shows; the collected half-shekels are used for casting the sockets of the sanctuary. The census of Numbers 1 must postdate the completion of the Tent of Meeting, since it was ordained to Moses from inside it.
\nThe present poll tax is a one-time imposition for the building of the Tabernacle, and not an annual obligation. In later times, however, the injunction was treated as a precedent, and the text came to be interpreted as such.15 In Second Temple times Jews contributed the half-shekel annually from all the lands of their dispersal.16 The money was used to maintain the communal offerings and for other public projects.17 Following the destruction of the Temple in about 70 C.E., the emperor Vespasian forced the Jews to contribute the annual tax to the imperial treasury for the god Jupiter Capitolinus in Rome.18 This levy, known as the Fiscus Judaicus, was still in force in the third century.
\nIn Temple times the payment of the half-shekel was due during the month of Adar. On the first thereof, messengers departed to all the Jewish communities to collect the tax.19 Hence, on the Sabbath before that date, or on the New Moon of that month should it fall on a Sabbath, Exodus 30:11\u201316 is added to the weekly Torah reading, and the day is known as shabbat shekalim.<\/p>\n
12. take a census The Hebrew phrase literally means \u201cto raise the head,\u201d that is, to take a head count. The idiom in this sense is peculiar to priestly texts.20<\/p>\n
a ransom for himself Hebrew kofer is a monetary payment made in lieu of a physical penalty incurred.21 See Comment to 21:30. Numbers 35:31\u201332 proscribes taking such redemption money for the life of a murderer. In the present case, the idea seems to be that a census places the lives of those counted in jeopardy.<\/p>\n
13. who is entered in the records An idiomatic rendering of the Hebrew, which literally means \u201cwho passes by the numbered ones.\u201d22 The stem \u02bf-v-r, \u201cto pass,\u201d used here is found a few times in connection with the method of counting sheep.23 Mishnah Bekhorot 9:7 describes the system of tithing sheep as follows: The animals are taken into an enclosed area that has an opening large enough to permit only one sheep at a time to go through. The officer counts them as they emerge and places a mark on every tenth one. A similar system may have been in vogue for taking a census. Those mustered passed single file before the officer in charge. It is also possible that the tally was made indirectly by counting the number of half-shekels.<\/p>\n
a half-shekel Not a coin but a unit of weight for gold and silver.24 The present such is defined as \u201cthe sanctuary weight.\u201d25 This would have been heavier than the shekel \u201cat the going merchants\u2019 rate.\u201d26 There was also a standard known as \u201cthe royal weight.\u201d27 Many marked shekel weights have been found in Israel. Although they are not uniform, they indicate an average weight of 11.4 grams.28<\/p>\n
twenty gerahs The gerah was the smallest subdivision of the shekel. The term, which probably means \u201ca grain,\u201d is derived from Akkadian giru, which was one twenty-fourth of a shekel in the Mesopotamian system. Weights marked gerah that have been found in Israel have an average weight of 0.5658 grams.29<\/p>\n
14. twenty years This is the age at which an Israelite became subject to military service.30<\/p>\n
15. The contribution of the half-shekel has two purposes: to support the work of the Tabernacle and to effect expiation for each individual. The Tabernacle belongs equally to every Israelite, irrespective of one\u2019s social status or wealth. As all human beings are equal before God, there is to be one standard contribution from all, to be neither exceeded nor reduced.<\/p>\n
16. expiation money Hebrew kesef ha-kippurim, a designation based on the use of the stem k-p-r in verses 12, 15.<\/p>\n
the service of the Tent Hebrew \u02bfavodah may refer both to the maintenance of the worship and to the work of construction. It has this latter meaning in 39:32. And since the silver was used for casting the sockets of the sanctuary and for the manufacture of other items (38:25\u201328), it should be so understood here.<\/p>\n
THE BRONZE LAVER (vv. 17\u201321)<\/p>\n
This vessel was not included in the earlier instructions for several reasons: (1) The use to which it was put was not an act of divine worship but was preparatory to it. (2) It was not needed for the installation ceremony because that required immersion of the entire body, whereas the laver was solely for washing the hands and feet. (3) It was not fashioned with materials provided by the public donations but from the bronze mirrors of the women who served at the entrance of the Tabernacle. See Comment to 38:8.
\nFor practical reasons, the laver was placed between the entrance of the Tabernacle and the altar of sacrifice, so that the priest entered the sanctuary in a state of ritual purity and bodily cleanliness. Its importance may be weighed by its inclusion among the vessels that were consecrated by being anointed with oil (v. 28).
\nThe dimensions of the laver are not given. According to Zeva\u1e25im 19b, it had to be large enough to contain sufficient water for the washing of four priests. The same source reports that the priests washed in a standing position, but with each hand on the corresponding foot so that each pair was washed simultaneously.<\/p>\n
20. that they may not die On this formula, see Comment to 28:35. The washing is an indispensable requirement; its neglect renders the priest\u2019s service invalid.<\/p>\n
THE AROMATIC ANOINTING OIL (vv. 22\u201333)<\/p>\n
The anointing oil and the spices needed for it were mentioned in 25:6. Ibn Ezra points out31 that because the ingredients were supplied by the tribal chieftains and were not acquired by donations from the public,32 the instructions for compounding the oil were deferred to this appendix. The association of washing and anointing the body may have determined the sequence of topics.33
\nSpices and perfumes were rare, highly prized commodities in the ancient world. As 1 Kings 10:2, 10 relate, the queen of Sheba arrived in Jerusalem bearing gifts of spices, gold, and precious stones for King Solomon. Like silver and gold, fragrant oils and spices were stored in the Judean royal treasury (2 Kings 20:13). These products were costly due to the huge amounts of raw materials needed to manufacture the desired quantity and to the great distances they had to be transported by land caravan or by sea from distant locations in Arabia, Somaliland, India, and even China.34 It will be remembered that the caravan of Ishmaelites to whom Joseph was sold by his brothers was on its way to Egypt from Gilead with a load of precious spices (Gen. 37:25). Finally, the highly specialized art of perfumery demanded a high level of skill and experience.
\nThe formula for blending the anointing oil given here specifies four \u201cchoice spices\u201d35 mixed with olive oil.<\/p>\n
23. The list is set out in decreasing order of value.<\/p>\n
solidified myrrh Southern Arabia and Somaliland were the sources of this aromatic gum resin.36 The substance exudes naturally as globules from the ducts of the trunk and branches of the trees, but it flows freely if one makes a cut in the bark. It hardens slowly when exposed to air.<\/p>\n
fragrant cinnamon As Rashi notes, the adjective is needed because there are nonaromatic species of cinnamon.37 The tree is indigenous to Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) but was also cultivated elsewhere in Asia.<\/p>\n
aromatic cane Although Hebrew kaneh is mentioned several times in the Bible,38 its identity is uncertain. Here again there appear to be nonaromatic species of the plant. Jeremiah 6:20 refers to the \u201cfragrant\u201d (literally \u201cgood\u201d) cane from a distant land.<\/p>\n
24. cassia Hebrew kiddah,39 so rendered by the Targums (ketsi\u02bfata),40 has not been identified with certainty. The Greek translation understood it to be calamus.<\/p>\n
25. expertly blended Literally, \u201cthe work of a perfumer.\u201d The skill was practiced by both men and women.41<\/p>\n
26\u201328. The sacred aromatic oil is to be applied both to the priests and to the articles of furniture and their utensils.42 The act of anointing consecrates them to divine service. Henceforth, their holiness is contagious. See Comment to 29:37.<\/p>\n
31\u201333. This sacred aromatic anointing oil, with its specific ingredients blended in the appropriate proportions, must never be duplicated or used for any purpose other than that here stipulated.<\/p>\n
a layman See Comment to 29:33.<\/p>\n
THE INGREDIENTS OF THE INCENSE (vv. 34\u201338)<\/p>\n
The original list of materials to be assembled for the construction of the Tabernacle and the order of divine service included \u201cspices \u2026 for the aromatic incense\u201d (25:6) but without specification. Instructions for the fabrication of the golden altar of incense were given above, in verses 1\u201310. Now the four ingredients of the incense to be offered on it are listed.
\nAn ancient rabbinic text in Keritot 6a and TJ Yoma 4:5 (41a) enumerates eleven kinds of spices used for the incense offerings in the days of the Second Temple and treats the precise implementation of the prescription as a matter of the utmost seriousness. Several sources report that the priestly family of Abtinas retained a monopoly on the compounding of the incense and jealously guarded the secret formula.43<\/p>\n
34. stacte Hebrew nataf, derived from a stem meaning \u201cto drip, drop,\u201d refers to a resin of a certain tree, apparently balsam or persimmon.44<\/p>\n
onycha The identity of Hebrew she\u1e25elet is uncertain. The Greek and Latin translations have onyx, literally \u201ca nail,\u201d apparently referring to a nail-shaped mollusk from which an aromatic substance was produced. A similar tradition seems to be behind the corresponding rabbinic term tsipporen, literally \u201ca fingernail.\u201d<\/p>\n
galbanum Hebrew \u1e25elbenah, a gum resin extracted from a plant of the ferula class that grows in Turkistan, Persia, and Crete. It emits a disagreeable odor when burned; but this is diffused when the substance is blended with the other aromatics, and it has the effect of making the latter more pungent.45
\nThis phenomenon gave rise to a rabbinic homily about tolerance. Just as the galbanum with its unpleasant odor is an indispensable ingredient of the incense offering, so the sinners of Israel must be included in the prayer services on a fast day, otherwise it is no fast.46<\/p>\n
frankincense Also called \u201colibanum\u201d; cf. Hebrew levonah, literally \u201cwhiteness,\u201d so called because of the white smoke it emits when burned. It is a gum resin extracted from trees of the genus Boswellia that is native to southern Arabia and northern Somaliland.47<\/p>\n
35. refined Hebrew memulla\u1e25 literally means \u201csalted\u201d and refers to the addition of salt to the incense, for the practical purpose of enhancing the rate of burning and smoking. This was commonly done in the ancient world in regard to sacred as well as profane incense. There is no warrant for the rendering \u201crefined.\u201d48<\/p>\n
36. Each day, morning and evening, some of the blended and pulverized incense is to be placed on the golden altar for the incense offerings.<\/p>\n
37\u201338. Like the aromatic oil (vv. 31\u201333), the incense, in composition and function, must not be produced for use in any but its prescribed ritual.<\/p>\n